MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I

Dr. Athira T M

Module II

Department of Mathematics
NIT Calicut
November 14, 2023

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 1 / 94

Functions of several variables

Definition
Suppose D is a set of n-tuples of real numbers (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ). A
real-valued function f on D is a rule that assigns a unique real number

w = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

to each element in D. The set D is the function’s domain. The set of

w -values taken on by f is the function’s range.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 2 / 94

Function
p Domain Range
z = y − x2 y ≥ x2 [0, ∞)
1
z = xy xy ̸= 0 (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
z = sin xy Entire plane [−1, 1]

Function
p Domain Range
w = x2 + y2 + z2 Entire space [0, ∞)
w = x 2 +y12 +z 2 (x, y , z) ̸= (0, 0, 0) (0, ∞)
w = xy ln z Half-space z > 0 (−∞, ∞)

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 3 / 94

Find the specific function values
1 f (x, y ) = x 2 + xy 3
a. f (0, 0) b. f (−1, 1)
c. f (2, 3) d. f (−3, −2)
2 f (x, y ) =
sin(xy )

a. f 2, π6
b. f −3, 12
π

c. f π, 14 d. f − π2 , −7

3 f (x, y , z) = yx−y
2 +z 2

a. f (3, −1, 2)
b. f 1, 12 , − 41

c. f 0, − 13 , 0 d. f (2, 2, 100)
p
4 f (x, y , z) = 49 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2
a. f (0, 0, 0) b. f (2,−3, 6) 
c. f (−1, 2, 3) d. f √42 , √52 , √62

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 4 / 94

Find the domain of
√
1 f (x, y ) = y −x −2
f (x, y ) = ln x 2 + y 2 − 4


2

(x−1)(y +2)
3 f (x, y ) = (y −x)(y −x 3 )
sin(xy )
4 f (x, y ) = x 2 +y 2 −25
cos−1 y − x 2


5 f (x, y ) =
6 f (x, y ) = ln(xy + x − y − 1)
p
7 f (x, y ) = (x 2 − 4) (y 2 − 9)
1
8 f (x, y ) = ln(4−x 2 −y 2 )

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 5 / 94

Let D be a subset of the plane R2 and let (a, b) ∈ R2 be any point.
1 An ε-disk around (a, b) is the set of all points (x, y ) ∈ R2 whose
distance from (a, b) is less than ε. (a, b) is an interior point of D iff
some ε-disk around (a, b) is contained in D.
2 (a, b) ∈ D is an isolated point of D iff (a, b) is the only point of D
that is contained in some ε-disk around (a, b).
3 (a, b) is a boundary point of D iff every ε-disk around (a, b) contains
points from D and points not from D.
4 R is an open subset of R2 iff all points of D are its interior points.
5 D is a closed subset of R2 iff it contains all its boundary points. And
D̄ = D ∪ the set of boundary points of D; It is the closure of D.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 6 / 94

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 7 / 94
Limit

Let f : D → R be a function, where D is a region in the plane. Let

(a, b) ∈ D. The limit of f (x, y ) as (x, y ) approaches (a, b) is L iff
p to each ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that for all (x, y ) ∈ D
corresponding
with 0 < (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 < δ , we have |f (x, y ) − L| < ε.
In this case, we write lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (x, y ) = L. We also say that L is the
limit of f at (a, b).
If for no real number L, the above happens, then limit of f at (a, b) does
not exist.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 8 / 94

The distance between f (x, y ) and L can be made arbitrarily small by
making the distance between (x, y ) and (a, b) sufficiently small but not
necessarily zero.
The limit of f (x, y ) as (x, y ) approaches (a, b) is L.
f (x, y ) → L as (x, y ) → (a, b).
lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (x, y ) = L.
limx→a f (x, y ) = L.
y →b

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 9 / 94

 0−(0)(1)+3
1 lim(x,y )→(0,1) x 2 yx−xy +3
+5xy −y 3
= (0)2 (1)+5(0)(1)−(1) 3 = −3
p p √
2 lim(x,y )→(3,−4) x 2 + y 2 = (3)2 + (−4)2 = 25 = 5

Find the limits

2 2
−y +5
1 lim(x,y )→(0,0) 3x
x 2 +y 2 +2
p
2 lim(x,y )→(3,4) x 2 + y 2 − 1
3 lim(x,y )→(0,π/4) sec x tan y
 2
4 lim(x,y )→(2,−3) x1 + y1
2
x +y 3
5 lim(x,y )→(0,0) cos x+y +1

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 10 / 94

 2 −xy
Find lim(x,y )→(0,0) √xx− √ .
y
√ √
The denominator x − y approaches 0 as (x, y ) → (0, 0). If we multiply
√ √
numerator and denominator by x + y , however, we produce an
equivalent fraction whose limit we can find:

√ √
x 2 − xy x 2 − xy ( x + y )
lim √ √ = lim √ √ √ √
(x,y )→(0,0) x − y (x,y )→(0,0) ( x − y )( x + y )
√ √
x(x − y )( x + y )
= lim
(x,y )→(0,0) x −y
√ √
= lim x( x + y )
(x,y )→(0,0)
√ √
= 0( 0 + 0) = 0

We can cancel the factor (x − y ) because the path y = x (along which

x − y = 0 ) is not in the domain of the function

x 2 − xy
√ √ .
x− y

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 11 / 94

 2
Determine if lim(x,y )→(0,0) x4xy
2 +y 2 exists.

Observe that the region D of f is R2 \{(0, 0)}. And f (0, y ) = 0 for

y ̸= 0; f (x, 0) = 0 for x ̸= 0. We guess that if the limit exists, it would be 0
. To see that it is the case, we start with any ε > 0. We want pto choose a
δ > 0 such that the following sentence becomes true: If 0 < x 2 + y 2 < δ ,
4xy 2
then x 2 +y 2
< ε. Since y 2 = y 2 ≤ x 2 + y 2 and x 2 = x 2 ≤ x 2 + y 2 , we
have
4xy 2 p
≤ 4|x| ≤ 4 x 2 + y 2.
x2 + y2
So, we choose δ =
pε/4. Let us verify whether our choice is all right.
Assume that 0 < x 2 + y 2 < δ . Then

4xy 2 p
− 0 ≤ 4 x 2 + y 2 < 4δ = ε.
x2 + y2

Hence
4xy 2
lim = 0.
(x,y )→(0,0) x 2 + y 2

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 12 / 94

Two-Path Test for Nonexistence of a Limit
Suppose that f (x, y ) → L1 as (x, y ) → (a, b) along a path C1 and
f (x, y ) → L2 as (x, y ) → (a, b) along a path C2 . If L1 ̸= L2 , then the limit
of f (x, y ) as (x, y ) → (a, b) does not exist.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 13 / 94

 x 2 −y 2
Consider f (x, y ) = x 2 +y 2
for (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0). What is its limit at (0, 0) ?

2
When y = 0, limit of f (x, y ) as x → 0 is limx→0 xx 2 = limx→0 (1) = 1. That
is, f (x, y ) → 1 as (x, y ) → (0, 0) along the x-axis. When x = 0, limit of
2
f (x, y ) as y → 0 is limy →0 −yy2
= −1. That is, f (x, y ) → −1 as
(x, y ) → (0, 0) along the y -axis. Hence lim(x,y )→(0,0) f (x, y ) does not exist.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 14 / 94

 xy
1 Consider f (x, y ) = x 2 +y 2
for (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0). What is its limit at (0, 0)?
xy 2
2 Consider f (x, y ) = x 2 +y 4
for (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0). What is its limit at (0, 0)?
(y −x)(1+x)
3 Let f (x, y ) = (y +x)(1+y ) for x + y ̸= 0, −1 < x, y < 1. What is its
limit at (0, 0)?

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 15 / 94

Let L, M, c ∈ R; lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (x, y ) = L; lim(x,y )→(a,b) g (x, y ) = M. Then
1 Constant Multiple: lim(x,y )→(a,b) cf (x, y ) = cL.
2 Sum: lim(x,y )→(a,b) (f (x, y ) + g (x, y )) = L + M.
3 Product: lim(x,y )→(a,b) (f (x, y )g (x, y )) = LM.
4 Quotient: If M ̸= 0 and g (x, y ) ̸= 0 in an open disk around the point
(a, b), then lim(x,y )→(a,b) (f (x, y )/g (x, y )) = L/M
5 Power: If r ∈ R, Lr ∈ R and lim(x,y )→(a,b) f (x, y ) = L, then
lim(x,y )→(a,b) (f (x, y ))r = Lr .

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 16 / 94

Continuity

A function f (x, y ) is continuous at the point (x0 , y0 ) if

1 f is defined at (x0 , y0 )
2 lim(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y ) exists
3 lim(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y ) = f (x0 , y0 ).
A function is continuous if it is continuous at every point of its domain.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 17 / 94

Show that (
2xy
x 2 +y 2
, (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0)
f (x, y ) =
0, (x, y ) = (0, 0)
is continuous at every point except the origin.

The function f is continuous at any point (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0) because its values
are then given by a rational function of x and y and the limiting value is
obtained by substituting the values of x and y into the functional
expression.
At (0, 0), the value of f is defined, but,
For every value of m, the function f has a constant value on y = mx, x ̸= 0,
2
because f (x, y )|y =mx = x 22xy
+y 2
= x 22x(mx)
+(mx)2
= x 22mx
+m2 x 2
Therefore, f
y −mx
has this number as its limit as (x, y ) happroaches (0,i 0) along the line
2m
lim (x,y )→(0,0) f (x, y ) = lim(x,y )→(0,0) f (x, y )|y =mx = 1+m 2 . There is
along y =mx
therefore no single number we may call the limit of f as (x, y ) approaches
the origin. The limit fails to exist, and the function is not continuous.
Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 18 / 94
Continuity of Composites
If f is continuous at (x0 , y0 ) and g is a single-variable function continuous
at f (x0 , y0 ), then the composite function h = g ◦ f defined by
h(x, y ) = g (f (x, y )) is continuous at (x0 , y0 ).

For example, the composite functions

xy
e x−y , ln 1 + x 2 y 2


cos ,
x2 + 1
are continuous at every point (x, y ).

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 19 / 94

At what points (x, y ) in the plane are the following functions continuous?
1 a. f (x, y ) = sin(x + y )

b. f (x, y ) = ln x 2 + y 2
2 a. f (x, y ) = x+y
x−y
b. f (x, y ) = x 2y+1
1
3 a. g (x, y ) = sin xy
x+y
b. g (x, y ) = 2+cos x
2 2
4 a. g (x, y ) = x 2x−3x+2
+y

b. g (x, y ) = x 21−y

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 20 / 94

Partial Derivatives

The partial derivative ∂∂ xf at

(x0 , y0 ) gives the rate of change of
with respect to x when y is held
fixed at the value y0 .
The partial derivative ∂∂ yf at
(x0 , y0 ) gives the rate of change of
with respect to y when x is held
fixed at the value x0 .
We use several notations for
partial derivative;
∂f ∂z
∂ x (x0 , y0 ) or fx (x0 , y0 ) , ∂ x(x0 ,y0 )
and fx , ∂∂ xf , zx , or ∂z
∂x

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 21 / 94

 The partial derivative of f (x, y ) with respect to x at the point (x0 , y0 )
is
∂f f (x0 + h, y0 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
= lim ,
∂ x (x0 ,y0 ) h→0 h
provided the limit exists.

The partial derivative of f (x, y ) with respect to y at the point (x0 , y0 )

is
∂f d f (x0 , y0 + h) − f (x0 , y0 )
= f (x0 , y ) = lim ,
∂ y (x0 ,y0 ) dy y =y0 h→0 h
provided the limit exists.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 22 / 94

Find the values of ∂ f /∂ x and ∂ f /∂ y at the point (4, −5) if

f (x, y ) = x 2 + 3xy + y − 1.

To find ∂ f /∂ x, we treat y as a constant and differentiate with respect to x

∂f ∂
x 2 + 3xy + y − 1 = 2x + 3 · 1 · y + 0 − 0 = 2x + 3y .


=
∂x ∂x
The value of ∂ f /∂ x at (4, −5) is 2(4) + 3(−5) = −7.
To find ∂ f /∂ y , we treat x as a constant and differentiate with respect to y

∂f ∂
x 2 + 3xy + y − 1 = 0 + 3 · x · 1 + 1 − 0 = 3x + 1.


=
∂y ∂y

The value of ∂ f /∂ y at (4, −5) is 3(4) + 1 = 13.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 23 / 94

Let f : R2 → R be defined by
x 3 +2y 3
(
x 2 +y 2
, if (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0),
f (x, y ) =
0, if (x, y ) = (0, 0).

i) check continuity of f at (0, 0),

∂f ∂f
ii) check existence of partial derivatives ∂x and ∂y at (0, 0)

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 24 / 94

1 Find ∂ f /∂ y as a function if f (x, y ) = y sin xy .
2 Find fx and fy as functions if

2y
f (x, y ) = .
y + cos x
3 Find ∂ z/∂ x if the equation

yz − ln z = x + y

defines z as a function of the two independent variables x and y and

the partial derivative exists.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 25 / 94

Second-Order Partial Derivatives
When we differentiate a function f (x, y ) twice, we produce its second-order
derivatives. These derivatives are usually denoted by

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
or fxx , or fyy ,
∂ x2 ∂y2
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
or fyx , and or fxy .
∂ x∂ y ∂y∂x

The defining equations are

∂ 2f ∂ 2f
   
∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
2
= , = ,
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂ x∂ y ∂x ∂y

and so on.
∂ 2f
Notice the order in which the mixed partial derivatives are taken: ∂ x∂ y
differentiate first with respect to y then with respect to x
fyx = (fy )x Means the same thing.
Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 26 / 94
If f (x, y ) = x cos y + ye x , find the second-order derivatives

∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f ∂ 2f
, , , and .
∂ x2 ∂y∂x ∂y2 ∂ x∂ y

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 27 / 94

The Mixed Derivative Theorem
If f (x, y ) and its partial derivatives fx , fy , fxy , and fyx are defined
throughout an open region containing a point (a, b) and are all continuous
at (a, b), then
fxy (a, b) = fyx (a, b)

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 28 / 94

Chain Rule
Chain Rule for Functions of One Independent Variable and Two
Intermediate Variables
If w = f (x, y ) is differentiable and if x = x(t), y = y (t) are differentiable
functions of t, then the composite w = f (x(t), y (t)) is a differentiable
function of t and

dw ∂ f dx ∂ f dy
= +
dt ∂ x dt ∂ y dt

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 29 / 94

Chain Rule for Functions of One Independent Variable and Three
Intermediate Variables
If w = f (x, y , z) is differentiable and x, y , and z are differentiable functions
of t, then w is a differentiable function of t and
dw ∂ w dx ∂ w dy ∂ w dz
= + + .
dt ∂ x dt ∂ y dt ∂ z dt

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 30 / 94

Find dw /dt if

w = xy + z, x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t.

What is the derivative’s value at t = 0 ?

Using the Chain Rule for three intermediate variables, we have
dw ∂ w dy
dt = ∂∂wx dx ∂ w dz
dt + ∂ y dt + ∂ z dt
= (y )(− sin t) + (x)(cos t) + (1)(1)
= (sin t)(− sin t) + (cos t)(cos t) + 1 Substitute for the
= − sin2 t + cos2 t + 1 = 1 + cos 2t,

Substitute for the intermediate variables. so

 
dw
= 1 + cos(0) = 2
dt t=0

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 31 / 94

Chain Rule for Two Independent Variables and Three Intermediate
Variables
Suppose that w = f (x, y , z), x = g (r , s), y = h(r , s), and z = k(r , s). If all
four functions are differentiable, then w has partial derivatives with respect
to r and s, given by the formulas

∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z
= + +
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂z ∂r
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z
= + + .
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s ∂z ∂s

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 32 / 94

Express ∂ w /∂ r and ∂ w /∂ s in terms of r and s if
r
w = x + 2y + z 2 , x= , y = r 2 + ln s, z = 2r .
s
Using the formulas in Theorem 7, we find

∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z
= + +
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r ∂z ∂r
 
1
= (1) + (2)(2r ) + (2z)(2)
s
1 1 Substitute for intermediate
= + 4r + (4r )(2) = + 12r
s s variable z.
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y ∂w ∂z
= + +
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s ∂z ∂s
 
 r  1 2 r
= (1) − 2 + (2) + (2z)(0) = − 2
s s s s

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 33 / 94

If w = f (x) and x = g (r , s), then

∂w dw ∂ x ∂w dw ∂ x
= and =
∂r dx ∂ r ∂s dx ∂ s

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 34 / 94

Formula for Implicit Differentiation
Suppose that F (x, y ) is differentiable and that the equation F (x, y ) = 0
defines y as a differentiable function of x. Then at any point where Fy ̸= 0,

dy Fx
=− .
dx Fy

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 35 / 94

Find dy /dx if y 2 − x 2 − sin xy = 0.
Take F (x, y ) = y 2 − x 2 − sin xy . Then

dy Fx −2x − y cos xy
=− =−
dx Fy 2y − x cos xy
2x + y cos xy
=
2y − x cos xy

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 36 / 94

Find the value of dy dx at the given point.
1. x 3 − 2y 2 + xy = 0, (1, 1)
2 xy + y 2 − 3x − 3 = 0, (−1, 1) 3. x 2 + xy + y 2 − 7 = 0, (1, 2)
4. xe y + sin xy + y − ln 2 = 0, (0, ln 2)
Find the values of ∂ z/∂ x and ∂ z/∂ y at the points.
1. z 3 − xy + yz + y 3 − 2 = 0, (1, 1, 1)
2. x1 + y1 + z1 − 1 = 0, (2, 3, 6)
3. sin(x + y ) + sin(y + z) + sin(x + z) = 0, (π, π, π)
4. xe y + ye z + 2 ln x − 2 − 3 ln 2 = 0, (1, ln 2, ln 3)
Finding Partial Derivatives at Specified Points
1. Find ∂ w /∂ r when r = 1, s = −1 if w = (x + y + z)2 ,
x = r − s, y = cos(r + s), z = sin(r + s).
2. Find ∂ w /∂ v when u = −1, v = 2 if w = xy + ln z,
x = v 2 /u, y = u + v , z = cos u.
3. Find ∂ w /∂ v when u = 0, v = 0 if w = x 2 + (y /x),
x = u − 2v + 1, y = 2u + v − 2.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 37 / 94

Directional Derivatives

Definition
The derivative of f at P0 (x0 , y0 ) in the direction of the unit vector
u = u1 i + u2 j is the number
 
df f (x0 + su1 , y0 + su2 ) − f (x0 , y0 )
= lim ,
ds u,P0 s→0 s

provided the limit exists.

The directional derivative is also denoted by

(Du f )P0 "The derivative of f at P0′′

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 38 / 94

The partial derivatives fx (x0 , y0 ) and fy (x0 , y0 ) are the directional
derivatives of f at P0 in the i and j directions.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 39 / 94

Using the definition of directional derivative, find the derivative of

f (x, y ) = x 2 + xy
√ √
at P0 (1, 2) in the direction of the unit vector u = (1/ 2)i + (1/ 2)j.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 40 / 94

The gradient vector (gradient)
The gradient vector (gradient) of f (x, y ) at a point P0 (x0 , y0 ) is the vector

∂f ∂f
∇f = i+ j
∂x ∂y

obtained by evaluating the partial derivatives of f at P0 . The notation ∇f

is read "grad f " as well as "gradient of f " and "del f ." The symbol ∇ by
itself is read "del." Another notation for the gradient is grad f .

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 41 / 94

Theorem
The Directional Derivative is a Dot Product: If all partial derivatives of
f (x, y ) exist and are continuous in an open region containing P0 (x0 , y0 ),
then  
df
= (∇f )P0 · u,
ds u,P0
the dot product of the gradient ∇f at P0 and u.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 42 / 94

Find the derivative of f (x, y ) = xe y + cos(xy ) at the point (2, 0) in the
direction of v = 3i − 4j.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 43 / 94

Find the derivative of the function at P0 in the direction of u.
1 f (x, y ) = 2xy − 3y 2 , P0 (5, 5), u = 4i + 3j
2 f (x, y ) = 2x 2 + y 2 , P0 (−1, 1), u = 3i − 4j
x−y
3 g (x, y ) = xy +2 , P0 (1, −1), u = 12i + 5j
−1
√
h(x, y ) = tan (y /x) + 3 sin−1 (xy /2), P0 (1, 1),
4
u = 3i − 2j
5 f (x, y , z) = xy + yz + zx, P0 (1, −1, 2), u = 3i + 6j − 2k
6 f (x, y , z) = x 2 + 2y 2 − 3z 2 , P0 (1, 1, 1), u = i+j+k
7 g (x, y , z) = 3e x cos yz, P0 (0, 0, 0), u = 2i + j − 2k
8 h(x, y , z) = cos xy + e yz + ln zx, P0 (1, 0, 1/2), u = i + 2j + 2k

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 44 / 94

Properties of the Directional Derivative Da f = ∇f · u = |∇f | cos θ :
The function f increases most rapidly when cos θ = 1 or when θ = 0
and u is the direction of ∇f . That is, at each point P in its domain, f
increases most rapidly in the direction of the gradient vector ∇f at P.
The derivative in this direction is

Du f = |∇f | cos(0) = |∇f |.

Similarly, f decreases most rapidly in the direction of −∇f . The

derivative in this direction is Du f = |∇f | cos(π) = −|∇f |.
Any direction a orthogonal to a gradient ∇f ̸= 0 is a direction of zero
change in f because θ then equals π/2 and

Du f = |∇f | cos(π/2) = |∇f | · 0 = 0.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 45 / 94

Extreme Values and Saddle Points

Definitions
Let f (x, y ) be defined on a region R containing the point (a, b). Then
1. f (a, b) is a local maximum value of f if f (a, b) ≥ f (x, y ) for all domain
points (x, y ) in an open disk centered at (a, b).
2. f (a, b) is a local minimum value of f if f (a, b) ≤ f (x, y ) for all domain
points (x, y ) in an open disk centered at (a, b).

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 46 / 94

First Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values
If f (x, y ) has a local maximum or minimum value at an interior point (a, b)
of its domain and if the first partial derivatives exist there, then fx (a, b) = 0
and fy (a, b) = 0.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 47 / 94

Definition
An interior point of the domain of a function f (x, y ) where both fx and fy
are zero or where one or both of fx and fy do not exist is a critical point
of f .
That is the only points where a function f (x, y ) can assume extreme values
are critical points and boundary points.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 48 / 94

Definition
A differentiable function f (x, y ) has a saddle point at a critical point
(a, b) if in every open disk centered at (a, b) there are domain points (x, y )
where f (x, y ) > f (a, b) and domain points (x, y ) where f (x, y ) < f (a, b).
The corresponding point (a, b, f (a, b)) on the surface z = f (x, y ) is called a
saddle point of the surface

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 49 / 94

Example: Find the local extreme values of f (x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 − 4y + 9.
Solution The domain of f is the entire plane so there are no boundary
points and the partial derivatives fx = 2x and fy = 2y − 4 exist everywhere.
Therefore, local extreme values can occur only where

fx = 2x = 0 and fy = 2y − 4 = 0.

The only possibility is the point (0, 2), where the value of f is 5 . Since
f (x, y ) = x 2 + (y − 2)2 + 5 is never less than 5 , we see that the critical
point (0, 2) gives a local minimum

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 50 / 94

1. Find the local extreme values (if any) of f (x, y ) = y 2 − x 2 .
Solution: Local extrema can occur only at the (0, 0) where fx = 0 and
fy = 0. Along the positive x-axis, f has the value f (x, 0) = −x 2 < 0; along
the positive y -axis, f has the value f (0, y ) = y 2 > 0. Therefore, every open
disk in the xy -plane centered at (0, 0) contains points where the function is
positive and points where it is negative. The function has a saddle point at
the origin and no local extreme values.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 51 / 94

Second Derivative Test for Local Extreme Values
Suppose that f (x, y ) and its first and second partial derivatives are
continuous throughout a disk centered at (a, b) and that
fx (a, b) = fy (a, b) = 0. Then
i) f has a local maximum at (a, b) if fxx < 0 and fxx fyy − fxy 2 > 0 at (a, b).
ii) f has a local minimum at (a, b) if fxx > 0 and fxx fyy − fxy 2 > 0 at (a, b).
iii) f has a saddle point at (a, b) if fxx fyy − fxy 2 < 0 at (a, b).
iv) the test is inconclusive at (a, b) if fxx fyy − fxy 2 = 0 at (a, b). In this
case, we must find some other way to determine the behavior of f at (a, b).

The expression fxx fyy − fxy 2 is called the discriminant or Hessian of f . It

is sometimes easier to remember it in determinant form,

fxx fxy
fxx fyy − fxy2 =
fxy fyy

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 52 / 94

1. Find the local extreme values of the function

f (x, y ) = xy − x 2 − y 2 − 2x − 2y + 4.

2. Find the local extreme values of f (x, y ) = 3y 2 − 2y 3 − 3x 2 + 6xy .

Solution

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 53 / 94

1. Find all the local maxima, local minima, and saddle points of the
functions
1. f (x, y ) = x 2 + xy + y 2 + 3x − 3y + 4
2. f (x, y ) = 2xy − 5x 2 − 2y 2 + 4x + 4y − 4
3. f (x, y ) = x 2 + xy + 3x + 2y + 5
4. f (x, y ) = 5xy − 7x 2 + 3x − 6y + 2
5. f (x, y ) = 2xy − x 2 − 2y 2 + 3x + 4

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 54 / 94

Taylor’s Formula for f (x, y ) at (a, b)

1  2 
f (x, y ) =f (a, b) + xfx (a, b) + yfy (a, b) + x fxx (a, b) + 2xyfxy (a, b) + y 2 fyy (a, b)
2!
1  3 
+ x fxxx (a, b) + 3x yfxyy (a, b) + 3xy 2 fxxy (a, b) + y 3 fyyy (a, b) + · · · +
2
3!
∂ nf ∂ n f (a, b) ∂ n f (a, b)
 
1
x n n (a, b) + nx n−1 y n−1 +···+yn +···
n! ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂yn

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 55 / 94

Taylor’s Formula for f (x, y ) at the Origin

1  2 
f (x, y ) =f (0, 0) + xfx (0, 0) + yfy (0, 0) + x fxx (0, 0) + 2xyfxy (0, 0) + y 2 fyy (0, 0)
2!
1  3 
+ x fxxx (0, 0) + 3x yfxyy (0, 0) + 3xy 2 fxxy (0, 0) + y 3 fyyy (0, 0) + · · · +
2
3!
1
 n ∂ n f (0, 0) n 
n ∂ f (0, 0) n−1 n ∂ f (0, 0)
x + nx y n−1 +···+y +···
n! ∂ xn ∂x ∂ y (0, 0) ∂yn

Taylor’s formula provides polynomial approximations of two-variable

functions.
The first three terms of Taylor’s formula give the function’s linearization.
To improve on the linearization, we add higher-power terms.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 56 / 94

Find a quadratic approximation to f (x, y ) = sin x sin y near the origin.

1 2
x (0) + 2xy (1) + y 2 (0) ,


sin x sin y ≈ 0 + 0 + 0 + or sin x sin y ≈ xy .
2

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 57 / 94

Find quadratic and cubic approximations of f near the origin.
1. f (x, y ) = xe y
2. f (x, y ) = e x cos y
3. f (x, y ) = y sin x
4. f (x, y ) = sin x cos y
5. f (x, y ) = e x ln(1 + y )
6. f (x, y ) = ln(2x + y +
1)
7. f (x, y ) = sin x 2 + y 2

8. f (x, y ) = cos x 2 + y 2

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 58 / 94

Constrained Maxima and Minima

Question: Find the point P(x, y , z) on the plane 2x + y − z − 5 = 0 that is

closest to the origin.
Solution: We have to find minimum value of function
−→ p
|OP| = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 subject to the constraint that 2x + y − z − 5 = 0.
−→
Since |OP| has a minimum value wherever the function
f (x, y , z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 has a minimum value
We have z = 2x + y − 5
So our problem reduces to one of finding the points (x, y ) at which the
function h(x, y ) = f (x, y , 2x + y − 5) = x 2 + y 2 + (2x + y − 5)2
From second derivative test, the point we seek is
 
5 5 5
Closest point: P , ,− .
3 6 6
√
The distance from P to the origin is 5/ 6 ≈ 2.04.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 59 / 94

The Method of Lagrange Multipliers

Our requirement is to minimize or maximize a certain function f (x, y , z)

subject to the constraint g (x, y , z) = 0.

The Method of Lagrange Multipliers

Suppose that f (x, y , z) and g (x, y , z) are differentiable and ∇g ̸= 0 when
g (x, y , z) = 0. To find the local maximum and minimum values of f
subject to the constraint g (x, y , z) = 0 (if these exist), find the values of
x, y , z, and λ that simultaneously satisfy the equations

∇f = λ ∇g and g (x, y , z) = 0.

For functions of two independent variables, the condition is similar, but

without the variable z.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 60 / 94

Example: Find the greatest and smallest values that the function
2 2
f (x, y ) = xy takes on the ellipse x8 + y2 = 1
Solution: First find the values of x, y , and λ for which
∇f = λ ∇g and g (x, y ) = 0.
y i + xj = λ4 xi + λ y j, from which we find

λ λ λ2
y= x, x = λy, and y= (λ y ) = y,
4 4 4
so that y = 0 or λ = ±2. We now consider these two cases.
Case 1: If y = 0, then x = y = 0. But (0, 0) is not on the ellipse. Hence,
y ̸= 0.
Case 2: If y ̸= 0, then λ = ±2 and x = ±2y . Substituting this in the
equation g (x, y ) = 0 gives
(±2y )2 2
8 + y2 = 1, 4y 2 + 4y 2 = 8 and y = ±1.
The function f (x, y ) therefore takes on its extreme values on the ellipse at
the four points (±2, 1), (±2, −1). The extreme values are xy = 2 and
xy = −2.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 61 / 94

1. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f (x, y ) =
3x + 4y on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Ans: The maximum and minimum values on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 are
       
3 4 25 3 4 25
3 +4 = = 5 and 3 − +4 − = − = −5
5 5 5 5 5 5

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 62 / 94

Parameterized curves in space

A curve in space can also be represented in vector form. The vector

−→
r(t) = OP = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k from the origin to the particle’s position
P(f (t), g (t), h(t)) at time t is the particle’s position vector.
The functions f , g , and h are the component functions (components) of
the position vector.
We think of the particle’s path as the curve traced by r during the time
interval I .

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 63 / 94

Example: Graph the vector function r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk.
Solution The vector function r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk is defined for all
real values of t. The curve traced by r winds around the circular cylinder
x 2 + y 2 = 1. The curve lies on the cylinder because the i - and
j-components of r, being the x - and y -coordinates of the tip of r, satisfy
the cylinder’s equation:

x 2 + y 2 = (cos t)2 + (sin t)2 = 1.

The curve rises as the k-component z = t increases. Each time t increases

by 2π, the curve completes one turn around the cylinder. The curve is
called a helix. The equations

x = cos t, y = sin t, z =t

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 64 / 94

Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

Limit
If L = L1 i + L2 j + L3 k, then limt→t0 r(t) = L precisely when
limt→t0 f (t) = L1 , limt→t0 g (t) = L2 , and limt→t0 h(t) = L3 .

Example: If r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, then

     
lim r(t) = lim cos t i + lim sin t j + lim t k
t→π/4 t→π/4 t→π/4 t→π/4
√ √
2 2 π
= i+ j + k.
2 2 4

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 65 / 94

Continuity
A vector function r(t) is continuous at a point t = t0 in its domain if
limt→t0 r(t) = r (t0 ). The function is continuous if it is continuous at every
point in its domain.
i.e., r(t) is continuous at t = t0 if and only if each component function is
continuous there.
Example: The function

g(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + ⌊t⌋k

is discontinuous at every integer, where the greatest integer function ⌊t⌋ is

discontinuous.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 66 / 94

Derivative
The vector function r(t) = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k has a derivative (is
differentiable) at t if f , g , and h have derivatives at t. The derivative is the
vector function
dr r(t + ∆t) − r(t) df dg dh
r′ (t) = = lim = i+ j+ k
dt ∆t→0 ∆t dt dt dt

A vector function r is differentiable if it is differentiable at every point of its

domain.
The curve traced by r is smooth if dr/dt is continuous and never 0, that
is, if f , g , and h have continuous first derivatives that are not
simultaneously 0 .

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 67 / 94

The vector r′ (t), when different from 0 , is defined to be the vector
tangent to the curve at P.
The tangent line to the curve at a point (f (t0 ) , g (t0 ) , h (t0 )) is defined to
be the line through the point parallel to r′ (t0 ).

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 68 / 94

Definitions
If r is the position vector of a particle moving along a smooth curve in
space, then
dr
v(t) =
dt
is the particle’s velocity vector, tangent to the curve. At any time t, the
direction of v is the direction of motion, the magnitude of v is the particle’s
speed, and the derivative a = dv/dt, when it exists, is the particle’s
acceleration vector. i.e.,
dr
1 Velocity is the derivative of position: v= dt .
2 Speed is the magnitude of velocity: Speed = |v|.
dv d 2r
3 Acceleration is the derivative of velocity: a= dt = dt 2
.
4 The unit vector v/|v| is the direction of motion at time t.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 69 / 94

Find the velocity, speed, and acceleration of a particle whose motion in
space is given by the position vector r(t) = 2 cos ti + 2 sin tj + 5 cos2 tk.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 70 / 94

If r is a differentiable vector function of t of constant length,
dr
r· =0
dt

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 71 / 94

Arc Length Along a Space Curve

Definition
The length of a smooth curve r(t) = x(t)i + y (t)j + z(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b,
that is traced exactly once as t increases from t = a to t = b, is
s
Z b  2  2  2
dx dy dz
L= + + dt
a dt dt dt

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 72 / 94

Arc Length Formula
Z b
L= |v|dt
a
where |v|is the length of a velocity vector dr/dt.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 73 / 94

Example: A glider is soaring upward along the helix
r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk. How long is the glider’s path from t = 0 to
t = 2π ?
Soluton: Solution The path segment during this time corresponds to one
full turn of the helix. The length of this portion of the curve is
Z b Z 2π q
L= |v|dt = (− sin t)2 + (cos t)2 + (1)2 dt
a 0
Z 2π √ √
= 2dt = 2π 2 units of length.
0

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 74 / 94

Arc Length Parameter with Base Point P (t0 )
Z tq Z t
s(t) = [x ′ (τ)]2 + [y ′ (τ)]2 + [z ′ (τ)]2 dτ = |v(τ)|dτ
t0 t0

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 75 / 94

If t0 = 0 find the arc length parametrization of a curve

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk

.
Solution From t0 to t is
Z t
s(t) = |v(τ)|dτ
t0
Z t√
= 2dτ
√0
= 2t

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 76 / 94

Unit Tangent Vector
Since the velocity vector v = dr/dt is tangent to the curve r(t) and that
the vector
v
T=
|v|
is therefore a unit vector tangent to the (smooth) curve, called the unit
tangent vector .

The unit tangent vector T is a differentiable function of t whenever v is a

differentiable function of t.
we will see later T is one of three unit vectors in a traveling reference frame
that is used to describe the motion of objects traveling in three dimensions.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 77 / 94

Find the unit tangent vector of the curve

r(t) = (3 cos t)i + (3 sin t)j + t 2 k

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 78 / 94

What is the change in the position vector with respect to arc length s(t)?
i.e., what is the derivative dr /ds ?

Since ds/dt > 0 for the curves we are considering, s is one-to-one and has
an inverse that gives t as a differentiable function of s. The derivative of
the inverse is
dt 1 1
= = .
ds ds/dt |v|
This makes r a differentiable function of s whose derivative can be
calculated with the Chain Rule to be
dr dr dt 1 v
= =v = = T.
ds dt ds |v| |v|

This equation says that dr/ds is the unit tangent vector in the
direction of the velocity vector v .

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 79 / 94

Find the curve’s unit tangent vector. Also, find the length of the indicated
portion of the curve.
√
1 r(t) = (2 cos t)i + (2 sin t)j + 5tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ π
2 r(t) = (6 sin 2t)i + (6 cos 2t)j + 5tk, 0≤t ≤π
3 r(t) = ti + (2/3)t 3/2 k, 0≤t ≤8
4 r(t) = (2 + t)i − (t + 1)j + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3
r(t) = cos3 t j + sin3 t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2



5

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 80 / 94

Curvature of a Plane Curve

Curvature of a Plane Curve

If T is the unit vector of a smooth curve, the curvature function of the
curve is
dT
κ= .
ds
i.e., The rate at which T turns per unit of length along the curve is called
the curvature.
If |dT/ds| is large, T turns sharply as the particle passes through P, and
the curvature at P is large. If |dT/ds| is close to zero, T turns more slowly
and the curvature at P is smaller.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 81 / 94

Formula for Calculating Curvature
If r(t) is a smooth curve, then the curvature is

1 dT
κ= ,
|v| dt

where T = v/|v| is the unit tangent vector.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 82 / 94

Example: A straight line is parametrized by r(t) = C + ta for constant
vectors C and a. Thus, r′ (t) = a, and the unit tangent vector T = a/|a| is a
constant vector that always points in the same direction and has derivative
0. It follows that, for any value of the parameter t, the curvature of the
straight line is
1 dT 1
κ= = |0| = 0.
|v| dt |v|

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 83 / 94

Example: Here we find the curvature of a circle. We begin with the
parametrization
r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j
of a circle of radius a. Then,
dr
v= = −(a sin t)i + (a cos t)j
dt
q √ Since a > 0
|v| = (−a sin t)2 + (a cos t)2 = a2 = |a| = a.
|a| = a.
v
T= = −(sin t)i + (cos t)j
|v|
dT
From this we find = −(cos t)i − (sin t)j
dt
dT p
= cos2 t + sin2 t = 1.
dt
Hence, for any value of the parameter t, the curvature of the circle is
1 dT 1 1 1
κ = |v| dt = a (1) = a = radius

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 84 / 94

Principal unit normal vector
At a point where κ ̸= 0, the principal unit normal vector for a smooth curve
in the plane is
1 dT
N=
κ ds
The vector dT/ds points in the direction in which T turns as the curve
bends. Therefore, if we face in the direction of increasing arc length, the
vector dT/ds points toward the right if T turns clockwise and toward the
left if T turns counterclockwise. In other words, the principal normal vector
N will point toward the concave side of the curve.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 85 / 94

Formula for Calculating N
If r(t) is a smooth curve, then the principal unit normal is

dT/dt
N= ,
|dT/dt|

where T = v/|v| is the unit tangent vector.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 86 / 94

Find T and N for the circular motion r(t) = (cos 2t)i + (sin 2t)j.
v = −(2 sin 2t)i + (2 cos 2t)j
p
2 2
Solution: We first find T : |v| = 4 sin 2t + 4 cos 2t = 2
v
T= = −(sin 2t)i + (cos 2t)j.
|v|
dT
= −(2 cos 2t)i − (2 sin 2t)j
dt
From this we find and
dT p
= 4 cos2 2t + 4 sin2 2t = 2
dt
dT/dt
N=
|dT/dt|
= −(cos 2t)i − (sin 2t)j.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 87 / 94

Circle of Curvature for Plane Curves

The circle of curvature or osculating circle at a point P on a plane

curve where κ ̸= 0 is the circle in the plane of the curve that
1 is tangent to the curve at P (has the same tangent line the curve has)
2 has the same curvature the curve has at P
3 lies toward the concave or inner side of the curve
The radius of curvature of the curve at P is the radius of the circle of
curvature, is
1
Radius of curvature = ρ = .
κ
To find ρ, we find κ and take the reciprocal. The center of curvature of
the curve at P is the center of the circle of curvature.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 88 / 94

Curvature and Normal Vectors for Space Curves
If a smooth curve in space is specified by the position vector r(t) as a
function of some parameter t, and if s is the arc length parameter of the
curve, then the unit tangent vector T is dr/ds = v/|v|. The curvature in
space is then defined to be

dT 1 dT
κ= =
ds |v| dt

just as for plane curves. The vector dT/ds is orthogonal to T, and we

define the principal unit normal to be

1 dT dT/dt
N= =
κ ds |dT/dt|

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 89 / 94

Example: Find the curvature for the helix
r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j + btk, a, b ≥ 0, a2 + b 2 ̸= 0.
Solution: We calculate T from the velocity vector v :
v = −(a sin t)i + (a cos t)j + bk
p p
|v| = a2 sin2 t + a2 cos2 t + b 2 = a2 + b 2
v 1
T= =√ [−(a sin t)i + (a cos t)j + bk].
|v| a2 + b 2
1 dT
κ=
|v| dt
1 1
=√ √ [−(a cos t)i − (a sin t)j]
2
a +b 2 a + b2
2
a
= 2 | − (cos t)i − (sin t)j|
a + b2
a a
q
= 2 2
(cos t)2 + (sin t)2 = 2 .
a +b a + b2

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 90 / 94

Binormal vector
The binormal vector of a curve in space is B = T × N, a unit vector
orthogonal to both T and N

Together T, N, and B define a moving right-handed vector frame that plays

a significant role in calculating the paths of particles moving through space.
It is called the Frenet frame or the TNB frame.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 91 / 94

If the acceleration vector is written as

a = aT T + aN N,

then 2
d 2s

d ds
aT = = |v| and aN = κ = κ|v|2
dt 2 dt dt
are the tangential and normal scalar components of acceleration.

Formula for Calculating the Normal Component of Acceleration

q
aN = |a|2 − aT 2

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 92 / 94

Torsion
Let B = T × N. The torsion function of a smooth curve is
dB
τ =− ·N
ds
The torsion may be positive, negative, or zero
Torsion measures how the curve twists

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 93 / 94

Computational Formulas
The most widely used formula for torsion, derived in more advanced texts,
is
ẋ ẏ ż
ẍ y z̈
... ... ...
x y z
τ= ( if v × a ̸= 0).
|v × a|2
...
ẋ (" x dot")
means dx/dt, ẍ (" x double dot") means d 2 x/dt 2 , and x ("
x triple dot′′ means d 3 x/dt 3 . Similarly, y = dy /dt, and so on.

Dr. Athira T M MA1001E MATHEMATICS -I November 14, 2023 94 / 94