University of Global Village (UGV)
Department of Computer Science & Engineering (CSE)
Computer Network & Security
CSE-0612-3203
Assignment 01
Computer Networking Models: OSI and TCP/IP
Submitted by:
Ashfaq Ahamed Siam
Student ID: 12411003
6th Semester, [Link]. in CSE
Submitted to:
Md. Tariqul Islam
Co-Head, Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Course Teacher, Computer Network & Security
Date of Submission: 19 August 2026
1
Table of Content
No. Contents Page
1. Computer Network Models 3
2. OSI Model 3
2.1 Physical Layer 4
2.2 Data Link Layer 4
2.3 Network Layer 4
2.4 Transport Layer 4
2.5 Session Layer 5
2.6 Presentation Layer 5
2.7 Application Layer 5
3. TCP/IP Model 5
3.1 Physical Layer 6
3.2 Data Link Layer 6
3.3 Network (Internet) Layer 6
3.4 Transport Layer 7
3.5 Application Layer 7
4. Difference Between OSI 7
Model and TCP/IP Model
5. Relationship Between OSI 8
and TCP/IP Layers
6. How Data Travels from 8
Source to Destination
6.1 Data Encapsulation Using a 9
Letter Example
6.2 Data Encapsulation in 10
Networking
7. Real-Life Example: 11
Opening a Website in a
Browser
7.1 User Enters the Website 11
Address
7.2 DNS Resolution 12
7.3 Connection Establishment 12
7.4 HTTP/HTTPS Request 12
7.5 Data Encapsulation 12
7.6 Data Travels Through the 13
Network
7.7 Server Receives the Request 13
7.8 Server Sends the Response 13
7.9 Browser Receives the Data 13
7.10 Website Is Displayed 13
8. Importance of Networking 14
Models
9. Conclusion 14
2
1. Computer Network Models
Computer network models are conceptual frameworks that describe how data is
transmitted between computers over a network. They divide the communication process
into layers, with each layer performing a specific function.
The two main computer network models are:
• OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model
• TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model
2. OSI Model
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a 7-layer conceptual framework used
to understand and design network communication. Each layer has a clearly defined
function and works independently of the others.
3
2.1 Physical Layer
Transmits raw bits over physical media.
• Deals with cables, connectors, voltages, signals
• Converts digital data into electrical/optical signals
• Defines hardware specifications (NICs, hubs, repeaters)
• Handles data rate, modulation, and physical topology
2.2 Data Link Layer
Provides reliable node-to-node data transfer.
• Uses MAC addresses for device identification
• Performs error detection and correction (Frame Check Sequence)
• Breaks data into frames
• Manages access to the physical medium (Ethernet, switches)
2.3 Network Layer
Handles logical addressing and routing of packets.
• Uses IP addresses for routing decisions
• Determines the best path to the destination
• Manages packet forwarding and routing tables
• Supports routers and Layer 3 protocols (IP, ICMP)
2.4 Transport Layer
Ensures reliable or fast delivery of data.
• Uses TCP (reliable) and UDP (fast, connectionless)
• Handles segmentation and reassembly of data
• Provides flow control (sliding window)
• Ensures error recovery and end-to-end communication
4
2.5 Session Layer
Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions.
• Controls dialog between devices (duplex/half-duplex)
• Maintains session checkpoints and recovery
• Handles session authentication and reconnection
• Used in RPC, SQL sessions, NetBIOS
2.6 Presentation Layer
Translates, encrypts, and formats data.
• Converts data formats (encoding/decoding)
• Applies encryption and decryption (SSL/TLS)
• Handles compression for efficient transmission
• Makes data readable for the application layer
2.7 Application Layer
Provides services to end-user applications.
• Supports protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS
• Provides network services such as email, web access, file transfer
• Interacts directly with user applications
• Identifies communication partners and resource availability
3. TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model is a 5-layer
practical networking framework used for real-world communication, especially on the
Internet. It defines how data is packaged, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received
across networks.
5
3.1 Physical Layer
Transmits raw bits over physical media.
• Deals with physical hardware: cables, signals, connectors
• Converts digital data into electrical/optical/radio signals
• Defines data transmission rate and physical topologies
• Supported devices include hubs, repeaters, and NICs
3.2 Data Link Layer
Provides node-to-node communication and framing.
• Uses MAC addresses for device identification
• Responsible for framing, error detection (FCS), and flow control
• Handles access to the transmission medium (Ethernet, Wi-Fi)
• Switches operate at this layer
3.3 Network (Internet) Layer
Handles logical addressing and packet routing.
• Uses IP addressing (IPv4/IPv6)
6
• Determines the best path to destination
• Performs packet routing and fragmentation
• Includes protocols: IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP
3.4 Transport Layer
Provides end-to-end communication and reliability.
• Uses TCP for reliable, connection-oriented communication
• Uses UDP for fast, connectionless, low-overhead delivery
• Handles segmentation, sequencing, and reassembly
• Provides error detection, correction, and flow control
3.5 Application Layer
Provides network services to end-user applications.
• Supports protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP, SNMP
• Responsible for data formatting and communication services
• Directly interacts with user applications
• Handles resource sharing, remote file access, email, web browsing
4. Difference Between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model
7 layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, 5 layers: Physical, Data Link,
Transport, Session, Presentation, Network/Internet, Transport, Application
Application
Separate Session layer manages No separate Session layer; handled in
connections/synchronization Application layer
Presentation layer handles data Data formatting/encryption done within
formatting/encryption Application layer
Theoretical model developed by ISO for Practical model developed by DoD for
standardization Internet use
Each layer strictly independent with clear Layers more integrated, less strict
interfaces boundaries
No specific protocols defined, just Defines specific protocols: TCP, UDP, IP,
functions HTTP, etc.
Used as reference for teaching/network Actual protocol stack used by Internet
design globally
Developed before widespread Internet use Developed specifically for
ARPANET/Internet implementation
7
5. Relationship Between OSI and TCP/IP Layers
The mapping can also be represented simply:
OSI Layer TCP/IP Layer
Application Application
Presentation Application
Session Application
Transport Transport
Network Internet
Data Link Network Access
Physical Network Access
6. How Data Travels from Source to Destination
Imagine you want to send a letter to a friend who lives in another city to invite him to
your wedding. What if you send the letter without an envelope, with any information,
such as the sender's and recipient's names, addresses, and postcodes? What if you simply
write the letter and drop it in the mailbox at the post office?
8
Let's examine the following two examples: a letter without an envelope (on the left) and
one placed inside an envelope with all required information written on top (on the right).
If you put those two into your mailbox, which one will reach its intended recipient and
which one won't.
It is pretty obvious, right? If you send a letter with no envelope and no additional
information, such as sender and recipient details, the postal service won't know where to
deliver it. The letter won't reach anyone. Your friend won't show up at your wedding.
To ensure that the information (the letter) is delivered to the correct recipient, we must
include additional information alongside the letter, so that the postal service knows how
to handle it (we encapsulate the data).
The envelope that encapsulates the letter contains the following information, which helps
the postal service deliver the letter correctly:
• Stamp and postcard
• Sender's name
• Sender's address
• Sender's postcode
• Recipient's name
• Recipient's address
• Recipient's postcode
9
Optionally, the envelope may include:
• Return address (if different from the sender’s address)
• Date and time stamp
• Subject or reference line inside the letter (in formal letters)
The main idea is that sending letters equals sending information by utilizing the postal
service as the medium. Sending emails is the same—it’s still a process of sending
information, but through a computer network. The key point is that in both cases, you
can’t send just the information alone; you need to include extra details that tell the
transporting medium how to deliver the information.
6.1 Data Encapsulation in Networking
Computer networks function similarly to the postal service. The difference is that they
move digital information instead of paper letters. However, you can’t just send raw data
onto the network and expect it to reach the destination, just like you can’t drop a plain
letter into a mailbox and expect it to be delivered. The data must be encapsulated with
additional information first, as shown in the diagram below.
Imagine a device (like your laptop) wants to send data onto the network. Let's say you're
sending a Facebook message to a friend. As you type the message and hit enter, the data
goes from the web browser (where you have Facebook opened), to the Operating System
(OS), to the NIC, and out to the network. Many processes add their own additional
information called headers. These headers contain important details, like:
• Who the data is for.
• Where did it come from?
• How it should be delivered.
• What type of data is it?
In the end, the simple Facebook message "Hey! What's up?" looks like a network packet
encapsulated with multiple headers, as shown in the diagram below.
10
This added information helps network devices (like routers and switches) understand how
to handle and forward the data correctly to the correct recipient - one of the Facebook
servers.
Encapsulation is the process of adding additional information to the data (payload) so that
network devices know where to deliver the message.
At the destination, the data undergoes the reverse process of removing headers before the
it is presented to the correct application.
7. Real-Life Example: Opening a Website in a Browser
Consider a user opening the website:
[Link]
in a web browser.
The communication process happens as follows.
11
7.1 Step 1: User Enters the Website Address
• The user enters the website address in a browser.
• The browser first needs to determine the IP address of the website.
7.2 Step 2: DNS Resolution
• The computer sends a request to a DNS server.
• DNS converts the domain name, such as [Link], into an IP address.
• The IP address allows the computer to identify the destination server.
7.3 Step 3: Connection Establishment
• The browser communicates with the website server.
• If TCP is used, a TCP connection is established between the computer and the web
server.
• For an HTTPS website, a secure encrypted connection is also created.
7.4 Step 4: HTTP/HTTPS Request
• The browser sends an HTTP or HTTPS request asking the server for the webpage.
• For example, the browser may request the homepage.
7.5 Step 5: Data Encapsulation
• The request moves down through the networking layers.
• At the Application Layer, the HTTP/HTTPS request is created.
• At the Transport Layer, TCP adds port information.
• At the Network Layer, IP addresses are added.
• At the Data Link Layer, MAC address information is added.
• At the Physical Layer, the information is transmitted as bits.
7.6 Step 6: Data Travels Through the Network
• The data may pass through the user’s Wi-Fi router, Internet Service Provider, and
several Internet routers before reaching the website server.
• Each router examines the destination IP address and forwards the packet toward the
correct network.
12
7.7 Step 7: Server Receives the Request
• The web server receives the data and performs decapsulation.
• The HTTP request is finally delivered to the web server application.
7.8 Step 8: Server Sends the Response
• The server prepares the requested webpage, including HTML and possibly CSS,
JavaScript, images, and other resources.
• The server sends the response back through the networking layers.
7.9 Step 9: Browser Receives the Data
• The user’s computer receives the packets.
• The networking layers perform decapsulation and deliver the webpage data to the
browser.
7.10 Step 10: Website Is Displayed
• The browser processes the HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and other resources and displays
the webpage on the screen.
8. Importance of Networking Models
Networking models are important because they provide a structured way to understand
communication between computers.
They help network engineers:
• Design networks
• Develop networking technologies
• Identify network problems
• Troubleshoot connections
• Understand networking protocols
• Ensure communication between different devices and systems
13
For example, if a network cable is disconnected, the problem can be associated with the
Physical Layer. If an IP address or routing problem occurs, the Network Layer can be
examined.
9. Conclusion
The OSI and TCP/IP models provide a structured framework for understanding how
computers communicate over networks. The OSI model contains seven layers: Physical,
Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. The TCP/IP
model contains four main layers: Network Access, Internet, Transport, and Application.
Although the two models organize their layers differently, they perform similar
communication functions. The OSI model is especially useful for learning and
troubleshooting, while the TCP/IP model is widely used in practical Internet
[Link] a user opens a website, information moves through several
networking layers. The data is encapsulated at the sender, transmitted through different
networking devices, and then decapsulated at the destination. Understanding these.
14