University of Global Village

Department of Computer Science & Engineering (CSE)

Computer Network & Security — Assignment Submission

Computer Networking Models:

OSI and TCP/IP

Course Title Computer Network & Security

Course Code CSE-0612-3203

Assignment No. 01

Marks 15

Submission Deadline 19 August 2026 (Wednesday)

Student Name [Your Full Name]

Student ID [Your Student ID]

Section [Section A/B/C]

Group [Regular/Evening]
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Computer Networking Models...........................................................................3

2. The OSI Reference Model...........................................................................................................3

2.1 The Seven OSI Layers Explained...........................................................................................3

3. The TCP/IP Reference Model.....................................................................................................5

3.1 The Four TCP/IP Layers Explained.......................................................................................5

4. Comparison Between OSI and TCP/IP Models...........................................................................6

4.1 Similarities..............................................................................................................................6

4.2 Differences..............................................................................................................................7

4.3 Summary Comparison Table..................................................................................................7

5. How Data Travels from Source to Destination............................................................................8

6. Real-Life Example: Opening a Website in a Browser.................................................................9

7. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................10

References......................................................................................................................................10
1. Introduction to Computer Networking Models
A computer network allows multiple devices to communicate and share resources such as files,
printers, and internet access. Because the process of moving data from one device to another is
extremely complex, engineers use layered reference models to break the process into smaller,
manageable, and independent tasks. Each layer in a model performs a specific function and
communicates only with the layers directly above and below it. This layered approach makes it
easier to design, troubleshoot, and upgrade networking systems without having to redesign the
entire system at once.

The two most important networking models are the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model
and the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model. The OSI model is a
theoretical, 7-layer framework developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) to standardize network communication. The TCP/IP model is a practical, 4-layer model
that forms the actual foundation of the modern Internet. This assignment explains both models in
detail, compares them, describes how data travels from source to destination, and illustrates the
concepts with a real-life example.

2. The OSI Reference Model

The OSI model, introduced by ISO in 1984, divides network communication into seven distinct
layers. Data generated by an application at the sender's side travels down through all seven
layers, and at the receiver's side it travels back up through the same seven layers in reverse order.
 Figure 1: The seven layers of the OSI Reference Model.

2.1 The Seven OSI Layers Explained

Protocols /
Layer Function PDU
Examples

Provides network services directly to end-

HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
7. Application user applications (email, web browsing, file Data
DNS
transfer).

Translates, encrypts, and compresses data so SSL/TLS, JPEG,

6. Presentation Data
it is readable between different systems. ASCII

Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions

5. Session (dialogues) between two communicating NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP Data
hosts.

Provides reliable (or best-effort) end-to-end

4. Transport delivery, segmentation, flow control, and TCP, UDP Segment
error recovery.

Handles logical addressing and routing of

3. Network IP, ICMP, OSPF Packet
packets across different networks.

2. Data Link Handles physical addressing (MAC), Ethernet, PPP, Frame

framing, and error detection on the local Switches
 network segment.

Transmits raw bits over a physical medium

1. Physical Cables, Hubs, NICs Bits
(cables, radio waves, optical fiber).

Layer 7 – Application: This is the layer closest to the end user. It provides network services
directly to applications such as web browsers and email clients, using protocols like HTTP, FTP,
and SMTP.

Layer 6 – Presentation: This layer translates data between the application format and the network
format. It handles encryption, decryption, compression, and character encoding (e.g., ASCII,
JPEG).

Layer 5 – Session: This layer establishes, maintains, and terminates communication sessions
between two devices, keeping different application conversations separate from one another.

Layer 4 – Transport: This layer is responsible for end-to-end communication, breaking data into
segments, controlling flow, and ensuring reliable delivery through protocols like TCP, or
providing fast, connectionless delivery through UDP.

Layer 3 – Network: This layer handles logical addressing (IP addresses) and determines the best
path (routing) for packets to travel from source to destination across multiple networks.

Layer 2 – Data Link: This layer handles physical addressing (MAC addresses), organizes bits
into frames, and performs error detection for data moving across a single local network segment.

Layer 1 – Physical: This is the lowest layer, responsible for the actual transmission of raw bits as
electrical signals, light pulses, or radio waves over a physical medium such as cables or wireless
channels.

3. The TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP model, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DARPA), is the practical
model on which the modern Internet actually operates. Unlike OSI, which was designed as a
theoretical guideline, TCP/IP was built around protocols that were already in use. It condenses
network communication into four layers by combining some of the functions found in OSI's
seven layers.

Figure 2: The four layers of the TCP/IP Reference Model.

3.1 The Four TCP/IP Layers Explained

Protocols /
Layer Function PDU
Examples

Combines the OSI Application, Presentation,

HTTP, FTP, DNS,
4. Application and Session layers; handles user-facing Data
SMTP, TLS
protocols and data formatting.

Provides end-to-end communication,

3. Transport segmentation, and reliability, equivalent to TCP, UDP Segment
the OSI Transport layer.

Handles logical addressing and routing,

2. Internet IP, ICMP, ARP Packet
equivalent to the OSI Network layer.

Combines the OSI Data Link and Physical

Frame /
1. Network Access layers; manages framing and physical Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP
Bits
transmission.

Layer 4 – Application: This layer combines the functions of the OSI Application, Presentation,
and Session layers. It supports protocols such as HTTP, FTP, DNS, SMTP, and TLS for secure,
user-facing communication.

Layer 3 – Transport: This layer is functionally identical to the OSI Transport layer, providing
either reliable, connection-oriented delivery (TCP) or fast, connectionless delivery (UDP).
Layer 2 – Internet: This layer corresponds to the OSI Network layer, handling logical addressing
and routing of packets using the Internet Protocol (IP).

Layer 1 – Network Access (also called Link layer): This layer combines the OSI Data Link and
Physical layers, managing framing, physical addressing, and the actual transmission of bits over
the network hardware.

4. Comparison Between OSI and TCP/IP Models

Figure 3: Mapping of OSI layers to their corresponding TCP/IP layers.

4.1 Similarities
• Both are layered reference models used to explain how data communication happens over
a network.

• Both divide network communication into independent layers, each with its own specific
job.

• Both include a Transport layer and a Network/Internet layer that behave in a broadly
similar way.
 • Both assume a packet-switched network rather than circuit switching.

• Both allow protocols at one layer to be changed without necessarily affecting the layers
above or below it.

4.2 Differences
• The OSI model has 7 layers, while the TCP/IP model has only 4 layers.

• OSI is a theoretical, protocol-independent reference model; TCP/IP is a practical model

built around a specific protocol suite that is actually implemented and used on the
Internet.

• OSI separates Session and Presentation layers; TCP/IP merges these functions into its
single Application layer.

• OSI was developed first as a conceptual guideline; TCP/IP protocols already existed and
the model was documented afterward.

• OSI's strict layering makes it more rigid, while TCP/IP's looser coupling makes it more
adaptable to real-world network design.

4.3 Summary Comparison Table

Aspect OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Number of layers 7 layers 4 layers

Developed by ISO as a general, Developed by DARPA/DoD alongside

Development
theoretical reference model. the actual TCP/IP protocol suite.

Layers are strictly separated; model Model was designed based on already-
Approach
was designed before the protocols. existing protocols.

Used mainly as a teaching and Used as the actual protocol suite that
Usage today
reference model. runs the Internet.

Reliability is guaranteed at the

Reliability depends on the protocol used
Reliability guarantee Network layer (connection-oriented
at the Transport layer (TCP vs UDP).
option).

Protocols and services are more Protocols are more loosely coupled to
Layer coupling
strictly bound to specific layers. layers, offering flexibility.

Session/Presentation Has dedicated Session and No dedicated Session or Presentation

layers Presentation layers. layers; their functions are absorbed into
the Application layer.
5. How Data Travels from Source to Destination
When data is sent from one device to another across a network, it passes through a process called
encapsulation on the sender's side and decapsulation on the receiver's side. At each layer, a
header (and sometimes a trailer) containing control information is added to the data before it is
passed to the layer below. This process can be explained step by step as follows:

• Step 1: Application layer: The user's application (e.g., a browser) generates data — for
example, an HTTP request for a webpage.

• Step 2: Transport layer: The data is broken into segments; a TCP or UDP header is added
containing source/destination port numbers and, for TCP, sequencing information for
reliable delivery.

• Step 3: Network/Internet layer: Each segment is wrapped in an IP header containing the

source and destination IP addresses, forming a packet that can be routed across networks.

• Step 4: Data Link layer: The packet is wrapped in a frame with source and destination
MAC addresses, allowing delivery across the local physical network segment.

• Step 5: Physical layer: The frame is converted into raw bits (electrical signals, light
pulses, or radio waves) and transmitted over the physical medium.

• Step 6: At the receiving end, the process reverses (decapsulation): the Physical layer
receives bits and reconstructs the frame, the Data Link layer strips the frame header, the
Network layer strips the IP header, the Transport layer strips the segment header and
reassembles the data, and finally the Application layer delivers the data to the receiving
application.
 Figure 4: Data encapsulation as it moves down the layers on the sender's side.

6. Real-Life Example: Opening a Website in a Browser

To make these concepts concrete, consider what actually happens, layer by layer, when you open
a website such as [Link] in your web browser:

• 1. You type a URL (e.g., [Link]) into your browser and press Enter. This is
handled at the Application layer using the HTTP/HTTPS protocol.

• 2. Your computer uses DNS (also an Application-layer protocol) to resolve the domain
name [Link] into an IP address such as [Link].

• 3. The Transport layer establishes a TCP connection with the web server through a three-
way handshake (SYN, SYN-ACK, ACK), ensuring reliable delivery of the request.

• 4. The HTTP request is segmented, given a TCP header, then wrapped in an IP packet at
the Network/Internet layer, addressed to the server's IP.

• 5. The Data Link layer frames the packet with MAC addresses so it can travel across the
local network to the router/gateway.

• 6. The Physical layer converts the frame into electrical, optical, or radio signals sent
across cables, fiber, or Wi-Fi, hopping across multiple routers until it reaches the web
server.
 • 7. The web server receives the request, decapsulates it up through its own layers,
processes the request, and sends back the webpage data following the same layered
process in reverse.

• 8. Your browser receives the response, reassembles the data, and renders the webpage on
your screen — all within a fraction of a second.

This simple everyday action — loading a webpage — actually relies on the coordinated
operation of every layer of the TCP/IP (and conceptually, OSI) model, working together in a
fraction of a second to deliver a reliable and correct result.

7. Conclusion
The OSI and TCP/IP models both provide essential frameworks for understanding how data
communication works across computer networks. The OSI model offers a detailed, theoretical,
7-layer view that is extremely useful for teaching, troubleshooting, and designing networking
standards. The TCP/IP model, with its simpler 4-layer structure, reflects the protocols that are
actually implemented and used to run the modern Internet. Understanding both models — and
how they map onto one another — gives a strong foundation for understanding networking, from
the way a single web page loads to the design of large-scale global networks.

References
1. Forouzan, B. A. Data Communications and Networking. McGraw-Hill Education.

2. Tanenbaum, A. S., & Wetherall, D. J. Computer Networks. Pearson.

3. International Organization for Standardization (ISO/IEC 7498-1) — OSI Reference Model.

4. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) RFC 1122 — Requirements for Internet Hosts,
Communication Layers.