I

NTHENAMEOFTHEALMI
GHTY

ACOURSEI
NGENERALLI
NGUI
STI
CS

SESSI
ON7i
nBr
ief
:

LanguageandI
dent
it
y:

[Link]
sicalI
dent
it
y

Cananyoft hedif
ferencesbetweenlanguagesbeexpl ainedbyr eferr i
ngdir
ect l
yt ot hephy sical
consti
tuti
onoft heusers?Thewayaper son’sphysicalcharacteristics—suchasv oice,accent ,
speechpat t
erns,andev engestur
es—r efl
ectaspect sofwhot heyar ecanbeexpl ainedt hr
ough
physi
cal i
dentit
[Link]
es, i
tshowshowourbodi esinf l
uencecommuni cat i
[Link]
example, f
actorsli
kegender,age,andr egionalbackgroundaf fectpr onunci
ation,tone, andst y
le
[Link] si
calaspectsofidentit
yhel pl
istenersrecogni zeandcat egorizespeaker s,
l
inki
ngl anguageuset [Link],phy sical ident
it
ypl aysani mpor tant
rol
einshapi ngbothhowweexpr essour selvesandhowot her sper cei v
eust hroughl anguage

[Link]
chol
ogi
calI
dent
it
y

Istherear el
ationshi pbetweenl anguagest r
ucturesorski l
l
sandsuchnot i
onsasmemor y,
att
ent i
on,perception, personalit
y ,
int
ell
igence, l
earni
ng, oranyotherrecogni zedpsy chol ogical
domai n?Howani ndi v i
dual’
sthought s,emot i
ons,atti
tudes,andsel f
-conceptar eexpr essed
thr
ought heiruseofl anguagecanbeel aboratedont hroughpsy chol
ogical i
dent i
tyinl anguage.
Itr
eflectstheinneraspect sofper sonalit
y—suchasconf i
dence,mood, orwor l
dview—whi ch
i
nfluencewor dchoi ce,tone,andcommuni cati
onst yl
[Link] e,aper sonwhof eels
confidentmayspeakasser t
ively,whil
esomeoneanxi ousmi ghtusemor ehesitantori ndirect
l
[Link] chologi cali
dentityshapeshowpeopl eexpressopi ni
ons,emot i
ons, and
rel
ationshi
ps, maki ngl anguagenotj ustat oolforcommuni cati
onbutal soami rr
oroft he
speaker’sinnerpsy chol ogi
cal state.

[Link]
aphi
calI
dent
it
y

Themostwi del
yr ecognizedfeaturesofl i
nguist
icidenti
tyarethosethatpoi
nttothe
geographicalori
ginsoft hespeaker [Link] lasdialect
s,canconveygeographical
i
nformationaboutt heirspeakers,butt hi
sinformationvari
esgreatl
y,dependi
ngont helanguage
ofwhichwear ethinki
[Link] aphical i
dent
ityinl
anguager ef
er st
ot hewayaperson’splaceof
ori
ginorresidencei nf
[Link] ef r
om di
ffer
entregionsorcountr
iesoftenuse
dist
inctaccents,di
alects,
vocabulary,andevengr ammat icalst
ruct
uresthatrefl
ecttheir
[Link] e,Engl
ishspeaker sfrom t
heUnitedStates,theUnited
Kingdom, andAustrali
ausedi f
ferentwor dsandpr onunciati
onsfort
hesameobj ectsorideas.
Theselinguist
icvari
ationshel
pi denti
fywheresomeonecomesf r
om andcreateasenseof
regi
onal bel
[Link],geographicalident
ityconnectslanguagetolocati
on,culture,
and
communi t
y.

Di
alect
,accent
,idi
olect
,andl
ect
.Isogl
osses

[Link]
hni
candNat
ionalI
dent
it
y

Whyshoul dlanguagebesuchasi gni

fi
cantindexofethni
cornati
onalist
icmov ements?One
reasonisundoubtedlyt
hatiti
ssuchawi despreadandev i
dentf
eatureofcommuni tyli
[Link]
chooseonel anguageoveranotherpr
ovidesani mmediat
eanduniversall
yrecogni
zedbadgeof
i
dentit
[Link]
hatlanguageprovidesaparti
cul
arl
yclearli
nkwiththepast-often
theonlydetail
edli
nkinthefor
m oflit
eratur
e.

Howpeopl eexpr esstheirmember shipinaparticularet

hnicgroupt hr
oughspeech,accent,
vocabular
y,orev enthechoi ceoflanguageit
selfisamat terofethnicident
ity
.Itr
efl
ectsshared
cult
uralher
itage,tradi
tions,[Link]
nstance, membersofanet hni
ccommuni t
ymayuse
specif
icwords, i
dioms, orpronunciati
onpatt
ernst hatmarktheirethnicbel
ongingand
str
engthengr oupsol i
darit
y.

I
nternati
onal ident
it
y,ont heotherhand,emergeswhenpeopl euselanguaget oconnectbeyond
t
heirnationalorethnicboundar i
[Link],usingEnglishasagloballanguageallows
i
ndividualstocommuni cateacrosscult
uresandexpr essasenseofbel ongingtothe
i
nternati
onal communi [Link],
ethni
candinternationali
denti
ti
esshowhowl anguagehelps
i
ndividualsbalancelocal cul
tur
alrootswit
hglobalinteract
ion.

[Link]
alI
dent
it
y

Onedoesnotneedt obeasoci oli

nguisttosensethatt hewaypeopl et al
khassomet hingtodo
wit
ht heirsocialpositi
onorl evelofeducati
[Link] i
denti
tyinlanguager ef
erst ohowpeopl e
uselanguaget oshowt heirmember shi
pinparti
cularsocialgroups,suchascl ass, professi
on,
agegr oup,orgender .Thewaywespeak—ourchoi ceofwor ds,tone,accent,
andst yle—can
si
gnal oursocialbackgr oundandt hecommunitieswebel ongt [Link] e,teenager smay
useslangt oidentif
ywi ththeirpeergroup,whil
epr ofessi
onalsmi ghtusef or
mal l
anguagei nthe
[Link] yref
lectssoci
ali
dentitybutalsohel psshapesoci alrelati
onships
andgr oupbelonging, showingwhowear eandhowwef i
tintosociety.

Soci
alst
atusandr
oles:

St
atusist
heposit
ionapersonhol
dsi
nthesoci
alst
ruct
ureofacommuni
ty-suchasapr
iest
,an
of
fi
cial
,awif
e,orahusband.
Rol
esaretheconvent
ional
modesofbehav
iort
hatsoci
etyexpect
saper
sont
oadoptwhen
hol
dingapart
icul
arst
atus.

Amongt
hechi
efmar
ker
sofsoci
alposi
ti
oni
sundout
edl
ylanguage.

Soci
alSol
idar
it
yanddi
stance

Oneoft hemosti mpor tantfunctionsofl anguagev ar

iati
oni stoenabl eindiv
idualstoidenti
fy
wit
hasoci algrouport osepar at
et hemsel vesf r
om [Link]
darit
yanddi stancerefertothe
wayslanguageexpr essescl osenessorsepar ati
onbet weenpeopl einsocialint
eracti
[Link]
sol
idari
tyisshownwhenspeaker susefriendly,inf
ormal,orinclusivelanguaget ocreateasense
ofunit
yandbel onging—f orexampl e,usi
ngf ir
stnames, sharedsl ang,orwar [Link]
di
stance,ontheot herhand, ismar kedbymor ef or
mal orpol i
telanguaget hatmai nt
ainsrespect
andboundaries,suchasusi ngt i
tlesorfor mal [Link] ingui
sticchoiceshelp
speakersmanager elati
onshi ps,showingwhet hertheywisht oemphasi zeclosenessand
equali
tyormaintaindi stanceandhi er
archy .

Di
glossi
a:

Hi
ghv
ari
ety

LowVar
iet
y

Perhapst hecl ear estuseofv ar i

etiesasmar kersofsoci alstructurei sthecaseofdi glossi a-a
l
anguagesi t
uat ioni nwhi chtwomar kedl ydivergentvar i
et i
es,eachwi t
hi t
sownsetofsoci al
functi
ons, coexi stasst andardst hr oughoutacommuni t
y .Diglossiar eferstoali
ngui sti
c
sit
uationinwhi cht wodisti
nctv arietiesoft hesamel anguagear eusedbyacommuni tyf or
dif
ferentpur [Link] ly
,onev arietyisconsi deredt he“ High”( H)v ariety
,usedinf ormal
setti
ngssuchaseducat i
on,li
teratur e,religi
on,andof ficialcommuni cation,whi
letheot heri sthe
“Low”( L)variety, usedinev er
y dayconv ersati
onandi nf ormal [Link] e, i
nAr abic-
speakingcount ries, ModernSt andar dAr abicservesast heHv ar
iety,whi l
eregi
onal dialectsact
asLv ar i
eti
[Link] glossi
ashowshowl anguagecanr eflectsoci al hier
ar chyandcultural nor ms
withi
nacommuni ty.

Sexi
sm

Languagecanhel ptomai ntai

nsocialattitudest owardsmenandwomen.I ngr ammar ,theissue
thathasattr
actedmostat tenti
onisthel ackofasex- neutral,t
hirdper sonsingularpronouni n
Engli
sh,especiall
yinitsuseaf t
erindefinitepronouns, [Link] sacopy ,hecanhav e
[Link] i
nl anguager efer
stothewaywor ds,expressions,orlinguisti
cstructur
escan
refl
ectorrei
nforceunequal at
ti
tudestowar dmenandwomen.I tappear swhenone
gender—usuallywomen—i smadei nvisi
bl e,stereotyped,ordev aluedthroughl anguageuse.
Examplesincludeusing“ man”t orepresental lhumans( asinmanki nd),assumingmal ef or
ms
asthenor m(li
kehef orbothgenders),orusi ngdi f
ferenttit
lesformenandwomen( Mr .vs.
Miss/Mrs.
).Suchlingui
sti
cpatt
ernscanshapehowpeoplet
hinkaboutgenderr
olesandsocial
[Link]
ortstoreducesexi
sm inlanguagei
ncl
udeusi
nggender-
neutr
alter
mslikechai
rper
son,
fi
ref
ight
er,ortheyasasingul
arpronoun.

[Link]
ext
ualI
dent
it
y

Manyf eaturesofl anguagecor r

elat
edi rectl
ywi ththechar ateri
sti
csoft hecont extorsituati
oni n
whichacommuni cati
[Link] extual i
dent i
tyinlanguagerefer stohowpeopl e
adjusttheirwayofspeaki ngdependi ngont hesi t
uation, audience,orpurposeofcommuni cation.
Asi ngl
eper sonmayusedi ffer
entwor ds, t
ones, orlev elsoff ormali
tyindiff
erentcont exts—for
exampl e,speakingf ormal
lywithapr ofessorbutcasual l
ywi thfri
[Link]
li
tyshowst hat
i
dent i
tyisnotfixedbutshi f
tsaccordingt osoci alandsi t
uat i
onalfactor
[Link] extualidenti
ty
highli
ghtshowl anguageuser efl
ectsourabi l
ityt oadaptandpr esentoursel
vesappr opri
atel
yi n
vari
ousset ti
ngs, balanci
ngwhowear ewi t
ht heexpect ationsofeachcommuni cativ
econt ext

Set
ti
ng,
Par
ti
cipant
s,Act
ivi
ty,
Channel
ofcommuni
cat
ion,
Code,
Messagef
orm,
Subj
ectmat
ter
.

[Link]
yli
sti
cident
it
y

"Styl
e"isanysituationallydi
stinct
iveuseoflanguage-achar acteri
sticofgr oupsaswel las
i
ndiv i
dual
[Link] y
leisasetoff eaturesthatmakepeopl edistincti
v [Link]
isticidenti
tydescri
besthe
uniquewayani ndivi
dual expressesthemselvesthroughl anguage, reflecti
ngper sonalsty
le,
creati
vit
y,andpr [Link] nv ocabul ary,sentencest r
ucture,t
one,and
rhetori
caltechniquest hatmakeaspeakerorwr i
terrecogni [Link] e,somepeopl e
mayf avorhumor ,
met aphor
s, orf
ormal expr
essi
ons, whileot hersusesi mple,dir
ectlanguage.
Styli
sti
cidentit
ynotonl yconveysmeani ngbutalsocommuni catesper sonal i
ty,
atti
tudes,and
i
ndiv i
dual
ity,makingl anguageasi gnatureofwhowear e.

Met
ropol
i
tanSt
andar
d:I
tisapr
est
igev
ari
etyofl
anguageusedwi
thi
naspeechcommuni
ty,
providi
ngani nst i
tuti
onalizednormf orsuchpur posesast hemedi aandl anguageteaching.A
met r
opolitanstandar dreferstothef orm ofalanguaget hatisconsi der
edt hemostpr esti
gious
or“correct”withinamaj orcityorcul t
[Link]
enser v
esast hebasisforformal
communi cati
on, educati
on, media,andof fi
cialdocument [Link] e,inFrance,Pari
sian
Frenchisconsi deredt hemet ropoli
tanstandard, whil
einEngl i
sh,StandardBr i
ti
shEngl i
shor
StandardAmer icanEnglishoftenser vesthisroledependi ngont her [Link]
tan
standardsi nf
luencesoci almobi l
it
y,education,andper cept i
onsofl anguagepr est
ige,
di
stinguishingthemsel vesf r
om regionalorlocal dial
ects.

Di
alect
:Ahumanl
anguagehasv
ari
ousf
ormswhi
chhav
ephonol
ogi
cal
,l
exi
cal
,sy
ntact
ic,
and
evensemant i
cv ar
iati
onswi t
heachot her .Theyar edif
ferentdialect
sofal [Link] or
s
suchasgeogr aphi
cal di
spersion,soci
alcl asses, educati
onalbackgr ound,[Link]
butetothe
developmentofadi al
[Link] egi onalorsocialvari
etyofal anguaget hatdiff
ersfr
om
othervari
eti
esinvocabulary,grammar ,andpr onunciati
[Link] el
opwi thi
nspecifi
c
geographicareasorsocialgroupsandr ef lectthehistory
, cul
ture,andidenti
tyoft hei
rspeakers.
Forexample,Bri
ti
shEnglishandAmer i
canEngl
isharedialectsoftheEngli
shlanguage,each
withuniquewords,expr
essions,
andpronunci
ati
[Link]
ect sshowthediver
sit
yofa
l
anguageandhowi tadaptstodi
ffer
entcommuniti
eswhi l
er emainingmutuall
yint
ell
igi
blewit
h
thestandardl
anguage.

Accent
:Accenti
saphonol
ogi
cal
mat
terwhi
chi
sthepar
ti
cul
arwayeachper
[Link]
ery
speakerhasanaccentofhi sownwhi chi ssimilartotheaccentofcommuni t
yhecomesf rom.
Anaccentr ef
erstot hewayaper sonpronounceswor dsi napart
icularlanguage,of ten
i
nfluencedbytheirregion,socialbackground, orfirstl
[Link] scansi gnal where
someonecomesf rom, theircult
urali
dent i
ty,orev entheirsoci
[Link] e, Engli
sh
spokeni nt
heUnitedSt atessoundsdi fferentfrom Englishspokeni ntheUni t
edKi ngdom or
Austral
[Link]
eaccent sdonotusual l
yaf fectgrammarorv ocabulary,t
heyplayakeyr olein
howspeaker sareper cei
vedandcani nfluencecommuni cat
ionandsoci alint
eractions.

I
diol
ect
:Theuni
quechar
act
eri
sti
csoft
hel
anguageofani
ndi
vi
dual
speakerar
eref
err
edt
oas
thespeaker'sidi
[Link] eryoneofususeshi s/hermot hertongueinacer tai
nway .
Therearesomewor ds,phrases, i
dioms, andexpressionst hatsomeofususewhi leot hers
ref
rainfr
om t [Link] diol
ecti stheuni quewayani ndivi
dual useslanguage, i
ncludingt hei
r
choiceofwor ds,pronunciation,grammar ,[Link]
ectsaper son’sper sonal
l
inguist
ichabitsshapedbyt heirexperiences,socialbackgr ound,education,andper sonalit
[Link]
example, t
wopeopl espeaki ngt hesamel anguagemayusedi ffer
entphrasesori ntonat i
on
patt
erns,maki ngtheirspeechi ndivi
dual l
[Link]
ectshelpsl i
nguists
underst
andhowl anguagev ari
esatt heper sonall
ev elandhowi ndivi
dual i
denti
tyisexpr essed
thr
oughl anguage.

Acr
olect
:Thespeechoft
heeducat
edpeopl
ewhi
chi
sregar
dedast
hemostpr
est
igousor
“highest”var
ietyofal
anguagewi t
hinadi alectcontinuum, of
tenassociatedwit
hformal
education,of
f i
cial
set
ti
ngs,andsocialstatusisacr olect
..I
npost -
coloni
alsoci
eti
es,f
orexampl
e,
theacr ol
ectusuall
ycl
oselyresemblesthest andardorcol oni
[Link]
ecti
s
typical
lyseenast hemodelof“corr
ect”orpr esti
giousspeechi nacommuni t
y.

Basi
lect
:Thespeechv
ari
elyofuneducat
edpeopl
ewhi
chi
sthel
eastpr
est
igousv
ari
etywi
thi
na
dial
ectconti
nuum isref
err
edt oasbasil
ect.I
tisof
tenthemostcoll
oquialor“lowest”var
iet
y,
spokeninformal
lybyacommuni t
yandinfl
uencedbylocall
anguagesordialects.I
npost-
coloni
alcontext
s,thebasi
lectmaybeseenasnonst andar
dorlesspresti
gious,butitr
efl
ects
theauthenti
c,ever
ydayspeechofitsspeaker
s.

Mesol
ect
:Ar
angeofspeechv
ari
etywhi
chi
sthei
nter
medi
atev
ari
etyofal
anguaget
hatf
all
s
betweent heacrol
ect(t
hemostpr est
igi
ousorstandardfor
m)andt hebasi l
ect(theleast
prest
igiousormostcolloqui
alfor
m)i nadial
ectcont
[Link]
ypicallycombinesfeaturesof
both,showingsomei nf
luenceofthestandar
dlanguagewhiler
etainingelementsofl ocalor
[Link]
sar eoft
enusedinsemi -
for
malsettingsandr ef
lectsocialor
l
ingui
sticmobi l
i
tywithi
nacommuni t
y.
Pi
dgi
n:Api
dgi
nisal
anguagewhi
chdev
elopsasacont
actl
anguagewhenpeopl
ewi
thdi
ff
erent
mot hertonguescomet oget
heroft
enf orthepur [Link]
dgi
nsaredev elopedt
hrough
themi xureofelementsofsever
aldif
ferentlanguagesandhav el
imi
tedvocabulari
esandvery
reducedst r
ucturesi
nwhichinfl
ect
ionsar escarcelyact
[Link]
nsdonothaveanynat i
ve
speakers.

Cr
eol
e:Whenapi
dgi
ndev
elopsbey
ondi
tsr
oleasat
radel
anguageandbecomest
hef
ir
st
l
anguageofasocialcommunity
,iti
sdescr
ibedasacreol
e.i
nfact,
whenapi
dgi
ncomest
obe
usedasthenat
ivetougneofonecommunity,i
thasbecomecreol
i
zed.

Soci
olect(
Soci
aldi
alect
):I
tisal
anguagev
ari
etyordi
aletusedbyagr
oupofpeopl
ewho
comef rom t hesamesoci [Link] olectsar eclassif
iedintohigherandl owerv arit
iesinthe
speechcommuni t
[Link] ol
ecti sav ar
ietyofl anguageusedbyapar t
icul
arsocialgroup,
refl
ecti
ngi tsmember s’
soci alclass, profession,age, orothersocial f
[Link]
keregi onal
dial
ects,whi chareti
edtogeogr aphy ,sociolectsar eshapedbysoci ali
dent i
tyandgr oup
member [Link], t
eenager smayusesl angthatdiffersfr
om t helanguageofol der
adults,
orl awyersmayusespeci al
izedl egal ter
mi nol
[Link] ol
ectshel ppeoplesignal
belongingt oasocialgr
oupanddi sti
ngui sht hemsel v
esf rom othersthroughl anguage.

Gender
lectconst
it
utest
hedi
ff
erencesbel
i
veent
hel
anguageofmenandwomeni
naspeech
[Link]
eferstothewaylanguageusedi ff
ersbetweengender s,ref
lecti
ngsocialand
cul
tur
alexpectati
onsofmenandwomen.I tencompassesdiffer
encesi nv ocabul
ary,t
one,styl
e,
andconversati
onalpatt
ernsthatareassociat
edwi t
hgenderidenti
[Link] e,r
esearchhas
shownthatwomenmayusemor epolit
eforms,tagquesti
ons,orcollaborati
velanguage,whil
e
menmayusemor edir
ect,asser
tiv
e,orcompet i
ti
[Link]
ecthi ghli
ghtshowl anguage
bothr
efl
ectsandr einf
orcessocialr
olesandgenderidenti
ti
esincommuni cation.

Regi
ster
:

Inonesense, registerref erst oaspeechv ari

etyusedbyapar ti
culargroupofpeopl ewho
havet hesameoccupat ion, interests,[Link] orregisterinthissensear e
[Link] gonist hespeci alizedlanguageusedbymember sofapar ticularprofession,tr
ade,
orgroup.I ti
ncludest echni cal termst hatmaybeunf amil
[Link] nstance,medical
professionalsuset ermsl ikehy pertensionormy ocardi
al i
nfarct
[Link] hertermf orjargonis
[Link]
'sasecr etorcodedl anguageusedbyaspeci f
icgroupt oprev entoutsidersfrom
[Link] t
enassoci atedwi thsubcult
ures,suchascr iminalsorst reetgroups,using
wordsl kecaperf
i orat heftormar kforat ar
get.

Inanothersense,regist
erissynonymouswithlanguageSt yl
esuchasar chai
c,for
mal,
i
nformal,col
loqui
al,
st ang,vul
gar
, t
echni
cal
,orinti
[Link]
elofformali
tyorst
yle
usedinlanguagedependi ngonthecontext
,audience,[Link],t
helanguage
usedinaf or
mal l
ecturediffer
sfr
om casualconversat
ionwithfriends.
Li
nguaf
ranca(
Auxi
li
aryl
anguage)
:Iti
sal
anguagesel
ect
edf
orcommuni
cat
ionbet
ween
differentgroupsofpeopl eeachspeaki ngadiffer
[Link] nguaf rancacanbean
i
nt ernationallyusedl anguage,thenat i
velanguageofoneoft hedi f
ferentgr oups,orasimpl i
fi
ed
mi xtureoft woormor elanguageswhi chhasnonat i
vespeaker s( r
atherlikeapi dgin)
.Alingua
francai sal anguageusedasacommonmeansofcommuni cationbet weenspeaker sof
differentnat i
v [Link] r
om diverselinguisticbackgr oundst ounderstand
eachot her,oftenf ortr
ade,diplomacy ,ori
nternat
ionalinteracti
[Link] e,Engli
shserves
asagl obal l
inguaf rancainbusi ness,sci
ence,andav i
ation, whil
eSwahi lihi
stori
callyservedthi
s
roleinEastAf r
[Link] aci
li
tat
ecommuni cationacr osscul turalandlinguist
ic
boundar i
es, promot i
ngcooper at i
onandexchange.

Compar
ati
veReconst
ruct
ioni
sbasedoni
nvest
igat
ionsoft
woormor
elanguagesdoneby
compar ati
v eIinguistsleadingtoahy pothetical reconstruct
ionofwhatasoundormor pheme
usedtobel i
kei nt hepast .I
tisamet hodinhi stori
cal l
i
nguisticsusedt ost udyt hedev elopment
oflanguagesbycompar ingrelatedlanguagesandr econstr
uct ingfeaturesoft heircommon
ancestor,oftencal ledapr oto-l
[Link] ngui stsanalyzesi mi l
ari
ti
esi nvocabul ary,grammar ,
andsoundsy stemst oinferwhatt heearli
erl anguagemi ghthav el
ookedl [Link] e,by
compar i
ngLat in,Greek,andSanskr i
t,scholar sreconst r
uctedaspect soft hePr ot o-
Indo-
Europeanl [Link] smet hodhel pstracel anguageev olution,understandhi stori
cal
connectionsbet weenlanguages, anduncov erpat ternsofli
ngui sti
cchangeov ert ime.

I
sogl
oss:
Iti
sahy
pot
het
ical
li
nesepar
ati
ngt
wor
egi
onswi
thdi
alect
aldi
ff
[Link]
sogl
oss
i
sageogr aphicalboundarythatseparatesareaswher edi
ffer
entlinguist
icf
eaturesareused.
Thesefeaturescanincludepronunciati
on,vocabular
y,orgrammar .Forexample, i
nEngli
sh,t
he
l
ineseparati
ngr egi
onst hatsay“soda”versus“pop”[Link]
osseshelpli
nguist
s
mapdialectsandunder standhowl anguagesv ar
yacrossregions,showingpatternsofl
ingui
sti
c
div
ersi
tyandchange.

Di
glossi
aisasi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
cht
wol
anguagev
ari
eti
esar
espokeni
nonecommuni
[Link]
var
iet
yisusedbygover
nment,media,educat
ionalsyst
ems,rel
igi
ousservice,et
[Link]
consi
deredtobethemorest
andardform andcall
edhighvari
etyorH-
v ar
[Link]
ety
i
susedinlessfor
malci
rcumstancesandislesspresti
gousandiscal
ledLowv ari
etyorL-v
ariet
y.

Exogl
ossi
cLanguagei
sal
anguagewhi
chi
snott
henat
ivel
anguageofal
lormostoft
he
populati
onofthatregionbuthassomeappl icati
[Link] ossi
clanguageisal anguagethatis
l
earnedandusedpr i
mar i
lybypeopleout sidet hecommuni tywhereitori
ginated.I
toftenserves
asasecondl anguagef orcommuni cation,trade,educat
ion,oradminist
rati
[Link] e,
Engli
shisexoglossicinmanycount rieslikeIndiaorNigeri
a, wher
eitiswidelyusedev enthough
i
tisnott henat
ivelanguageoft hemaj ori
t y
.Exoglossicl
anguagesf acil
i
tatecross-cul
tur
al
i
nteracti
onandaccesst owidersocial,
economi c,orpol
it
icalopport
uniti
[Link]
exoglossicl
anguageinI r
an.
Endogl
ossi
cLanguagei
sonewhi
chi
sthenat
ivel
anguageofal
lormostoft
hepopul
ati
onof
aregi
[Link] ossicl
anguagei salanguaget hatisspokenprimari
l
ywi t
hinthecommuni ty
whereitoriginatedandi susedast henativelanguagebyi t
smember [Link]
cul
tur
e, tr
aditions,andidenti
tyofthecommuni [Link],BasqueinSpai n,Quechuain
Peru,
orTur kishi nTabrizareendoglossicl
anguagesbecauset heyaremai ntai
nedandpassed
downwi thi
nt heirnativepopulat
[Link]
npr eser
ving
cul
tur
al herit
ageandl ocali
denti
ty.

LanguagePl
anni
ng:Gover
nment
,legal
andeducat
ional
bodi
esi
nmanycount
ri
eshav
eto
activelypl
anwhi chv ari
eti
esofthel anguagesusedi nt hecount r
yshoul dbeoffi
ciall
yused.
Languagepl anningi sthedel
iberateeffortbygov er
nment s,insti
tuti
ons,orcommuni ti
esto
i
nfluencehowal anguagei sused, developed,ormai [Link]
uspl anning
(decidingwhichlanguagei soffi
cialorusedi neducat ion),corpusplanning(developing
vocabul ar
y,grammar ,
orwrit
ingsy stems),andacqui sitionplanning(promotinglanguage
l
ear ningamongspeaker s)
.Forexampl e,I
srael’
seffortst oreviveHebrewi nthe20thcent ury
i
nv [Link] i
sof tent ostrengthencommuni cation,preser
ve
l
ingui st
icheri
tage,orsupportnationalidentit
y.

Di
alectl
evel
ing:

Iti
st heprocesst hroughwhi chdialectdiffer
encesmaydi sappear .I
toccur sthroughext ensive
i
ntercommuni cati
onoft hepeopl espeaki ngindif
[Link] ocess
bywhi chdiff
er encesbet weenregional dial
ectsdecreaseov ert i
me, oftenduet oincreased
mobi li
ty,
medi ainfl
uence, andsocial i
nteracti
[Link] ot hereduct i
onorl ossofdi st i
ncti
ve
featuresinpronunci ati
on,vocabulary,orgrammar ,creati
ngamor euni for
ml anguagev ariety.
Forexampl e,inmanyEngl ish-
speakingcount ri
es,tr
aditi
onal regional accentsar ebecomi ngl ess
pronouncedaspeopl eareexposedt ost andardmedi [Link] al
ectl eveli
ngr ef
lectssoci al
changeandt hei nfluenceofwi dercommuni cati
onnet worksonl anguage.

TheSapi
r-
Whor
fHy
pot
hesi
s:Sapi
r-
Whor
fhy
pot
hesi
sisbasedonl
i
ngui
sti
crel
ati
vi
tyand
[Link] shypot hesisassumest wopr i
nciples:1)Languagedet erminest hewaypeopl e
thi
nk( l
inguisti
cdet erminism);2)Thedi st
inctionencodedi nonelanguagear enotf oundi nany
otherlanguagei .
e.,Languagesoft hewor l
dar edifferentfrom eachother(Linguisticrelat
ivit
y).
TheSapi r
-Whorfhy pothesis,alsoknownasl i
nguisticrelat
ivi
ty,i
stheideat hatthel anguagewe
speaki nfl
uencest hewaywet hinkandper ceivethewor [Link]
ngt othishy pothesis,
dif
ferentlanguagesshapespeaker s’experiencesandcogni t
ivepatt
ernsdif f
[Link] ample,
i
fal anguagehasmul ti
plewor dsforaconceptl i
ke“ snow,”it
sspeakersmaynot i
ceandt hink
aboutsnowi nmor enuancedway sthanspeaker sofal anguagewi t
honl yonewor df orit
.Whi l
e
debated, thehypothesishi ghl
ightsthestrongr el
ationshipbetweenlanguage, t
hought ,and
cult
ural percept
ion.