Causes: How are diseases transmitted?

Describe a variety of infectious diseases caused by pathogens

Disease: Any condition that adversely affects the normal functioning of a living organism
Pathogens: A biological agent that causes infectious disease
Signs: Features that may be observed in the patient
Symptoms: Features apparent to only the patient

-​ The likelihood of an organism developing an infectious disease depends on the balance between:
-​ Pathogenicity: Pathogenic burden/attack
-​ Defence capabilities of an organism
Investigate Modes of transmission

For a disease to spread, a ‘chain of infection’ must be present:

-​ Host is susceptible to disease
-​ Pathogen is capable of causing the disease
-​ A mode of transmission

Direct Contact: Transmission by direct contact occurs when is is physical contact between host and non-infected organism
-​ Touching, sexual contact, contact with nasal secretions, contact with bodily fluids, prenatal, perinatal
Indirect contact; Transmission by indirect contact is when there is no direct contact between host and non-infected
-​ Airborne transmission, touching infected surface, contamination, unsterilised equipment, vectors
Vector: Type of indirect transmission whereby an arthropod transmits a pathogen to a non-infected organism
-​ Malaria, dengue fever

Investigate the transmission of a disease during an epidemic - Equine Influenza

Cause: EI virus (EIV). Symptoms include fever, nasal discharge, cough etc.
Transmission:
-​ Directly between infected horses via bodily fluids
-​ Indrectly: Through humans who carry EIV via contaminated shores, clothing, equipment etc.
Management:
-​ Statewide lockdown on movement of all horses, which eventually became nationwide to prevent further spread
-​ Horse properties were quarantined
Control of future outbreaks:
-​ Vaccinations deemed ineffective as it won’t work against mutant strands of EIV and will just delay detection
-​ Restrict importation to those from approved countries
-​ Quarantine procedures
-​ Public educations for those working in the horse industry
-​ Biosecurity training
Procedure:
IV, DV, Controlled variables, control experiment, safety protocols, gathering data, calculate quantitative data, repetition for reliabilty

Investigate the work of Robert Koch and Louis Pasteur, to explain the causes and transmissions of infectious diseases

Koch’s Postulates: The principles that Robert Koch used to identify specific micro-organisms as the cause for a specific disease
1.​ The same micro-organism must be present in every diseased host
2.​ The micro-organism must be isolated and cultured in the laboratory and accurately described and recorded
3.​ When a pure culture sample is inoculated in a healthy organism, the host must develop the same symptoms as the original host
4.​ The micro-organism must be able to be isolated from the second host and identified as the same as the original species
Louis Pasteur: Made invaluable contributions to the study of infectious diseases

Swanneck flask experiment: Used to prove that microbes are carried in the air, thus disproving spontaneous generation

Assess the causes and effects of diseases on agricultural production

Factors contributing to the risk of infectious disease:

-​ Increased mobility of human population
-​ Pathogens can be carried by humans
-​ Rise of industrial type agriculture
-​ Higher risk of disease as there is a higher stocking density of humans
-​ Changing patterns of land use
 -​ Deforestation
-​ Loss of habitat can bring vectors into closer proximity
-​ Climate Change
-​ Antibacterial resistance
-​ Loss of genetic diversity
CASE STUDY

Disease Cause (pathogens, risk factors) Effect (social and economic impacts)

Panama -​ Caused by a fungus which is directly -​ Cavendish bananas were found to be resistant to
Disease in transmitted to banana plant panama, thus they were chosen over other
bananas -​ Enters through the roots and blocks xylem, banan species. Constitutes 50% of banana
causing wilting and death production
-​ New strain of fungus developed, to which the
cavendish is no longer resistant, thus
necessitating the production of GMOS

Newcastle -​ Contagious disease caused by the NDV -​ Immense loss of poultry

Disease (newcastle disease virus) -​ Restrictions on exports
-​ Affects poultry -​ Impacts economic drastically
-​ Spread of disease exacerbated by -​ E.g. NDV outbreak in USA cost over 230 million
increasing animal density associated with dollars and the killing of 3 million birds
battery cage farming

Compare the adaptations of different pathogens that facilitate their entry into and transmission between hosts

For a pathogen to successfully establish an infection, it must find a way to adhere to the host cell, colonise host tissue, spread to other
tissue, and persist in the host long enough to reproduce
1.​ Enter host
2.​ Multiply in host tissue
3.​ Resist or not stimulate host defence mechanisms
4.​ Damage the host

Pathogen Entry Transmission

Influenza -​ Possesses specific H and N -​ Influenza virus particles are able to carried by airborne
surface proteins which can bind to droplets which are expelled when someone sneezes, and
the receptor proteins on epithelial can stay in the air for hours, increasing the chance of
cells that line the back of the someone inhaling the virus and thus facilitating
throat, allowing it to be transmission
endocytosed and enter a host cell -​ Effective indirect transmission
to hijack it
-​ Inside the cell, it is hidden from
innate and adaptive immune
system

Malaria -​ Malaria protozoa takes advantage -​ Can be transmitted human - to - human via airborne
of vector transmission by entering particles
a host when its vector (mosquito)
bites a human host

Response to Pathogens : How does a plant or animal respond to infection

Analyse responses to the presence of pathogens by assessing the physical and chemical changes

Passive Plant Defenses

Physical -​ Thick cuticle prevents pathogen from entering

 -​ Bark prevents pathogen from reaching the food source in the phloem
-​ Vertical hanging leaves prevents the accumulation of a water film, thereby preventing pathogens from
forming reservoirs on the leaves
-​ Closed stomatas which prevents pathogen entry

Chemical -​ Enzymes which break down pathogens

-​ Chemicals that reduce bacterial growth e.g. glucosides and saponins
Active Plant Defenses

Pathogen Recognition -​ Can detect pathogens through certain physical and chemical signals

Rapid action response -​ Upon pathogen recognition, certain genes are expressed
-​ Release of h2o2 in a oxidative burst can kill microbes
-​ Cell wall apposition, in which the cell wall is reinforced
-​ Apoptosis

Delayed action response -​ Lysozyme-like chemicals have antiomicrobial actions

-​ Repairment of wounds
The Response of Eucalyptus Plant to Myrtle Rust fungus

Myrtle rust is a fungal disease which attacks the soft, growing leaves and stems of eucalyptus trees. The pathogen is transmitted
naturally by wind and water and uses insects and animals as mechanical vectors. An infected plant may have the following symptoms:
yellowed leaves, premature falling of leaves, defoliation of branches and stunted growth.

Passive (always present) Active (induced by pathogen presence)

Physical -​ Lignified and pectinified cell walls prevent -​ In response to fungal invasion, cell walls can
entry be further reinforces with structural proteins
-​ Drooping leaves removes film of water which and lignin (delayed response)
may be a reservoir for pathogen
-​ Thick waxy cuticle helps prevent entry

Chemical -​ Eucalyptus oil is antimicrobial and always -​ Releases ROS (hydrogen peroxide) which kill
present in leaf tissue invading pathogen
-​ Pathogen is detected by PRRs (protein
recognition receptors)
-​ Eucalyptus plants secrete salicylic acid (SA)
(used for fungal growth inhibition and as a
initiator for the plant immune response)

Animal Defenses: Innate immunity is present at birth and its responses to pathogens are non-specific and include chemical/physical
barriers (1st line) and cellular responses (2nd line). First-line defences include skin (physical), tears (chemical) or sphincters (biological)

2nd Line defences - when pathogens get past the 1st-line defences
Inflammation Cellular attack

Phagocytosis Consumption of pathogen

Apoptosis Programmed cell death to seal off pathogens

Fever (pyrexia) Increase body heat renders the environment unsuitable for pathogen

Antigens: Any molecule that the body recognises as foreign and that triggers an immune response (markers)

Immunity: How does the human immune system respond the exposure to pathogens

Investigate and model the innate and adaptive immune system in the human body
Innate immune system: Pre-programmed genetic immune response

Lymphatic System: Consists of lymph (milky fluid), lymph nodes, lymph vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils. Lymph vessels form a one-way
drainage system from all parts of the body back to a point near the heart. During infections, pathogens enter lymph fluid and transported
the lymph nodes where they are filtered out.
White blood cell:

Physical Barriers
Epithelial Tissues -​ Skin
-​Well supplied by blood which contributes to its effectiveness as a barrier to disease by
providing access for WBCs
-​ Keratin is tough and resistant to bacterial enzymes
-​ Upper layer cell exfoliation takes pathogens with them
-​ Physically prevents the pathogen from entering bloodstream
-​ Mucous membranes
-​ Cell junctions anchor epithelial cells together more effectively, increasing cohesion and
restricting access
-​ Traps invading microbes so that cilia can sweep the foreign bodies out of the body
-​ Tight junctions present in the blood-brain barrier restricts the diffusion of bacteria into the
brain

Sphincters Physically seals off compartments in the body to reduce likelihood of pathogen invasion

Mucus Traps pathogens

Cell death Cells around an infected site die. The wall of dead cells forms a capsule called the granuloma. The cells
inside the granuloma die, causing destruction of pathogens that are infecting them.

Vomiting/Urination/Di -​ Expulsion of pathogens in the GI tract is facilitated by vomiting and diarrhoea

arrhoea -​ Increased urination flushes out pathogens in the bladder
Chemical barriers

Urine -​ Acid pH allows phagocytes to work best

-​ Antimicrobial peptides are secreted by cells lining the urinary tract to prevent binding of the pathogen to
epithelial cells

Saliva -​ Antimicrobial agents

Tears -​ Tear film contains AMPs and enzymes

Inflammation At the site of infections, cells produce histamines (“alarm signals”) that trigger vasodilation and vascular permeability,
thus increasing blood flow to the stie of infection, causing it to become hot, red, swollen and painful. Increased
permeability allows WBCs to ienter the tissues to attack the pathogens.

-​ Phagocytes a type of WBC (neutrophil, macrophages and dendritic cells) that are attracted to site of infection
through chemotaxis
Pyrogens increase body temperature, inhibiting growth of pathogens and inactivates pathogenic enzymes and toxins
and increased rate at which biochemical reactions occur

Phagocytosis Process by which phagocytes completely engulf a pathogen (specialised WBCs). Types include: neutrophils,
macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells

Neutrophils: Fast acting phagocytes

Monocytes: Differentiates into macrophages and dendritic cells and are long lasting. When an pathogen is destroyed,
the antigen is presented on its surface
Dendritic cell: Act as antigen-presenting cells

Complement -​ Produced in liver cells and macrophages

proteins -​ Attatch to antibody-antigen complex and signals phagocytes to destroy pathogens

Vaginal -​ Contains Lactobacillus which causes the environment to be slightly acidic, making it unfavourable to invading
Cavity bacteria or other pathogens
-​ Microflora outcompetes other bacteria for space and resources, causing bacteria to die out
 PREVENTION AND CONTROL MEASURES OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment strategies for the control of infectious diseases

Antibiotics are chemicals which inhibit, destroy or prevents the growth of bacteria. Most of our antibiotics are produced by
soil bacteria and fungus.
Bactericidal antibiotics kill microbess directly by damaging the cell wall or membrane (penicillin)
Bacteriostatic antibiotics do not kill, but prevent replication (rifampin) or inhibit translation (erythromycin)
Broad spectrum antibiotics (tetracycline) are used when the identity of a pathogen is unknown, however due to their
unspecificity, they can target a host’s microflora.
Bacterial resistance limits the effectiveness in controlling outbreaks as mutations in bacteria confer resistance to antibiotics
and thus they survive and reproduce, producing resistant strains. Overuse of antibiotics and not completing full courses
have contributed to this issue.
Antibiotics work by eliminating the pathogen from the body (or just enough for the immune system to take care of the rest)
so that the individual cannot transmit the pathogen to anyone else, thus controlling the spread of disease. Bacterial
resistance limits its effectiveness as antibiotics become worse at targeting specific pathogens, thus antibiotics as a whole is
limited in effectiveness.

Features Anti Virals Antibiotics

Mechanism -​ Inhibits viral transcription and translation -​ Bactericidal: Directly kills bacteria by
interfering with the cell wall (lysis)
-​ Bacteriostatic: Interferes with ribosomes
and DNA replication machinery, limiting
its growth

Advantages -​ Limits viral load by preventing viral replication, -​ Can reduce pathogen load, increasing
therefore limiting symptom severity and chance of survival and limiting symptom
increasing chance of survival severity
-​ Less viral load means lower chance of viral -​ Helps the immune system clear
transmission infection as there is less bacteria to
-​ Can lead to faster recovery rate as the eliminate
immune system has less virus to attack -​ Target cells structures not found in
mammalian cells (cell walls)
-​ Can cure and treat infection
-​ Limits pathogenic load, therefore lower
chance of transmission

Disadvantages -​ Viruses can mutate, rendering antivirals -​ Misuse leads to antibiotic resistance
ineffective through natural selection, making a
-​ Expensive to research and manufacture, and disease untreatable, thus new
puts burden on health care system antibiotics need to be made (time and
-​ Cannot cure an infection, only suppress cost)
-​ Inaccessible -​

Antivirals are drugs that cure or control viral infections. Most antivirals do not kill viruses but inhibit their replication. SOme
prevent them from entering cells, others prevent them from releasing their DNA or splicing their DNA into the genome.
Some antivirals can’t CURE viral infections, but rather limit the severity of symptoms. E.g. Acyclovir targets HSV by
inactivating DNA polymerase preventing ruther viral DNA synthesis. It reduces symptoms, duration of viral shedding and
time taken to heal lesions, thus helping control the spread of the disease.
Antivirals are somewhat effective as they slow the progression of the virus in the body and therefore help control the spread
of the disease. However antivirals do not cure or kill viral infection, therefore they are limited in the respect. Antivirals are
often expensive and inaccessible to the public, especially those in underdeveloped countries.
Overall, pharmaceuticals can be an effective measure to control the spread of disease, however things like antibiotic
resistance, cost of pharmaceuticals, the fact that some diseases are incurable, and that antivirals do not kill pathogens fully
are factors that limit its effectiveness in controlling the spread of disease.
“Is prevention better than a cure/treatment?”

Prevention Treatment

Definition Measures that stop the occurrence of a Measures that resolve the symptoms of the disease or
disease in the population in the first place kill the pathogen that infects the infected individual

Advantages -​ Often very inexpensive and can be -​ Helps with symptoms of an already infected
used for any disease individual
-​ Herd Immunity from vaccines gives -​ Can help cure an infected individual as
protection to unvaccinated, antibiotics e.g. Penicillin can kill bacteria that is
immunocompromised people infecting
-​ Don’t have to deal with the -​ They help control the spread/minimise
side-effects of antiobiotics/antivirals transmission as it slows the progression of
like nausea etc. pathogens in the body

Disadvantages -​ Doesn’t help with individuals that are -​ Antibiotics and antiviral are very expensive
already infected -​ Not all infectious diseases have antibiotics or
-​ With increasing international travel, antivirals by which it can be cured (e.g. HIV)
some prevention methods become -​ Can lead to antibiotic/antiviral resistance if full
less effective as pathogens are courses aren’t complete or if they are overused
introduced into a population -​ Viruses may mutate and thus may be resistant
-​ Some diseases are asymptomatic, to treatment measures
therefore asymptomatic people are -​ Some treatments only alleviate symptoms,
less likely to quarantine themselves though do not cure a disease by eliminating the
and therefore introduce a pathogen to pathogen
a population -​ Potential side effects
-​ Pathogens can mutate, rendering
vaccines ineffective or necessitating
the production of new virus

Features DNA viruses RNA viruses

Genetic Information DNA RNA

Genetic stability Double stranded DNA reduces chance of Low genetic stability, as mRNA is single
mutations, errors, environmental damage to stranded and vulnerable to mutagens and
nuclear core mRNA isn’t proofread

Long term survival DNA can be integrated into host genome via Only sometimes integrated if reverse
integrase, resulting in long term persistence transcriptase is present.

Adaptability Low adaptability as DNA has low mutation rate High adaptability as mRNA is frequently
mutated

Replication rate Slow replication as DNA replication is slow Very quick

Genome size DNA is larger, thus can contain more genes Smaller, less genes

Disease Scientific Name of Pathogen

Anthrax Bacillus anthracis

 Monkeypox Orthopoxvirus monkeypox

Myrtle Rust Austropuccinia psidii

Panama Disease Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) Foot-and-mouth disease virus

Mad Cow Disease Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)

Bush Medicine Definition: The usage of bushes, shrubs and animal/plant products by Indigenous people for health and
medicinal purposes

Kakadu Plums
Traditional usages: Used for food for tribes, used to treat minor colds
Modern Usages: Discoveries into his extremely high vitamin C content has lead to its commercialization as an
inti-inflammatory super food
Protection:
-​ Laws that enable Indigenous people to still have access to Kakadu plums as they are the intellectual owners and
deserve to be able to still benefit froom it
-​ Prevent patenting which would make it less accessible for Indigenous people
-​ Kakadu Plums shouldn’t be over farmed or put at risk of extinction, as it hold significant importance to identity and
knowledge needs to be preserved for future generation
Protection:
-​ They are the intellectual owners, therefore Indigenous people should be credited
-​ Should be given royalties as they contributed to their discovery, many centuries of knowledge and wisdom led to its
discovery, therefore must be recognised
-​ Intergenerational nurturing has taken place to preserve Kakadu plum, therefore their efforts must be acknowledge

SMOKE BUSH
Traditional usages: Smoke ceremonies to ward of bad spirits, treat minor infection
Modern Usages: Shown to possess coconovurone which shown to kill small HIV infection