Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes
Geography
Weather
Contents
Collecting Weather Data
Weather Data
Weather Data Interpretation
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Collecting Weather Data
Your notes
Weather Instruments
Stevenson screen
This wooden box stands on four legs at a height of 121 cm to avoid ground heat affecting
the thermometer bulbs at 125 cm
They are painted white to reflect the sun's rays
Made of wood to prevent heat transfer
The sides are slatted (louvred) to allow free movement of air
The wood is double-layered with airspace for insulation
The screen is placed on grass to reduce ground heat
Daily readings are taken at the same time
Today, meteorological stations send data to the Met Office's computers using
automated digital recording equipment
The instruments inside include:
Maximum-minimum thermometer (Six's thermometer)
Hygrometer with wet and dry bulb
Instruments found outside include
Rain gauge
Wind vane
Anemometer
The weather station layout is:
Barometers and barographs are protected from severe winds, direct sunshine, and
heat
Heat-radiating buildings are avoided for thermometers
Wind vanes and anemometers should be placed outside, away from trees and
buildings, and at least three times the height of the nearest obstacle
The rain gauge must be in an open space twice its height from the nearest object
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Your notes
Diagram of a Stevenson Screen
Examiner Tips and Tricks
You must know the difference between weather and climate.
Weather is what you get on a day-to-day basis—rain, sun, snow, etc.—and is
measured over days.
Climate is what you expect—warm summers and cold winters if you are in the northern
hemisphere. We measure climate over a longer period of time—30 years.
Worked Example
Describe and explain the ideal location of a Stevenson Screen.
[5 Marks]
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Ideas such as:
In the open/away from buildings [1] so that it is not affected by heat from
buildings [1] Your notes
Away from trees [1], so that it is not sheltered/to avoid being in the shade/shadow
[1]
On grass [1] which does not absorb heat [1]
Away from the general public [1] to avoid tampering/vandalism, etc. [1]
5 @ 1 mark or development
Wind direction
Wind direction is measured with a wind vane
Direction is the compass point from where the wind is blowing—south, north, north-
east, etc.
The unit of measurement for wind direction is compass direction
Illustration of a wind vane
Wind speed
Anemometers measure wind speed
Wind speed is measured in m/s or km/hr
The anemometer has 3 or 4 cups on metal arms that spin freely on a 10 m vertical shaft
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The cups rotate quicker and the counter records more rotations with stronger winds
Hold digital portable anemometers into the wind, and the fan revolves to display the Your notes
number on the screen
Many digital anemometers send data directly to apps and computers for readings
Wind vanes and anemometers are far from buildings and trees that could block airflow
Buildings can form wind tunnels or delay airflow, affecting reading accuracy
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Your notes
Illustration of digital and manual anemometers
Precipitation
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Precipitation is any water that falls to earth—hail, mist, rain, sleet, or snow
The unit of measure is millimetres (mm) Your notes
A rain gauge is used to measure precipitation
At the same time each day, any water that has collected is poured into a tapered
measuring cylinder on a flat surface
The water level is then read with the eye at the same level as the lowest part of the
meniscus of the water
Measurements are then recorded; too small a reading and it is recorded as 'trace'
Illustration of a rain gauge
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Temperature
Measurements are in Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F), depending on location Your notes
Temperature is measured using a thermometer or thermograph
Shade temperature is measured, as air temperature is variable due to direct insolation
and cloud cover
Several types of thermometers can be used, but the most traditional is a Six's
thermometer, which houses a maximum and minimum thermometer in a U shape
The following measurements can be taken:
Daily minimum temperature
Daily maximum temperature
Average temperature calculations for one day
maximum + minimum
= mean daily temperature
2
Temperature range for 24 hrs—called the diurnal temperature range
Recording the daily mean temperature for a month and dividing it by the number of
days in that month provides the mean monthly temperature
The sum of the mean monthly temperatures divided by 12, which gives the mean
annual temperature
A thermograph has an exposed bimetallic strip which deforms with a change in
temperature
This change is transmitted to amplifying levers which trace a curve on a roll of graph
paper
A vertical movement of 1 mm is equivalent to about 1°C
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Your notes
Illustration of a maximum-minimum thermometer
Illustration of a thermograph
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Examiner Tips and Tricks
You may be asked to calculate temperatures for a range of events for example: Your notes
Lagos has a minimum temperature of 25°C and a maximum temperature of 35°C
for one day
Calculate the diurnal temperature range
Subtract the minimum temperature from the maximum temperature (35-25 = 10
°C range for one day)
Dhaka has a mean maximum temperature of 25.5°C (March) and a mean minimum
temperature of 22.5°C (August)
Calculate the mean annual temperature range
Subtract the lowest mean monthly temperature from the highest monthly
temperature (27.5 - 24.5 = 3°C)
3°C is the mean annual temperature range, so it stays a fairly constant
temperature all year round
Always add the unit to your answer as a habit, or you could lose marks.
Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in a given volume of air
Hygrometers measure relative humidity with wet and dry bulb thermometers
Relative humidity measures the amount of water vapour in the air compared to its
maximum capacity at a given temperature
Warm air holds more water vapour than cold air
When the air is holding as much moisture as it can, it’s said to be saturated
If the air is not saturated, water vapour evaporates from wet bulb muslin, cooling the bulb
and lowering the mercury temperature
If the air is saturated with vapour, evaporation is impossible, so both thermometers show
the same temperature
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Your notes
Illustration of a hygrometer
Pressure
Air has weight and exerts pressure on the Earth's surface
Sea level pressure is approximately 1.03 kg/cm²
Pressure varies with altitude and temperature
The unit of measurement is millibars (mb)
Lines of pressure on a map are called isobars
A barometer measures air pressure, of which there are 3 types:
Mercury barometer
Aneroid barometer
A barograph
A mercury barometer is a hollow tube with all the air extracted
The open end is then placed in a bath of mercury
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The atmospheric pressure on the mercury in the bath forces it up the tube
When the two pressures equalise, the mercury will stop rising in the tube Your notes
The height of the column of mercury will change with air pressure
It rises as air pressure increases
It drops as air pressure falls
An aneroid barometer has a partly vacuumed, corrugated metal chamber inside
There is a strong metal spring within the chamber that prevents it from collapsing
The spring will expand and contract with changes in atmospheric pressure
Levers magnify these changes, and a pointer moves across a calibrated scale to show
atmospheric pressure at that time
A barograph is a continuous reading of atmospheric pressure for one week
A flexible arm tracks changes in pressure on a rotating cylinder
Paper with 2-hour vertical lines divided across it covers the cylinder
Aneroid barometer
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Your notes
Illustration of a barograph
Worked Example
Name the weather recording instruments with each of the following features:
[6 Marks]
Feature Instrument
Cups
Funnel
Levers
Arrow
Corrugated metal chamber
Wick
Answer
Anemometer
Rain gauge
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Barograph or thermograph
Weather or wind vane
Aneroid barometer Your notes
Wet and dry bulb thermometer or hygrometer
Sunshine hours
A Campbell-Stokes sphere calculates the hours and minutes of sunshine that a location
receives
The recorder is a metal-framed glass sphere
The sphere focuses sunlight on a recording card below the focal point
The rays leave a trace on the card, indicating the length of the sunshine at that point
At day's end, the card is replaced
How it is used
Sunshine recorder is placed in an open space, south-facing in northern hemisphere or
north-facing in southern hemisphere
Make sure the recorder is outside, unaffected by shade and has direct exposure to sun’s
rays
On the roof of a building
On a pedestal or stand
Where the sun shines all day
Make sure the paper (card or sheet) is inside
The sun’s rays will scorch/burn the card (paper or sheet)
At the end of the day, measure the length of the burn line, then convert to hours and
finally calculate the time it was sunny
Record every 24 hours at the same time every day and stop at sunset to record for the
day
Remove and replace the card (paper or sheet) each day into sunshine recorder
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Your notes
Illustration of a Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder
Clouds
Cloud cover is measured in units of oktas
Each okta represents an eighth of the sky that is cloud-covered
0 oktas = clear sky, 8 oktas = total coverage
Clouds are categorised according to shape and height using Latin terms
Stratus means layers
Nimbus means rainy cloud, etc.
Clouds consist of tiny water droplets or ice particles that are too light to fall to Earth
Clouds will form when air rises, cools and condenses into water droplets or ice crystals
if cold enough
The tallest clouds form in the tropical regions, as the tropopause is at its highest and
clouds do not form beyond it
Clouds only produce precipitation if they have enough water or ice particles that can
collide and join together
As the particles grow too big and heavy to be supported in the air, they will fall through
the rising air currents
Cumulonimbus and stratus are the only clouds capable of producing precipitation
Stratus clouds are just thick enough to produce drizzle
Cumulonimbus clouds have strong rising air currents, vertical height and thickness
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Your notes
Illustration of how to measure cloud cover in oktas
Cirrus
Level: high, above 6 km
Description: narrow wisps, white and made of ice crystals
Weather: fine
Cirrostratus
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Level: high, above 6 km
Description: thin, white layers made of ice crystals with a wide horizontal spread often Your notes
covers whole sky
Weather: fine
Cirrocumulus
Level: high, above 6 km
Description: thin, white, heaped cloud with ice crystals
Weather: fine
Altostratus
Level: medium, 2-6 km
Description: can be thin and white or grey and thick with layer of water droplets
Weather: fine
Altocumulus
Level: medium, 2-6 km
Description: thick white, or grey-looking, heaped cloud of water droplets
Weather: fine
Stratus
Level: low, 0-2 km
Description: thin, uniform, grey sheet of small water droplets with a fairly flat base
Weather: fine drizzle
Cumulus
Level: low, 0-2 km
Description: white with a darker, flat base and a billowy/globular upper surface. Made of
water droplets and can be compact or have height
Weather: sunny by day, fine weather
Stratocumulus
Level: low, 0-2 km
Description: white and grey, partly heaped cloud made of water droplets
Weather: fine
Nimbostratus
Level: base can be low or above 2 km
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Description: thick, dark grey layers of water droplets
Weather: steady rain or drizzle Your notes
Cumulonimbus
Level: low base, but cloud usually extends to high levels
Description: dense, dark grey with vertical height and storm clouds. Form from cumulus
clouds and have a billowy head. The head flattens as it reaches the tropopause and will
then spread out in an anvil shape. Composed of ice crystals at the higher levels and
water droplets at the lower levels
Weather: very heavy rain, snow showers or hail with thunder and lightning
Illustration showing cloud types
Tropical storms
Tropical storm is the collective name for deep, low-pressure systems with spirals of
strong air
They are known as:
Typhoons in the South China Sea and west Pacific Ocean
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Hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea and west coast of Mexico
Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and northern Australia Your notes
High winds, floods, and storm surges all cause damage
Tropical storms are rated on the five-point Saffir-Simpson scale based on wind speeds
Tropical storms are considered major when they reach category 3 and have wind
speeds between 111 and 129 miles (178 and 208 kilometres) per hour
A category 5 storm can deliver wind speeds of more than 157 miles (252 km) an hour
The path of a hurricane can be erratic, so landfall is not easy to predict, and this makes
evacuation times short
Tropical storms develop as intense low-pressure systems over the warm tropical oceans
Winds spiral rapidly around a calm central area known as the eye
Tropical storms can be as much as 800 km in diameter, but winds are not constant
across that; they vary, with the strongest and most destructive winds being found
within the eyewall
Category Wind Speeds Damage
1 74-95 mph Some
119-153 km/h
2 96-100 mph Extensive
154-177 km/h
3 111-129 mph Devastating
178-208 km/h
4 130-156 mph Catastrophic
209-251 km/h
5 157 mph or higher Catastrophic
252 km/h
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Your notes
Illustration of the processes in tropical storm formation
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Weather Data
Your notes
Calculations using Weather Data
Rainfall
Daily, weekly, monthly and annual rainfall totals
Always measured in mm
Always plotted on a bar graph
Mean (average) monthly and annual rainfall over a minimum of 30 years
Annual Rainfall Amounts
Annual rainfall in mm Description of the amount
0 - 249 Very low
250 - 499 Low
500 - 999 Moderate
1000 - 1999 High
Over 2000 Very high
Temperature
Measured in °C or °F
Always plotted as a line graph
Calculations are:
Diurnal (daily)
Mean daily temperature
Mean monthly temperature
Annual range
Mean annual range
Describing Temperatures
Temperature (°C) Description
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Below -10 Very cold
Your notes
-10 to -1 Cold
0-9 Cool
10 - 19 Warm
20 29 Hot
30 and above Very hot
Describing Temperature Ranges
Temperature Range in °C Description
0-3 Very small
4-8 Small
9 - 19 Moderate
20 and above Large
Wind
Wind is measured in speed
Knots (Kts)
Miles per hour (mph)
Kilometres per hour (km/h)
Direction is quoted from where the wind is blowing and not where it is going to, using
compass points
This is important as it informs of what temperature and moisture are being brought with it
The most frequently occurring wind is called the prevailing wind (UK's prevailing wind is
from the southwest)
The direction giving the strongest wind is called the dominant wind
Wind is plotted on a map with wind barbs
Describing Wind Speeds
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Wind Speeds (km/h) Description
Your notes
Below 50 Calm, light, moderate or strong winds
50 - 100 Gale
101 - 118 Storm
119 and above Hurricane
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Always make sure you state wind direction clearly, for example:
The wind is coming from the east
It is a westerly wind
Saying the wind is in a northerly direction isn't clear enough and can be
misinterpreted
Pressure
Pressure is measured in millibars (mb) and based against average sea level pressure
The mean (average) sea level pressure is 1013 mb
It is not totalled over time but on a time basis depending on circumstances:
Following a storm or potential storm, pressure readings would be needed hourly or
more
Forecast for a weekend would be a daily measurement
Forecast for sailing may need an early morning reading and then later, etc.
On a weather chart, lines joining places with equal sea-level pressures are called isobars
Isobars identify features such as anticyclones (areas of high pressure) and depressions
(areas of low pressure)
Anticyclone (high-pressure) winds tend to be light and blow in a clockwise direction (in
the northern hemisphere)
Also, the air is descending, which reduces the formation of clouds and leads to light
winds and settled weather conditions
In depressions (low pressure), the air rises and blows in an anticlockwise direction
around the low (in the northern hemisphere)
The rising air cools, causing water vapour to condense, which forms clouds and perhaps
precipitation
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This is why the weather in a depression is often unsettled; there are usually weather
fronts associated with depressions.
Your notes
A high-pressure area surrounded by lower pressures is described as a high-pressure
system even if 1013 mb are not reached
Low-pressure areas surrounded by higher pressure can have a central pressure of more
than 1013 mb
Describing Pressure Systems
Pressure System in mb Description
1013 Sea level pressure
1013 and above High pressure or anticyclone
1013 and below Low pressure or depression
Relative humidity
This is measured using the relative humidity table. Find it by looking for the intersection
of the wet bulb thermometer line's depression and the dry bulb temperature line
Humidity is shown as a percentage of temperature
Temperature determines relative humidity; the more water vapour the air can hold, the
higher the temperature.
If air is 20 °C and holds 4 grams of water, it has a relative humidity of 27%
4g more water is added, so air is now 8g @ 20°C = 52% and so on until it reaches
saturation and moisture will start to condense (20°C still, but air holds 15g of water =
100% humidity)
However, if the temperature rises, then the air can again hold more water, so the
relative humidity drops (15g @ 23°C = 83% humidity or 15g @ 32°C = 50% humidity,
etc.)
But if the temperature drops, then the air holds too much water, so the excess water
is released until equilibrium is reached
Worked Example
Explain how a wind vane is used to show the direction from which the wind is
blowing
[2 Marks]
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The arrow / pointer turns / spins round / pushed by wind [1] and points to N/E/S/W
/ compass direction (from which wind is blowing) [1]
Your notes
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Weather Data Interpretation
Your notes
Interpreting Weather & Climate Data
Climate graphs
A climate graph shows mean monthly temperatures and precipitation rates over 30
years
They can be local, national, or global
Precipitation is always shown as a bar graph and temperature as a line graph
How to read a climate graph
Describe the overall shape of the graph:
Is the temperature line steep or gentle?
Are there changes throughout the year?
Always mention the months but do not give a month-by-month account
Look for extremes:
Note anomalies—something that isn't following a trend
Summer has the hottest months and winter the coolest (Spring and Autumn are not
usually discussed)
Note the highest and lowest temperature and rainfall, plus the month in which they
occur
Remember to quote units, like Celsius or millimetres
Name the season with the most and least rainfall
Equatorial climate regions have no seasons but refer to seasons in other locations
Remember that the southern hemisphere's seasons are opposite to the northern
hemisphere
Summer in Australia is from November to March
Summer in Europe is from June to September
Calculate the temperature range by subtracting the lowest number from the highest
Add monthly rainfall totals to calculate annual rainfall
Divide this by 12 to find the average monthly rainfall
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Your notes
Climate graph
Dispersion graphs
Useful for comparing sets of data
Also illustrates whether the data forms groups or is dispersed (spread)
Values are shown on the vertical axis
Can also be used to present the upper and lower values along with the mean, median,
mode and extreme values
Reading a dispersion graph
Read the title to see what the graph is showing
Read and understand what each axis represents
Describe the overall pattern of the graph
Identify anomalies in the data
Complete any statistical analysis such as the mean, median and range
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Your notes
Illustration of dispersal graph
Wind rose
The direction of wind for a specific place is shown on a wind rose
Made of circles that radiate rectangles representing points of a compass
The rectangles' lengths show how many days or times the wind blew in that direction
The centre of the rose displays the number of days or hours with no wind
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Your notes
Wind rose diagram
Wind barbs
Wind barbs on a weather map indicate the direction and strength of the wind.
Barbs point to the direction the wind is travelling from
The tip of the arrow shows the wind's direction
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Half barbs represent 5 knots, full barbs = 10 knots and flags = 50 knots
A combination of these symbols shows the overall speed of the wind and from where it Your notes
originates from
A double flag = 100 knots
A double flag and 3 full barbs with a half barb = 135 knots
Illustration to show wind barbs
Isoline and choropleth maps
Isohyets are lines joining places with the same amount of rainfall
Isotherms join places with the same temperature
Isobars join places with the same pressure
Isoline maps become choropleth isoline maps when shaded between the isolines
Shading is progressive from light to dark
The heaviest (darkest) shading is for the largest value
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Your notes
Synoptic charts
Meteorological station readings are plotted on synoptic charts
They can show some or all of the following:
wind speed
wind direction
pressure patterns
weather fronts
cloud cover
temperatures
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Your notes
Synoptic weather chart
Worked Example
Fig. 1.3 shows a student's record of cloud cover over two days. The student
recorded the amounts in oktas (eighths).
Diagram showing cloud cover
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Choose from the values below and fill in the correct number of oktas for each
example.
Your notes
[2 marks]
Choose from the following:
1. 1 okta
2. 3 oktas
3. 7 oktas
4. 8 oktas
Solution
The correct answer for example 1 is 7 oktas [1 mark]
The correct answer for example 2 is 3 oktas [1 mark]
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