I

NTHENAMEOFTHEALMI
GHTY

ACOURSEI
NGENERALLI
NGUI
STI
CS

SESSI
ON15i
nBr
ief
:

Sy
ntax:

Thesetofpr i
ncipl
es,orconsti
tuti
verules, accor
dingt owhichwor dsarecombi nedi nto
sentencesi nalanguageiscalledthesy ntaxofthel [Link] hesy nt
axof
his/[Link] est hespeaker stoproduceandunder standsent ences
aswel lastor ecogni
zecertai
npr oper
ti
esofsent ences, andeventomakej udgement saboutthe
grammat i
cali
[Link],ofcourse,thegrammarofal anguager esidesinthe
mi [Link] i
pti
vegr ammarpr oducedbyt heli
nguistisbestreferredtoasa
theoryorhy pothesi
s,ofwhatthegr ammaroft helanguager eall
yis.

Atheoryofsyntaxisatheoryofspeakersknowl edgeofwhattheymayhav etheopportunit

yto
[Link], amongot herthings,bei
ngabletoputwordstogethertoform
[Link] hatconcernsthe
str
uctureofphrasesandsentencesIscall
edsy [Link]
acti
crul
esinagr ammarmustat
l
eastaccountfor:

[Link] CALITYOFSENTENCES: Wheny ouknowalanguage,youknowwhi ch

combinat
ionsorstri
ngsofmorphemesarepermit
tedbythesynt
acticr
ulesandwhi charenot
.
Thosestr
ingsthatconfi
net
othesyntact
icr
ules,
arecall
edthegrammaticalsentencesoft
he
l
anguage,andthestri
ngsofmorphemesthatdonotarecal
ledungrammat i
cal.

[Link]
NGOFWORDSANDMORPHEMES

[Link]:
Syntact
icknowledgegoesbeyondbei
ngabl
et odecidewhich
str
ingsaregr
ammat
ical
andwhicharenot.I
taccount
sforthedoubl
emeaning,orambiguit
yof
expressi
ons.

[Link]:Thefactt
hatsentenceswithdif
fer
entst
ruct
urescanhavethesame
meaningisr
ecogni
zedbythespeakersofalanguageandthespeaker
s'knowl
edgeofsynt
ax
enabl
esthem t
ounderst
andthesentenceswit
ht hesamemeaning.

[Link]
CALANDLOGI
CALRELATI
ONSWI
THI
NASENTENCE:
Anotheraspectofsyntaxi
nvol
vesthefuncti
onthatwordsandphrasesser
veinsent
[Link]
speakersofthelanguageknowthesyntact
icfunct
ionsofsent
enceelement
s.

[Link]:Speaker
scr
eat
iveabi
l
ityt
opr
oduceandunder
standanyofani
nfi
nit
esetof
possi
blesentences.

SURFACESTRUCTURE:

I
tcanberoughl
ydescri
bedasthoseaspect
softhesynt
axwi
thi
nthesent
encet
hatcanbe
det
ermi
nedbyInvest
igat
ingi
tswit
tenorspokenfor
m.

CONSTI
TUENTSTRUCTURES:

EverysentenceinEnglish,
orinanyotherlanguage,i
saconst ructi
[Link] el
y
random stri
ngsofwor ds,r
ather
,sentencesareconstructedofsmal l
erunit
sknownas
consti
[Link]
vespeakersofEnglishknowt heconstituentstructur
eofthesentencesin
thei
[Link] todisti
nguishsent encesasungr ammaticalor
gremmat i
cal,dependi
ngonwhet herthesentencesv i
olateconst i
tuentstr
ucturepat
[Link]
s
sameknowl edgeaccountsfort
hespeaker s'
abili
tyt
ojudgesomesent encesasambi guous.

CONSTI TUENTTYPES: Juntasspeakersofl

anguagecanrecogni
zetheconsti
tuantstr
uctur
eof
asentence,theycanal
soidenti
fyvar
iousconst
ituent
[Link]
eofthe
di
ff
erencesi nthenumberofwordsinthesephrases,
speaker
sofEngli
shwill
recognizethem al
l
asbasicall
ysimil
ar.

[Link]
elenssol
dier
sandpol
i
tici
ans

b.t
hef
ather

c.t
hey
oungchi
l
dren

d.t
hezoo

CONSTI
TUENTSTRUCTURERULES:

A)S==>NPVP: Thi
srulest
atest
hatconst
it
uent
sofasent
ence(
S)ar
eanounphr
ase(
NP)
andaver
bphr
ase(VP).

B)NP ==>(
Art
)(Adv
.ofDegr
ee)(
Ad]
)N

C)VP ==> V(
NP.
..
)(PP.
..
)

D)PP ==> P NP

Ifwehy pot
hesizet
hatunder
lyi
ngthespeaker
'sabil
it
ytoproduce,underst
and,
andjudge
sentencesisknowl
edgeofthi
skinddescri
bedbyr ul
esli
ke(A),(
B).(C),
and(D);t
henwecan
accountforsomeofthespeakers'
li
ngui
sti
cabil
it
ies.
 GENERATI
VEGRAMMAR

Noam Chomskyi sper hapst hemosti nfl

uentialfigureint he20t hcenturyinguist
[Link]
att
empt edt opr oduceapar t
iculartypeofgrammarwhi chwoul dhav eav eryexpli
citsystem of
rul
esspeci fyingwhatcombi nationsofbasicel ement swoul dresul ti
nwell-f
ormedsent ences.
Thisexplicitsy stem ofr ules,itwaspr oposed, woul dhav emuchi ncommonwi ththetypesof
rul
esf oundi nmat hemat i
[Link] smat hemutical pointofv iewhel pstoexplainthemeani ngof
theterm gener ativewhi chi st odescr i
bethiskindofgr ammer .Chomskyi niti
atedtheer aof
generati
vel ingui stics,inthathedi rect
edattentiont owar dsther uleswhichunder li
eaper son' s
knowledgeoft heirl [Link] anguagei ssomewhatl i
keachess- player,
whoi nordert opl ayt hegame, hashadt olearnr uleswhi chspeci fywhichmov esarepossi ble,
andwhi char enot .Theser ul
escr ystal
li
zetheessenceoft [Link] mi
larl
y,thesetofr ulesor
'
grammar 'under l
yingal anguagei sinChomsky '
sv iew,ofgr eaterinter
estthanact ualutt
er ances
aspeakerhappenst omake.

Agr ammarofthi
st y
pemusthaveanumberofpr opert
ies,whichcanbedescri
bedinthe
f
ollowingt
[Link] l
lgenerat
eallt
hewel l
-formedsy nt
act
icstr
uct
uresofthe
l
anguageandf ai
ltogener
ateanyil
l-
for
medst r
[Link]
nit
enumberof
r
ules,butwi
llbecapabl
eofgenerat
inganinfi
nit
enumberofwel l-
for
medst r
uct
ures.

Inanattemptt odescri
bethenativ
espeaker'
sknowl edgeofsyntax,l
i
ngui
stsusedasetof
consti
tuentstruct
urerul
es,whichgenerat
esentencesandpr ovi
dethosesentenceswi
th
str
ucturaldescri
pti
[Link]
tuentst
ruct
urerulesref
lectonlyasmallpartoft
heEngl
i
sh
specker'
sknowl edgeofsyntax.

S==>NPVP

VP==>V(
NP)

NP==>(
Art
)(AdJ)N(
S)

PP==>PNP

Accordi
ngt oChomsky,suchamodeli
sincomplet
e.I
tcontainsatleastt
woser iousf
[Link]
rst
,
werequireanenormousnumberofrul
esinordert
ogenerateallt
hesent encesofEngli
sh.
Second,itgr
oupstoget
hersent
enceswhicharedi
ssi
mil
ar,andsepar at
esot her
swhichare
si
milar.

Hami
disanxi
oust
ohel
p. Yest
erdayi
tsnowed.

Hami
disdi
ff
icul
ttohel
p. I
tsnowedy
est
erday
.

NP V Adj i
nfi
nit
ive
Chomskyarguedthatagrammarwhichprovi
desonlyonestr
uctur
eforsentenceswhicharef
elt
toberadi
cal
lydi
ff
erentbynat
ivespeaker
s,anddi
ffer
entst
ructur
esforsentenceswhicharef
elt
tobesimi
lar
,wasabadgr [Link]
ormati
onalmodel,
heclaims,overcomesthese
probl
ems.

DeepandSur
faceSt
ruct
ures

Chomsky '
ssol uti
ont otheproblem wast osuggestt
hateverysentencehastwotevelsof
st
ructure,onewhi chisobv i
ousont hesur
far
e,andtheotherwhichisdeepandabst r
act.
Chomskyaccount edf ort
hedifferencebetween"Hezeki
ahisanxioustohelp"and"Hezekiahis
di
ffi
culttohelp"bysuggest i
ngt hatwear edeal
ingwithsent
enceswhi chhaveasimilarsurf
ace
st
ructurebutdi f
ferentdeepstructures.

Asimil
arexpl
anati
onaccount
sfortheambi
gui
tyi
n:"
Hezer
kiahwasreadyt
oeat
"wher
etwo
di
ff
erentdeepst
ructur
esarer
eali
zedbyasi
ngl
esurf
acest
ructur
e.

Thesituat
ionwoul
dberever
sedforpai
rssuchas:"Yest
erdayi
tsnowed"and"Snowedi
t
yest
erday.
"Heretwodi
ff
erentsur
facest
ruct
uresshareacommendeepst ruct
ure.

I
fev erysent
encehast wol evelsinsomeway ,
Chomskysuggest edthatdeepst r
uct ur
esare
relat
edtosurfacestructuresbypr ocessescalledtransfor
[Link] ructureis
transf
ormedintoit
sr elatedsurfacestructurebytheappl i
cati
onofoneormor et ransfor
mati
ons.
Wear enowabl etogiveadef init
ionofat ransformationalgr
ammar .Iti
sagr ammarwhi chsets
upt wolevel
sofstructure,andrelatestheselev el
sbymeansofoper ati
onsknownas
transt
ormati
ons.

Atransfor
mati
onalgrammarhast hreemajorcomponent
s,asyntact
iccomponent(deali
ngwit
h
sy
nt ax)
,aphonol
ogicalcomponent(deal
i
ngwi t
hsounds)andasemant iccomponent(deal
i
ng
wi
thmeani ng)
.Howev er,i
tdi
ff
ersfr
om othergrammarsi
nthatthesyntacti
ccomponentisspl
i
t
i
ntot wocomponents:thebaseandthetr
ansformat
ional
rul
es.
IntheStandar
dTheor
y,thebasecontai
nedphrasest
ructur
e(PS)rulesf
orthefor
mati
onofdeep
str
uctur
es,andal
soalexicon,
from whi
chwordswereslott
edint
ot heoutputoft
hePSrul
es.

Thedeepstruct
urest henpassedtothetransformati
onalrul
esinordertobeconvertedi
ntothe
surf
acestr
[Link]
nt,t
hesurfacest r
uct
ureofasent encewasst i
l
labst
ract:i
tdi
dnot
[Link] t
hbyt hephonological
component,whichconvert
ed
eachsurf
acestructureint
oaphoneticrepresentat
[Link],t
ransf
ormati
onscouldnot
changemeaning,sot hedeepstr
ucturesweref eddir
ectl
yint
ot hesemanticcomponent,which
gaveasemant i
cinterpret
ati
onofeach.
Int
erpreti
veSemant i
csisat heor yabouttheplaceofmeani nginamodel ofTransfor
mat i
onal
Generati
veGr ammar .I
tcont ai
nsameani ngcomponentcal l
edsemanti
ccomponent ,
asapart
ofthegrammar .Thiscomponentcont ai
nsrul
eswhi chint
erprett
hemeani ngofsentences.
Int
erpreti
veSemant i
csstatest hatSemant i
cinter
pretat
ionisdependentuponsy nt
acti
c
str
[Link],
bychangi ngt hearrangementofwor ds,t
hemeani ngofthesentencechanges.

I
nter
pret
iveSemant
ics:

[Link]
andar
dTheor
y:Meani
ngi
satt
hel
evel
ofdeepst
ruct
ure(
DS.
)(Al
socal
l
edAspect
sModel
)

[Link]
endedStandar
dTheor
y:Meani
ngi
satt
hel
evel
ofbot
hdeepst
ruct
ure(
DS.
)andsur
face
str
uct
ure(SS.
)

[Link]
isedExt
endedSt
andar
dTheor
y:Meani
ngi
satt
hel
evel
ofS.
S(Al
socal
l
edTr
acet
heor
y)

Generat
iveSemant i
ecs:I
ngener
ati
vesemant i
cs,sy
ntacti
crul
esoper
ateonthemeaningofa
sent
encet oproduceit
sform.I
nint
erpr
eti
vesemant i
cs,semanti
crul
esoper
ateonthewords
andsyntacti
cstruct
ureofasent
encetoreveali
tsmeaning.

Tr
ansf
ormat
ions

Pr ev
iously,wear guedt hatweneedt oposi tanaddi ti
onal levelofstr
uct ureknownasDeep
structur
ewhi chcanbebr oughtt othelev elofsurfacest r
uct ur
ebymeansofsome
transfor
mat [Link] wol evel
sofst ructure(S-structureandD- structure)ar
eint
er-
rel
ated
byasetofr ulesknownt echnicallyasTr ansformat i
[Link] r
ansformational rulei
sanoperat
ion
thatconv ertsaninputt reestructureintoadi fer
entst ructurebyadding, deletingorr
ear
rangi
ng
mat eri
[Link] i
onal r
ulesconsi stofast ructuraldescr i
pti
onoft hei nputandthe
structur
al changet hattheyef fect.

1)Pr
onomi
nal
i
zat
ionTr
ansf
ormat
ionr
epl
acesaspeci
fi
cnounphr
asewi
thapr
onomi
nal
for
m.

Johni
stoof
arawayf
orany
onet
oseeJohn==>Johni
stoof
arawayf
orany
onet
oseehi
m.

2)It
-del
eti
onTransf
ormat
ion:
"Marti
nsawi
tBobcheatinthetest
"under
goesi
t-
del
eti
on
tr
ansfor
mat i
ontobecome"Mart
insawBobcheati
nthetest
."

3)EquiNPDeleti
onTransfor
mationisanobli
gator
yonethroughwhichundercer
tai
ncondit
ions,
thesecondoccur
anceofanounphr aseinasentencecontai
ningt
wov er
bswhichhavethe
samesubjecti
sav oi
[Link]
derasentencesuchasbelow:

Dav
idwant
sPaul
tol
ockt
hedoor
.

Nowsupposethatthesubj
ectoft
hesecondcl
ausebecomest
hesameasthefi
rstone:"Dav
id
want
sDavidtolockthedoor
."I
nthi
scase,t
heSecondDavi
dmustbeobl
i
gator
il
ydeleted.
4)Pro-
for
m Del
eti
onTransf
ormat
ioni
sanopt
ional
processthroughwhi
chapronounmaybe
del
eted."
Johni
stoofarawaytot
oseeany
one."
==>"Johnistoofarawayt
osee."

5)TheAdject
iveI
nver
sionTr
ansf
ormat
ioni
sat
ransf
ormat
iont
hroughwhi
chadj
ect
ivei
smov
ed
bef
orethenoun.

a."MyclassmatewhoisJapaneselov
estr
ansf
ormat
ional
grammar
."I
fitunder
goesr
elat
ive
reduct
iontransf
ormat
ion,
theresul
twoul
dbe:

"
Mycl
assmat
eJapanesel
ovest
ransf
ormat
ional
grammar
."

Foll
owi
ngtherel
ati
vereduct
ionpr
ocessi
stheadj
ect
ivei
nver
siont
ransf
ormat
iont
hroughwhi
ch
theadj
ect
ivei
smov edbefor
ethenoun.

"
MyJapanesecl
assmat
elov
est
ransf
ormat
ional
grammar
."

[Link]
facest
ruct
ure,
"Johnistoofarawaytosee"i
spr
oducedf
rom t
heunder
lyi
ng(
deep)
str
uct
ure"
Johnisforf
araway-Johnseeanythi
ng.
"

ThefortoI
nser
ti
onTransf
ormat
ionappl
i
estothedeepstruct
uret
opr
oducet
hei
nter
medi
ate
st
ructur
e:Johnist
oofarawayf
orJohntoseeanyt
hing.

Equi
NPDel et
ionappl
iestor
emov
ethesecondoccur
anceofJohn,
yei
l
ding:
"Johni
stoof
ar
awayfort
oseeany t
hing.

Formostdi al
ect
s,thi
si sanintermediatestructur
e,thati
s,notgrammatical
.Ifnootherrul
e
appli
est othi
sst
ructure,theforDeleti
onTr ansfor
mat i
onwillappl
ytoproduce" Johnist
oof ar
awayt oseeanythi
ng."Butinadditiontothef orDeleti
onrul
e,theopti
onalPro-Form Del
eti
on
Transformati
encouldappl y
.Inthiscase,theresultwouldbet heot
hersentencewewantt o
generate:"
Johnistoof arawaytusee. '

Ref l
exivizat i
onTr ansformat i
onr ef er
st ousingar eflexivepr [Link] hesubj ectandt he
objectofasent encer efertot hesameper sonort hing,itisobl igatory:"
EarnestHemi ngway
ki
lledEar nestHemi ngway ."==>" ErnestHemi ngwayki ll
edhi msel f."Inothercases, i
tisan
optional el ementwhi chi saddedf oremphasi sandcanbedel etedwi thoutruiningt he
grammat icali
tystatusofasent ence: "Itoldhimt henewsmy sel f
."Imperativ
esmaycont ai
n
objects( ref l
exivepronouns) :1)Behav ey ourself
;2)Washy our [Link] efl
exiv epronounin
i
mper ativei syourself;t
hef oll
owi ngsent encesar eungr ammat ical:1)Behav emy self;(
2)Wash
hi
msel [Link] deri
ngoft heRef l
exi v
izati
onTr ansfor mationwi threspecttot heI mper ati
ve
Transf ormat i
oniscr uci
al: t
her eflexi
ver ulemustappl ybef oret hei mperati
ver [Link]
ng
wasr ev ersed, theimper ativerulewoul ddel eteyou, thereflexiver ulecouldnotappl ysincethere
woul dnol ongerbeasubj ectpronoun, andanungr ammat icalsent encewoul dbepr oduced.
Cor
rectOr
der
ing I
ncor
rectOr
der
ing

DeepSt
ruct
ure:
Youwi
l
lwashy
ou. Deepst
ruct
ure:
Youwi
l
lwashy
our
sel
f.

-
Ref
lexi
vi
zat
ionTr
ansf
ormat
ionappl
i
est
opr
oduce -
Imper
ati
veTransfor
mationappli
est
opr
oduce
*
Int
ermedi
ateStruct
ure:
washy ou
I
nter
medi
ateSt
ruct
ure:
Youwi
l
lwashy
our
sel
f
-
ref
lexi
vi
zat
iont
ransf
ormat
ionconnotappl
y
-I
mper
ati
veTr
ansf
ormat
ionappl
i
est
opr
oduce
*
Sur
faceSt
ruct
ure:
*Washy
ou
Sur
faceSt
ruct
ure:
Washy
our
sel
f.

TheRelativ
eReductioniTransformationi saprocessthr
oughwhichtherel
ativ
epr onounandt
he
verbtobemaybeopt i
onallydeleted."Theratinthemiddleoft
heboulevar
df r
ightenedmany
women. "Thissent
encewasor i
ginall
y,"theratwhichwasinthemiddleoftheboulevard
fr
ight
enedmanywomen. "Thisphenomenoni salsocall
edWhiz-
delet
ion(wh-+t obev er
b
Delet
ion).

Parti
cleMovementTr ansf
ormationisatr
ansformat
ioninwhichthepart
icleofaphrasal
verbis
putaftert
[Link]
sisanopt i
onalt
ransf
ormati
on,however,i
ftheobjecti
spronominali
zed,
i
.[Link] onoun,part
icl
emov ementwill
becomeobligator
y."Heputonhishat"or"He
puthishaton"butonly"Heputiton"andnot"Heputonit.
"

Ext
raposit
ionTr ansfor
mat i
onismovingaword,
phrase,orcl
ausetoaposi
ti
oninasent
ence
whi
chi sdif
ferentfrom theposit
ioni
tusual
l
yhas:Eat
inghamburgersi
sagreatf
un=====>I
tis
agreatfun,eati
nghambur ger
s.

That-i
nser
ti
oni
saddi
ngthewor
d"t
hat
"bef
oreanembeddedsent
ence:
Itsur
pri
sedev
ery
one
thatheanswer
edcor
rect
ly.

Rel
ati
vi
zat
ioni
sasetoftransfor
mati
onsinvol
vedi
ninser
tingar
elat
ivecl
ausei
nasent
ence:
Sar
ahissi
xfeett
all
,andSarahisabasket
ball
champion.

St
[Link]
ah,
Sar
ahi
sabasket
bal
lchampi
on,
issi
xfeett
all
.

St
[Link]
ah,
whoi
sabasket
bal
lchampi
on,
issi
xfeett
all
.
Conj
oini
ngist
hepr
ocessofcr
eat
ingaconst
ruct
ionbyl
i
nki
ngt
woormor
econst
it
uent
soft
he
sametype.

S==>Sconj
S(conj
S)ⁿ

NP

A)Myr oomateandhismot
herwer
eki
l
ledi
nanacci
dent
. NP Conj NP
(conj
oinednounphr
ase)

VP

B)Shest
udi
edhar
dbutf
ail
edt
hef
inal
exam. VP Conj VP

(
conj
oinedv
erbphr
ase)

Adj

c)Thatbl
ackandwhi
tesui
tsui
tsy
ou. Adj Conj Adj

(
conj
oinedadj
ect
ives)

Thesur facest
ructur
eofconj oinedconsti
tuentssuchasnounphr asesandv erbphrasesaret he
resultofthetr
ansformat i
onsthatapplytotheunderl
yingstr
uctur
espr oducedbyther ule:
S==>Sconj S(conjS)ⁿ.Thetransfor
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