ME2011E – Mechanical Engineering NIT Calicut

Engineering Applications of
Thermodynamics
Lecture Notes – ME2011E (Mechanical Engineering)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Calicut
Prepared by: Dr. Saketh Athkuri

Contents
1 The Carnot Cycle 2

2 The Otto Cycle (Spark Ignition Engines) 3

3 The Diesel Cycle (Compression Ignition Engines) 5

4 Internal Combustion Engines 6

4.1 Four-Stroke Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Two-Stroke Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.3 Spark Ignition (SI) vs. Compression Ignition (CI) Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

5 The Rankine Cycle (Steam Power Plants) 8

6 The Brayton Cycle (Gas Turbines) 10

7 Refrigeration 12
7.1 Methods of Producing Cold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.2 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.3 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

8 Psychrometry: The Science of Moist Air 18

8.1 Key Psychrometric Properties – Explained Simply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
8.2 The Psychrometric Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
8.3 Psychrometric Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
8.4 Purity of Air and Human Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

9 Simple Air Conditioning Load Estimation 23

10 Summary of Thermodynamic Cycles 25

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1 The Carnot Cycle

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient thermodynamic cycle possible operating between two
thermal reservoirs. It serves as a benchmark against which all real cycles are compared.

Carnot Cycle – Four Reversible Processes

1. Process 1–2: Isothermal Expansion at temperature TH – heat QH is absorbed
from the hot reservoir while the gas expands.

2. Process 2–3: Isentropic (Adiabatic) Expansion – the gas expands further

without heat exchange, and temperature drops from TH to TL .

3. Process 3–4: Isothermal Compression at temperature TL – heat QL is rejected

to the cold reservoir.

4. Process 4–1: Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression – the gas is compressed

back to the initial state, temperature rises from TL to TH .

P T

1
1 QH at TH 2
TH (isothermal) TH
isentropic
2 isentropic Wnet isentropic
4
isentropic 4 3
3 TL
TL (isothermal) QL at TL

V s
O O s1 s2

P –V Diagram T –s Diagram

Figure 1: Carnot cycle on P –V and T –s diagrams. The rectangular shape on the T –s diagram
is its hallmark — the shaded area enclosed equals the net work output.

Carnot Efficiency
TL
ηCarnot = 1 −
TH
where TH and TL are the absolute temperatures (in K) of the hot and cold reservoirs
respectively. This is the maximum possible efficiency for any heat engine operating
between these two temperatures.

Why the Carnot cycle matters

No real engine can exceed Carnot efficiency. All real-world cycles (Otto, Diesel, Rankine,
Brayton) are compared against this ideal to judge how well they perform. For example,
a Carnot engine operating between TH = 800 K and TL = 300 K has η = 1 − 300/800 =
62.5%. Real engines typically achieve 30–45% due to irreversibilities (friction, non-ideal
heat transfer, finite-speed processes).

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2 The Otto Cycle (Spark Ignition Engines)

The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition (SI) reciprocating engines. It models the
operation of petrol/gasoline engines.

Otto Cycle – Four Processes (Air–Standard)

1. 1–2: Isentropic Compression – piston compresses the air–fuel mixture.

2. 2–3: Constant Volume Heat Addition – spark ignites the mixture; pressure
rises sharply at approximately constant volume.

3. 3–4: Isentropic Expansion (power stroke) – high-pressure gases push the piston
down.

4. 4–1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection – exhaust valve opens; pressure drops
at constant volume.

Figure 2: Ideal Otto Cycle: P –V diagram and thermodynamic analysis. The shaded area
represents the net work output per cycle. Compression ratio r = V2 /V3 determines the cycle
efficiency. Image credit: NASA Glenn Research Center.

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T
3

2–3: Qin (V = const)

3–4: Isentropic

2
4

1–2: Isentropic
1 4–1: Qout (V = const)

s
O s1 =s2 s3 =s4

Otto Cycle: T –s Diagram

Figure 3: Otto cycle T –s diagram. The two vertical lines are isentropic processes; the two
curves are constant-volume heat addition and rejection.

Otto Cycle Efficiency

1
ηOtto = 1 −
rγ−1
where r = V1 /V2 is the compression ratio and γ = cp /cv is the ratio of specific heats
(γ = 1.4 for air).

Otto Cycle Relations (from NASA diagram)

T3 p3
Compression stroke: = rγ−1 , = rγ
T2 p2  
fQ T4
Combustion: T4 = T3 + , p4 = p3
cv T3
T5 p 5
Power stroke: = r1−γ , = r−γ
T4  p 4 
Work per cycle: W = cv (T4 −T3 )−(T5 −T2 ) , Power: P = W ×(cycles per second)

Higher compression ratios give higher efficiency, but are limited by knocking (premature
detonation) in SI engines. Typical compression ratios for petrol engines are r = 8–12.

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3 The Diesel Cycle (Compression Ignition Engines)

The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression-ignition (CI) engines. Fuel is injected into
highly compressed hot air and auto-ignites — no spark plug is needed.

Diesel Cycle – Four Processes

1. 1–2: Isentropic Compression – air alone is compressed to very high pressures
and temperatures.

2. 2–3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition – fuel is injected and burns at roughly
constant pressure as the piston moves down.

3. 3–4: Isentropic Expansion – continued expansion of the hot gases (power

stroke).

4. 4–1: Constant Volume Heat Rejection – exhaust gases are expelled.

P T

2–3: Q2in (P =const) 3

3

2–3: Qin (P =const)

3–4: Isentropic

2
3–4: Isentropic 4
1–2: Isentropic 1–2: Isentropic
4
4–1:1Qout (V =const)
4–1: Qout (V =const)
1

V s
V2 V3 V1 =V4

P –V Diagram T –s Diagram

Figure 4: Diesel cycle P –V and T –s diagrams. Note the constant-pressure heat addition
(horizontal on P –V ; curved on T –s).

Diesel Cycle Efficiency

rcγ − 1
 
1
ηDiesel = 1 −
rγ−1 γ(rc − 1)
where r = V1 /V2 is the compression ratio and rc = V3 /V2 is the cut-off ratio (ratio of
volumes after and before heat addition).

Comparison: Otto vs. Diesel

For the same compression ratio, the Otto cycle is more efficient than the Diesel cycle (the
bracketed factor in the Diesel efficiency formula is always > 1). However, Diesel engines
can operate at much higher compression ratios (r = 14–25) without knocking, since only
air is compressed. This makes them more efficient in practice. Diesel engines are widely
used in trucks, buses, ships, and power generation.

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4 Internal Combustion Engines

4.1 Four-Stroke Engine
A four-stroke engine completes one power cycle in four strokes of the piston (two complete
revolutions of the crankshaft).

IV EV IV EV

1. Intake 2. Compression 3. Power 4. Exhaust

Figure 5: Four strokes of a four-stroke engine: Intake, Compression, Power, Exhaust. IV =

Intake Valve, EV = Exhaust Valve. The ⋆ symbol denotes spark/combustion.

4.2 Two-Stroke Engine

A two-stroke engine completes one power cycle in two strokes (one crankshaft revolution).
It uses ports instead of valves and combines processes (e.g., intake and compression happen
simultaneously on opposite sides of the piston).

Two-Stroke vs. Four-Stroke

Two-stroke: One power stroke per revolution; simpler construction; higher power-to-
weight ratio; poorer fuel economy and higher emissions. Used in: chainsaws, mopeds,
outboard motors, some large marine engines.
Four-stroke: One power stroke per two revolutions; better fuel efficiency; lower emis-
sions; more complex (valve train required). Used in: cars, trucks, generators, most
modern engines.

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4.3 Spark Ignition (SI) vs. Compression Ignition (CI) Engines

Feature SI Engine (Petrol) CI Engine (Diesel)

Fuel Petrol (gasoline) Diesel

Ignition method Spark plug Auto-ignition by compres-
sion
Ideal cycle Otto cycle Diesel cycle
Compression ratio 8–12 14–25
Fuel–air mixing Pre-mixed (carburettor/ Fuel injected into hot com-
port injection) pressed air
Thermal efficiency 25–35% 35–45%
Typical applications Cars, motorcycles, small Trucks, buses, ships, gener-
generators ators

Table 1: Comparison of SI and CI engines.

4.4 Applications
SI Engines: Passenger cars, motorcycles, small portable generators, lawn mowers, light aircraft
(piston-engine).
CI Engines: Heavy-duty trucks and trailers, railway locomotives, marine propulsion (ships),
stationary power generation, agricultural tractors, construction equipment (excavators, bulldoz-
ers).

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5 The Rankine Cycle (Steam Power Plants)

The Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapour power plants — the backbone of thermal
power generation worldwide. The working fluid is water/steam.

Rankine Cycle – Four Processes

1. 1–2: Isentropic Compression in Pump – liquid water is pumped from con-
denser pressure to boiler pressure. (Very small work input since liquid is nearly
incompressible.)

2. 2–3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition in Boiler – water is heated, evapo-

rated, and possibly superheated.

3. 3–4: Isentropic Expansion in Turbine – high-pressure steam expands through

the turbine producing shaft work.

4. 4–1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection in Condenser – wet steam is con-

densed back to saturated liquid.

Figure 6: Rankine cycle: Schematic of the steam power plant (left) and its T –s diagram
(right) showing the four state points and the saturation dome. Image credit: Mahdi et al.,
ResearchGate.

Rankine Cycle Governing Equations

Turbine work per unit mass: = h3 − h4

wT (1)
Pump work per unit mass: = h2 − h1 ≈ v1 (P2 − P1 )
wP (2)
Heat input (boiler): = h3 − h2
qin (3)
Heat rejected (condenser): = h4 − h1
qout (4)
Net work: = wT − wP = (h3 − h4 ) − (h2 − h1 )
wnet (5)
wnet (h3 − h4 ) − (h2 − h1 )
Thermal efficiency: η = = (6)
qin h3 − h2

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Worked Example: Rankine Cycle

Problem: A steam power plant operates on the ideal Rankine cycle. The following
enthalpy data are given:

State point Enthalpy

h1 (condenser exit, sat. liquid) 191.8 kJ/kg
h2 (pump exit) 192.6 kJ/kg
h3 (turbine inlet, superheated steam) 3214.5 kJ/kg
h4 (turbine exit, wet steam) 2112.8 kJ/kg

Determine: (a) turbine work, (b) pump work, (c) heat input, (d) thermal efficiency, (e)
specific steam consumption (kg/kWh).

Solution:
(a) Turbine work per unit mass:

wT = h3 − h4 = 3214.5 − 2112.8 = 1101.7 kJ/kg

(b) Pump work per unit mass:

wP = h2 − h1 = 192.6 − 191.8 = 0.8 kJ/kg

(c) Heat input in the boiler:

qin = h3 − h2 = 3214.5 − 192.6 = 3021.9 kJ/kg

(d) Net work and thermal efficiency:

wnet = wT − wP = 1101.7 − 0.8 = 1100.9 kJ/kg

wnet 1100.9
η= = = 0.3643 = 36.43%
qin 3021.9
Verification: qout = h4 − h1 = 2112.8 − 191.8 = 1921.0 kJ/kg.
Check: qin − qout = 3021.9 − 1921.0 = 1100.9 kJ/kg = wnet ✓
(e) Specific Steam Consumption (SSC):
3600 3600
SSC = = = 3.269 kg/kWh
wnet 1100.9
This means 3.269 kg of steam must flow through the turbine to produce 1 kWh of electrical
energy.

Applications: Coal-fired thermal power plants, nuclear power plants (PWR/BWR steam
cycle), concentrated solar thermal power, combined cycle power plants (Rankine as bottoming
cycle), geothermal power, biomass power.

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6 The Brayton Cycle (Gas Turbines)

The Brayton cycle is the ideal cycle for gas turbine engines. The working fluid remains a
gas (typically air) throughout the cycle. It is an open cycle in practice (for jet engines and
most gas turbines), but analysed as a closed cycle for thermodynamic study.

Brayton Cycle – Four Processes

1. 1–2: Isentropic Compression in the compressor.

2. 2–3: Constant Pressure Heat Addition in the combustion chamber (combus-

tor).

3. 3–4: Isentropic Expansion in the turbine.

4. 4–1: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (exhaust to atmosphere in open cy-

cle).

Figure 7: Ideal Brayton Cycle: T –s diagram (left) and P –V diagram (right) showing the
compressor, combustor, turbine, and nozzle stages. The two constant-pressure lines (p0 and p3 )
bound the cycle. Image credit: NASA Glenn Research Center.

Brayton Cycle Efficiency

1
ηBrayton = 1 − (γ−1)/γ
rp
where rp = P2 /P1 is the pressure ratio and γ = cp /cv .
The efficiency depends only on the pressure ratio (for an ideal cycle with constant γ).
Higher pressure ratios yield higher efficiency.

Worked Example: Brayton Cycle

Problem: An ideal Brayton cycle (gas turbine) operates with the following known en-
thalpies (from air tables at the respective temperatures):

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State point Enthalpy

h1 (compressor inlet, 300 K) 300.19 kJ/kg
h2 (compressor exit, 574 K) 579.86 kJ/kg
h3 (turbine inlet, 1300 K) 1395.97 kJ/kg
h4 (turbine exit, 770 K) 789.37 kJ/kg

Determine: (a) compressor work, (b) turbine work, (c) net work, (d) heat input, (e)
thermal efficiency, (f) back-work ratio.

Solution:
(a) Compressor work input per kg of air:

wC = h2 − h1 = 579.86 − 300.19 = 279.67 kJ/kg

(b) Turbine work output per kg of air:

wT = h3 − h4 = 1395.97 − 789.37 = 606.60 kJ/kg

(c) Net work output:

wnet = wT − wC = 606.60 − 279.67 = 326.93 kJ/kg

(d) Heat input in the combustion chamber:

qin = h3 − h2 = 1395.97 − 579.86 = 816.11 kJ/kg

(e) Thermal efficiency:

wnet 326.93
η= = = 0.4006 = 40.06%
qin 816.11

Verification: qout = h4 − h1 = 789.37 − 300.19 = 489.18 kJ/kg.

η = 1 − qout /qin = 1 − 489.18/816.11 = 1 − 0.5994 = 0.4006 ✓
(f) Back-work ratio (fraction of turbine work consumed by compressor):
wC 279.67
BWR = = = 0.461 = 46.1%
wT 606.60
This high BWR (46.1%) is characteristic of gas turbines — nearly half the turbine output
drives the compressor. Compare this with the Rankine cycle where the pump work is
negligible (wP /wT = 0.8/1101.7 = 0.07%).

Applications: Aircraft jet engines (propulsion), stationary gas turbine power plants, com-
bined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plants (Brayton topping + Rankine bottoming), naval ship
propulsion, industrial cogeneration, helicopter engines.

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7 Refrigeration
Refrigeration is the process of transferring heat from a low-temperature region to a high-
temperature region, which requires external work (or heat) input. It is essentially a reversed
heat engine cycle.

7.1 Methods of Producing Cold

1. Vapour Compression Refrigeration (VCRS) – most common method; uses a me-
chanical compressor. Used in domestic refrigerators, A/C units, cold storage.

2. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VARS) – uses a heat source instead of a com-

pressor; suitable where cheap heat is available.

3. Gas cycle refrigeration – uses air as working fluid (reversed Brayton cycle); used in
aircraft cabin cooling.

4. Thermoelectric cooling – Peltier effect; used in CPU coolers, portable coolers, labo-
ratory equipment.

5. Magnetic refrigeration – magnetocaloric effect; emerging technology for near-room-

temperature cooling.

6. Evaporative cooling – water evaporation absorbs latent heat; used in desert coolers,
cooling towers.

7.2 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

VCRS – Four Processes
1. 1–2: Isentropic Compression – low-pressure saturated vapour from the evapo-
rator is compressed to high-pressure superheated vapour.

2. 2–3: Constant Pressure Heat Rejection (Condenser) – superheated vapour

condenses to saturated liquid, rejecting heat QH to the surroundings.

3. 3–4: Throttling (Expansion Valve) – high-pressure liquid expands irreversibly

through a throttle valve; pressure and temperature drop sharply. This is isen-
thalpic: h3 = h4 .

4. 4–1: Constant Pressure Heat Absorption (Evaporator) – low-pressure

liquid–vapour mixture absorbs heat QL from the refrigerated space and fully evap-
orates.

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QH (heat rejected)

High P , superheated vapour (2)

Condenser High P , sat. liquid (3)

Expansion
Win Compressor
Valve

Low P , sat. vapour (1) Evaporator

Low P , wet mixture (4)

QL (heat absorbed)

Figure 8: Schematic of the Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS).

ln P

Saturation dome
2–3:
3 Condensation (QH out) 2
Pcond

3–4: Throttling (h3 = h4 ) w

1–2:
C Compression

4 1
Pevap
4–1: Evaporation (QL in)
Refrigerating effect (h1 − h4 )

h (kJ/kg)

P –h Diagram of VCRS

Figure 9: VCRS on a pressure–enthalpy (P –h) diagram. Throttling (3–4) is vertical (isen-

thalpic).

VCRS Performance: Coefficient of Performance

Desired effect QL h1 − h4
COPR = = =
Work input Win h2 − h1
Since h3 = h4 (throttling is isenthalpic):

h1 − h3
COPR =
h2 − h1

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QH
For a heat pump (desired effect = heating): COPHP = = COPR + 1
Win

Worked Example: VCRS

Problem: A vapour compression refrigeration system using R-134a operates between an
evaporator temperature of −20◦ C and a condenser temperature of 40◦ C. The following
enthalpies are given:

State Enthalpy
h1 (evaporator exit, sat. vapour at −20◦ C) 238.41 kJ/kg
h2 (compressor exit, superheated vapour) 275.59 kJ/kg
h3 = h4 (condenser exit, sat. liquid at 40◦ C) 108.26 kJ/kg

Determine: (a) refrigerating effect, (b) compressor work, (c) COP, (d) power input for 1
TR (3.517 kW) cooling capacity.

Solution:
(a) Refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant:

qL = h1 − h4 = 238.41 − 108.26 = 130.15 kJ/kg

(b) Compressor work per kg:

wC = h2 − h1 = 275.59 − 238.41 = 37.18 kJ/kg

(c) Coefficient of Performance:

qL 130.15
COP = = = 3.501
wC 37.18
Verification: Heat rejected at condenser: qH = h2 −h3 = 275.59−108.26 = 167.33 kJ/kg.
Energy balance: qL + wC = 130.15 + 37.18 = 167.33 = qH ✓
Also: COPHP = qH /wC = 167.33/37.18 = 4.501 = COPR + 1 ✓
(d) For 1 TR = 3.517 kW cooling capacity:

QL 3.517
Mass flow rate: ṁ = = = 0.02702 kg/s
qL 130.15
QL 3.517
Power input: Ẇ = = = 1.005 kW
COP 3.501

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7.3 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System (VARS)

The VARS replaces the compressor of VCRS with a generator–absorber combination driven
by a heat source (not electricity).

Key Idea Behind VARS

Instead of mechanically compressing refrigerant vapour (which needs expensive electrical
energy), the VARS dissolves the low-pressure refrigerant vapour into a liquid absorbent,
pumps this liquid solution (pumping a liquid requires very little work), and then separates
the refrigerant by heating in a generator. The heat source can be waste heat, solar energy,
natural gas, or steam — making it attractive where electricity is expensive or waste heat
is abundantly available.

The most common working pairs are:

1. Water–Lithium Bromide (H2 O–LiBr): Water is the refrigerant and LiBr is the
absorbent. Used in large commercial A/C (evaporator > 0◦ C only, since water is the
refrigerant).
2. Ammonia–Water (NH3 –H2 O): Ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent.
Can achieve sub-zero temperatures; used in industrial refrigeration and ice making.

QG (Heat Source) QC (Rejected)

Weak solution Refrigerant

Generator Condenser
vapour (high P )

Exp.
HIGH PRESSURE Solution Liquid
Valve 2
LOW PRESSURE HEX
Solution Expansion
WP
Pump Valve 1
Strong
Low P
solution

Absorber Evaporator
Cold vapour (low P )

QA (Rejected) QE (Cooling effect)

Figure 10: Schematic of a Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System. Heat input QG at the
generator replaces the compressor work. The pump work WP is very small since it pumps only
liquid. The Solution Heat Exchanger (HEX) improves COP by preheating the strong solution
going to the generator.

VARS: How it works step-by-step

1. Evaporator: Liquid refrigerant absorbs heat QE from the cold space and evapo-
rates (identical to VCRS).

2. Absorber: The low-pressure refrigerant vapour is absorbed by a liquid absorbent

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(e.g., LiBr solution eagerly absorbs water vapour). This is exothermic — heat
QA must be removed by cooling water. The resulting liquid is called the “strong
solution” (rich in refrigerant).

3. Pump: The strong solution is pumped to high pressure. Since it is a liquid, the
pump work is very small (WP ≪ Wcompressor ).

4. Generator: The high-pressure strong solution is heated by QG . The refriger-

ant boils off as high-pressure vapour, leaving behind the “weak solution” (lean in
refrigerant).

5. Condenser: The high-pressure refrigerant vapour condenses, rejecting heat QC

(identical to VCRS).

6. Expansion Valve 1: The liquid refrigerant is throttled to low pressure and returns
to the evaporator (identical to VCRS).

7. Expansion Valve 2: The hot weak solution from the generator returns to the
absorber through a pressure-reducing valve, ready to absorb more refrigerant.

VARS COP
QE QE
COPVARS = ≈
QG + W P QG
since WP ≪ QG . Typical values: 0.6–0.8 for single-effect systems; 1.0–1.2 for double-
effect. This is much lower than VCRS COP (3–5), but the driving energy is heat rather
than expensive electricity.

Worked Example: VARS

Problem: A single-effect vapour absorption system using H2 O–LiBr provides 100 kW
of cooling. The following energy data are known:

Quantity Value
Cooling capacity, QE 100 kW
Heat input at generator, QG 142 kW
Heat rejected at condenser, QC 120 kW
Heat rejected at absorber, QA 125 kW
Pump work, WP 3 kW

Determine: (a) COP, (b) verify the energy balance, (c) compare with an equivalent VCRS
having COP = 3.5.

Solution:
(a) COP of VARS:
QE 100 100
COPVARS = = = = 0.690
QG + WP 142 + 3 145
(b) Energy balance check — total energy in must equal total energy out:
Energy in: QE + QG + WP = 100 + 142 + 3 = 245 kW

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Energy out: QC + QA = 120 + 125 = 245 kW ✓

(c) Comparison with VCRS at COP = 3.5 for the same 100 kW cooling:

QE 100
WVCRS = = = 28.57 kW of electrical energy
COP 3.5
The VARS needs 142 kW of heat +3 kW of electricity = 145 kW total input, vs. the
VCRS which needs 28.57 kW of electricity.
Economic comparison (assuming Rs. 8/kWh for electricity, Rs. 2/kWh-thermal for
heat):
VARS hourly cost = 142 × 2 + 3 × 8 = 284 + 24 = Rs. 308/hr
VCRS hourly cost = 28.57 × 8 = Rs. 228.6/hr
In this case VCRS is cheaper. But if waste heat is free (e.g., from an exhaust gas recovery
system), the VARS cost drops to Rs. 24/hr, making it far superior economically.

Applications of refrigeration: Food preservation (domestic and industrial cold stor-

age); comfort air conditioning in buildings, vehicles, and data centres (VCRS); large commer-
cial buildings and district cooling (VARS absorption chillers); industrial process cooling; gas
liquefaction; ice manufacturing; solar-powered cooling (VARS with solar thermal collectors);
combined cooling-heating-power trigeneration (CCHP).

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8 Psychrometry: The Science of Moist Air

Psychrometry deals with the thermodynamic properties of moist air (a mixture of dry air and
water vapour). It is fundamental to air conditioning design, drying processes, weather science,
and human comfort.

8.1 Key Psychrometric Properties – Explained Simply

Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT)
What it is: The temperature measured by an ordinary thermometer — the “actual” air
temperature.
Everyday example: When the weather report says “today’s temperature is 35◦ C,” that
is the dry bulb temperature. If you hang a regular mercury thermometer on a shaded
wall, it reads the DBT.
Symbol: Tdb or simply T . On the chart: read from the horizontal (bottom) axis.

Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT)

What it is: The temperature measured by a thermometer whose bulb is wrapped in a
wet muslin wick and exposed to air flow. Evaporation from the wick cools the bulb; the
drier the air, the more evaporation, and the lower the WBT compared to DBT.
Everyday example: When you step out of a swimming pool on a dry day, you feel very
cold — water evaporates rapidly from your skin. On a humid day, the same experience
feels less cold because less evaporation occurs. The WBT captures this effect numerically.
In a hot, dry place like Rajasthan at Tdb = 42◦ C, the WBT might be only 24◦ C (large
gap = very low humidity; desert coolers work excellently here).
In a hot, humid place like Chennai at Tdb = 35◦ C, the WBT might be 28◦ C (small gap
= high humidity; desert coolers are almost useless here).
Key fact: Twb ≤ Tdb always. They are equal only at 100% RH (saturated air).
On the chart: Read diagonally from upper-left to lower-right (see chart below).

Dew Point Temperature (DPT)

What it is: The temperature to which air must be cooled (at constant pressure and
constant moisture content) for water vapour to begin condensing.
Everyday example: Take a glass of cold water on a humid day — water droplets form
on the outside of the glass. The glass surface has cooled below the dew point of the
surrounding air, causing moisture to condense. Fog on winter mornings and dew on grass
are the same phenomenon.
Key fact: Tdp ≤ Twb ≤ Tdb . All three are equal only at 100% RH.
On the chart: From any state point, move horizontally left until you hit the saturation
curve (100% RH); the temperature at that intersection is the dew point.

Relative Humidity (RH)

What it is: The ratio of the actual amount of water vapour in the air to the maximum
amount the air could hold at the same temperature, expressed as a percentage.
Pv
ϕ= × 100%
Pv,sat

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Everyday example – the sponge analogy: Think of air as a sponge for moisture. A
completely dry sponge has ϕ = 0% RH. A fully saturated, dripping sponge has ϕ = 100%
RH. If the sponge holds half the water it could, that is ϕ = 50% RH.
Why it matters for comfort: At 30◦ C with 40% RH, you feel comfortable — sweat
evaporates efficiently, cooling your skin. At 30◦ C with 90% RH, you feel oppressively
hot — sweat cannot evaporate because the air is nearly saturated. This is the “muggy”
feeling in coastal cities.
On the chart: The curved lines running from lower-left to upper-right are constant RH
lines. The outermost curve at the top is ϕ = 100% (saturation line).

Specific Humidity / Humidity Ratio (ω)

What it is: The mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry air.
mv Pv
ω= = 0.622 (kg water vapour / kg dry air)
ma Patm − Pv
Everyday example: If ω = 12 g/kg, it means every kilogram of dry air carries 12 grams
of water vapour with it.
Also called: Moisture content, humidity ratio, or absolute humidity.
On the chart: Read from the right-side vertical axis (g of water per kg of dry air).

Enthalpy of Moist Air (h)

What it is: The total energy content per kg of dry air, comprising both sensible heat
(temperature-dependent) and latent heat (moisture-dependent).

h = cpa Tdb + ω (hf g + cpv Tdb ) ≈ 1.005 Tdb + ω (2501 + 1.86 Tdb ) kJ/kg dry air

where cpa = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K), hf g = 2501 kJ/kg (latent heat at 0◦ C), cpv = 1.86
kJ/(kg·K).

8.2 The Psychrometric Chart

The psychrometric chart is a graphical tool that plots all the above properties together. Once
you know any two independent properties (e.g., DBT and RH, or DBT and WBT), you
can read off all others from the chart.

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Figure 11: Psychrometric chart at standard atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa). How to read:
Horizontal axis = Dry Bulb Temperature (Tdb , read upward from bottom). Right vertical axis
= Specific humidity (ω, g of water per kg of dry air). Curved lines from lower-left to upper-
right = constant Relative Humidity curves (100% is the top boundary). Diagonal lines from
upper-left to lower-right = constant Wet Bulb Temperature lines.

Reading the Psychrometric Chart – Step-by-Step

Step 1: Locate the Dry Bulb Temperature on the horizontal axis.
Step 2: Move vertically upward until you reach the known RH curve (e.g., 50%). This
intersection is your state point.
Step 3: From the state point, read horizontally to the right axis → specific humidity ω.
Step 4: From the state point, follow the diagonal WBT line down to the saturation
curve → Wet Bulb Temperature.
Step 5: From the state point, move horizontally left to the saturation curve. The DBT
at that point = Dew Point Temperature.
Example reading: At Tdb = 30◦ C and RH = 50%:
ω ≈ 13.3 g/kg, Twb ≈ 22.5◦ C, Tdp ≈ 18.5◦ C, h ≈ 64 kJ/kg.

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8.3 Psychrometric Processes

0%
10
Heating +

=
Humidification Humidification
Evaporative

ϕ
Cooling
T = const, ω increases
h ≈ const
ω = const, T increases
Sensible Sensible
Cooling Heating
Cooling +
A
Dehumidif.
(A/C process)
Dehumidification
Tdb

Figure 12: Psychrometric processes shown as directions from a reference state A. The cool-
ing+dehumidification process (cyan) is the primary A/C process in hot-humid climates. Evap-
orative cooling (dashed brown) follows a constant WBT / constant enthalpy line.

1. Sensible Heating: Air passes over a hot coil or heater. Temperature rises; ω unchanged;
RH decreases. Moves right on the chart.

2. Sensible Cooling: Air passes over a cold coil above the dew point. Temperature falls;
ω unchanged; RH increases. Moves left.

3. Humidification: Steam is injected into air (constant T ). ω increases; RH increases.

Moves up.

4. Dehumidification: Moisture is removed at constant T using chemical desiccants. ω

decreases. Moves down.

5. Cooling and Dehumidification: The most important A/C process. Air is cooled below
its dew point so that moisture condenses out. Both T and ω decrease. The air exits cooler
and drier. Used in every air conditioning system in humid climates.

6. Heating and Humidification: Both T and ω increase. Example: winter air condition-
ing in cold climates (heating cold, dry outside air and adding steam).

7. Evaporative Cooling: Water evaporates into air, absorbing latent heat from the air
itself. Temperature drops, ω increases, and enthalpy stays approximately constant. Fol-
lows a constant WBT line on the chart. Example: desert cooler. Works well only in dry
climates (large Tdb − Twb gap).

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8.4 Purity of Air and Human Comfort

Human Thermal Comfort Conditions (ASHRAE Standards)

Parameter Comfort Range

Dry bulb temperature 22–27◦ C (summer: 24–26◦ C typical)

Relative humidity 40–60%
Air velocity 0.15–0.25 m/s
Wet bulb temperature ≤ 20◦ C
Mean radiant temperature Close to air temperature

Why these ranges matter: At low humidity (< 30%), skin dries out, eyes itch, throats
become sore, and static electricity builds up. At high humidity (> 70%), sweat cannot evap-
orate, the body cannot cool itself, and mould/fungal growth is promoted. Temperature above
27◦ C causes thermal discomfort for office occupants; below 20◦ C feels chilly for lightly clothed
people.
Indoor air quality: Besides temperature and humidity, indoor air must be free from exces-
sive CO2 (< 1000 ppm), CO, particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and biological contaminants (mould, bacteria). Fresh air ventilation rates of 7–10 L/s
per person are specified by ASHRAE Standard 62.1 to maintain acceptable air quality. Fil-
tration (HEPA for particles, activated carbon for gases) and UV germicidal irradiation further
improve air purity.

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9 Simple Air Conditioning Load Estimation

The A/C cooling load is the rate at which heat must be removed from a conditioned space to
maintain the desired comfort conditions. It has two components:

Components of A/C Cooling Load

1. Sensible Heat Load (Qs ): Heat that changes the temperature of air without
changing its moisture content.
Sources: solar radiation through windows/walls/roof, heat conduction through the build-
ing envelope, heat from occupants (sensible portion), heat from lighting, heat from equip-
ment/appliances, sensible heat of infiltration/ventilation air.
2. Latent Heat Load (QL ): Heat associated with moisture addition (change in hu-
midity).
Sources: occupants (respiration and perspiration), infiltration/ventilation of humid out-
side air, cooking, bathing, open water surfaces.
Total cooling load: Qtotal = Qs + QL

Basic Formulas for Load Estimation

Sensible heat due to ventilation/infiltration air:

Qs = ṁa cpa ∆T = ρa V̇a cpa (Tout − Tin )

Simplified (for air at standard conditions, ρa ≈ 1.2 kg/m3 , cpa = 1.005 kJ/(kg·K)):

Qs ≈ 1.21 × V̇a × ∆T (kW; V̇a in m3 /s, ∆T in ◦ C)

Latent heat due to ventilation/infiltration:

QL = ṁa hf g ∆ω

Simplified:
QL ≈ 3010 × V̇a × ∆ω (kW; V̇a in m3 /s, ∆ω in kg/kg)
Total: Qtotal = Qs + QL . Capacity in Tons of Refrigeration: 1 TR = 3.517 kW.

Worked Example: Simple A/C Load Estimation

Problem: A lecture hall of dimensions 10 m × 8 m × 3.5 m (floor area = 80 m2 ) has:

Outside conditions Inside (desired)

Tdb (◦ C) 40 25
ω (g/kg dry air) 20 10

Additional internal and external loads:

• 50 occupants: 75 W sensible + 55 W latent heat per person.
• Lighting: 20 W/m2 of floor area.
• Equipment load: 1.5 kW total (all sensible).
• Fresh air ventilation: 10 L/s per person.
• Wall, roof, and glass conduction: estimated at 5 kW total (given).
Estimate the total cooling load and the required A/C capacity in TR.

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Solution:
(i) Occupant load:

Qs,occ = 50 × 75 = 3,750 W = 3.75 kW

QL,occ = 50 × 55 = 2,750 W = 2.75 kW

(ii) Lighting load (all sensible):

Qs,light = 20 × 80 = 1,600 W = 1.60 kW

(iii) Equipment load (all sensible): Qs,equip = 1.50 kW.

(iv) Ventilation / fresh air load:
Fresh air volume flow rate: V̇a = 50 × 10 = 500 L/s = 0.50 m3 /s
Sensible component (∆T = 40 − 25 = 15◦ C):

Qs,vent = 1.21 × 0.50 × 15 = 9.075 kW

Latent component (∆ω = (20 − 10)/1000 = 0.010 kg/kg):

QL,vent = 3010 × 0.50 × 0.010 = 15.05 kW

(v) Structural heat gain (walls/roof/glass conduction): Qs,struct = 5.00 kW (given).

Summary and Totals:

Source Sensible (kW) Latent (kW)

Occupants 3.75 2.75
Lighting 1.60 —
Equipment 1.50 —
Ventilation air 9.075 15.05
Structural 5.00 —
Total 20.925 17.80

38.725
Qtotal = Qs + QL = 20.925 + 17.80 = 38.725 kW = = 11.01 TR
3.517
Key observation: The ventilation latent load (15.05 kW) is the single largest contrib-
utor — nearly 39% of the total load! This is typical in hot, humid climates (like coastal
India). This is why energy-efficient buildings use heat recovery ventilators (HRVs) and
demand-controlled ventilation to minimise the latent load from fresh air.

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10 Summary of Thermodynamic Cycles

Cycle Working Key Efficiency / COP Applications

Fluid

Carnot Any (ideal) η = 1 − TL /TH Theoretical benchmark

Otto Air–fuel mix η = 1 − 1/rγ−1 Petrol / gasoline SI engines

1 rcγ−1
Diesel Air + in- η =1− · Diesel CI engines
rγ−1 γ(rc − 1)
jected fuel
Rankine Water / η = Steam power plants
steam (h3 − h4 ) − (h2 − h1 )
h3 − h2
(γ−1)/γ
Brayton Air (gas) η = 1 − 1/rp Gas turbines, jet engines
h1 − h 3
VCRS Refrigerant COP = Refrigerators, A/C
h2 − h 1
VARS Refrig. + ab- COP ≈ QE /QG Absorption chillers
sorbent

Table 2: Summary of all thermodynamic cycles covered in these lecture notes.

Key Takeaways
Power cycles convert heat into work. Higher source temperatures and lower sink tem-
peratures improve efficiency. Real cycles always have lower efficiency than Carnot due to
irreversibilities.
Refrigeration cycles transfer heat from cold to hot using work input (VCRS) or heat in-
put (VARS). COP quantifies their performance. VCRS dominates domestic/commercial
applications; VARS is preferred when waste heat or solar energy is available.
Psychrometry is essential for A/C design. The psychrometric chart is the engineer’s
primary tool for analysing moist-air processes. Cooling and dehumidification is the pri-
mary A/C process in tropical/humid climates.
A/C load estimation involves summing sensible and latent loads from occupants, light-
ing, equipment, ventilation, and structural heat gain. In humid climates, the ventilation
latent load is often the single largest component.

Prepared by Dr. Saketh Athkuri for ME2011E – Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIT Calicut
Image credits: Otto cycle and Brayton cycle diagrams – NASA Glenn Research Center; Rankine cycle schematic – Mahdi et al.,
ResearchGate.

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