Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

Chapter- 3
Learning and Memory

Learning “The term learning is to signify both the

Learning is a relatively permanent development of intelligences and attribute of
change in behaviour due to experience. It muscular action.” - Ewere
is the relatively enduring change in “Learning is the process whereby knowledge
behaviour that results from experience. It is created through the transformation of
occurs when organisms benefit from experience.” - Kolb 1984
“Learning is a relativity endurance change
experience so that their feature
in behaviour which is a function of prior
behaviour is batter adapted to the
behaviour usually called practice. “–Mark
environment.
“Learning is the process by which an
Learning is one of the most activities in
organism changes its behaviour as a result of
which human engage, it is at the very
experience.” - Gage and Berliner 1988
core of the educational process although
“Learning is the process of progressive
most of what people learn occurs outside
behaviour adaptation.”- Skinner
of school. Learning implies change of a
“To learn is to modify behaviour and
particular nature. It may be motor, experience. “– Munn
verbal, emotional or a combination of “Learning is a relatively permanent change
these. An individual has two sets of in behaviour that occurs as a result of
receptors the external receptors such as practice.” - Hilgard & Atkinson
sense organs like eye, ear, nose, skin etc. “Learning is acquisition of new responses of the
which catch sensation from the enhanced execution of old ones.”- Underwood
environment. The second type of “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or
receptors is known as psycho-somatic. strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as a
They are internal receptors and are acted result of experience.”- Smith
upon by the physical and biochemical
factors of the organism. Learning is Characteristics of Learning
making of connection between receptors According to W. R. MC Law of learning
and effectors. have the following characteristics
Learning refers to the process by which 1. Learning is a continuous
experiences change our nervous system modification of behaviour.
and hence our behaviour. We refer to 2. Learning is continuous throughout
these changes as memories. In life.
psychology learning has the status of a 3. Learning is pervasive. It reaches
construct. Construct means an idea or into all aspects of human life.
image they cannot be directly observed 4. Learning involves the whole
by electrons or genes which is referred person, socially, emotionally &
from the behaviour of the organism. intellectually
“Learning is modification of behaviour.”– Gates 5. Learning depends on maturation
and motivation.
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Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

6. Learning is always concerned with 5. Learning is intelligent

goals. An individual cannot learn things by
7. Learning is responsive to only cramming without proper
incentives. understanding. But his proper attention,
8. Learning is developmental. understanding is essential to learn things
effectively.
Yoakman and Simpson have described 6. Learning is active
the following nine characteristics of Learning is an active process. Individual
learning. must be active and ready to learn,
1. Learning is growth readiness is essential for effective
2. Learning is adjustment learning.
3. Learning is purposeful 7. Learning is both individual and
4. Learning is experience social
5. Learning is intelligent Individual can learn both individually
6. Learning is active and by participating social activities.
7. Learning is both individual and Individual also learn from his peer,
social friends, relatives, parents, and
8. Learning is the product of the classmates, family as well as from
environment religious places.
9. Learning affects the conduct of the 8. Learning is the product of
learner environment
1. Learning is growth Individuals also learn lot of things from
Learning is growth; this growth implies his environment, his society he lives.
both physical and mental development 9. Learning affects the conduct of the
of the learner. The individual grows Learner
through living and learning. Learning affects the learner’s behaviour
2. Learning is adjustment and conduct. Every learning experience
Learning enables the individual to adjust brings about change in the mental
himself properly, with the new structure of the learner.
situations, in everyday life individual
face new problems and learning helps Forms of Learning
him to solve the problems encountered Learning can take at least four basic
by him. forms of learning they are as
3. Learning is purposeful 1 Perceptual Learning
All type of learning is purposeful and 2 Stimulus response Learning
goal oriented. The individual acts with 3 Motor Learning
some purpose. Individual learn only 4 Relational Learning
those activities properly behind which 1. Perceptual Learning
he has some goal or purpose. Perceptual learning is the ability to learn,
4. Learning is experience to recognize stimuli that has been
The individual learns through perceived before. The primary function
experiences. Human life is full of of this learning is the ability to identify
experiences. All these experiences and categorize objects (including other
provide new knowledge, understanding members of our own species) and
skills and attitudes. situations.
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2. Stimuli response Learning 7. Latent learning

Stimuli response learning is the ability to 8. Observational learning
learn, to perform a particular behaviour 9. Discrimination learning
when a particular stimulus is present. 10. Verbal learning
Thus it involves the establishment of 11. Concept learning
connections between circuits involved in 12. Sensory learning
perception and those involved in 1. Informal Learning
movement. Informal learning is incidental. This type
3. Motor Learning of learning takes place throughout life it
Motor learning is actually a component is not planned.
of stimulus-response learning. It is a 2. Formal Learning
learning to make new response. Motor Formal learning is intentional and
learning cannot occur without sensory organized. This type of learning takes
guidance from the environment. place in schools, colleges and
4. Relational Learning universities. In formal learning the
Relational learning is a complex form of students has a prescribed syllabus.
learning that involves the relations 3. Non formal Learning
among individual stimuli, includes Non formal learning is also intentional
spatial learning, episodic learning and and organized it is flexible. In this
observational learning. learning we learn from printing and
electronic media like newspaper,
Kinds of Learning magazines, T.V, radio cinema etc.
There are two main kinds of learning 4. Individual Learning
1. Associative learning Individual learning is that type of
2. Non-Associative learning learning in which the person learns alone
Associative Learning or individually.
Associative learning includes learning 5. Group Learning
relationship among events it includes Group learning is that type of learning in
classical conditioning, instrumental which the person learns by living with
conditioning and complex learning group.
among others. 6. Motor Learning
Non-Associative Learning When learning involves primarily the
Non-Associative learning involves use of muscles it is called as motor
learning about a single stimulus includes learning for example learning to walk, to
habitualization and sensitization. operate a typewriter or computer etc.
7. Latent Learning
Latent learning is that type of learning in
Types of Learning
which a new behaviour is acquired but is
Following are the types of learning
not demonstrated until some incentive is
1. Informal learning
provided for displaying it. Latent
2. Formal learning
3. Non formal learning learning occurs without reinforcement.
8. Observational Learning
4. Individual learning
Observational learning is that type of
5. Group learning
learning in which the learner learns by
6. Motor learning
observing the behaviour of another
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person. According to Albert Bandura a been felt by the people. Motivation in

major part of human learning consists of school learning involves arousing,
observational learning, which is learning sustaining and directing desirable
by watching the behaviour of another conduct. There are mainly two kinds of
person, or model. Observational learning motivation
is particularly important in acquiring A. Intrinsic motivation
skills in which the operant conditioning B. Extrinsic motivation
technique of shaping is inappropriate. (A) Intrinsic motivation
9. Discrimination Learning The intrinsic motivators of behaviour are
Discrimination learning is that learning urges, drives, needs and appetites these
in which the act of discrimination is motives are inborn. These motives play a
involved for example infant vital role in learning process. We learn in
discriminated between mother and aunt, effectively when we have urge to learn,
milk and water. The concept of most of us learn those activities which
discrimination learning was given by will fulfill their needs, demands and
Keneth W. Spence. their goals. This type of motivation is
10. Verbal Learning also known as internal motivation.
Verbal learning is that type of learning in (B) Extrinsic motivation
which the learner learns by verbal Extrinsic motivation or external
activities or words like singing etc. motivation through has been named as
11. Concept Learning external yet it is based on some existing
When learning involves the formation of natural tendencies. So in that sense it is
concepts is called concept learning. also intrinsic. It is called external because
12. Sensory Learning it is external to the learning activity itself.
Learning concerned with perception and Some common forms of external
sense is called sensory learning motivation are praise, blame, rivalry,
punishment, reward etc.
Factors of Learning The Physiological factors
There are three factors that condition the The physiological factors of learning are
learning process there are the sensory receptors like visual,
1. The psychological factor auditory, olfactory etc. These receptors
2. The physiological factors play a vital role in learning process. Any
3. The environmental factors defect in these receptors or organs
The Psychological factor directly affects the learning for example
The psychological factor of learning is an individual with the problem in eye
that what we call as motivational sight can’t read the sentence properly
learning. Motivation plays a vital role in similarly student with hearing problem
learning process. Motivation is the very have difficult to hear the teacher or
heart of the learning process. Adequate instructor.
motivation not only sets in motion that Other physical factors of learning
activity, which results in learning, but involve fatigue, learning time, sex
also sustains and directs it. In education difference, age etc.
by motivation we mean stimulating that (a) Fatigue
interest of the people here there has been Muscular, sensory and mental fatigue
no such interest or such interest has not plays a vital role in learning. An
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individual cannot make proper various physical problems like headache,

concentration towards his work or breathing problem etc.
activity if he/she has mental, sensory or (c) Peaceful environment
muscular fatigue. Any activity or work Peaceful environment or noiseless place
under fatigue condition is not completed is essential for learning that is why
properly. Thus peace of mind, sense and psychologists suggests that educational
muscular relaxation is essential for institutes should establish away from
effective learning. roads, factories etc.
(b) Learning time
Learning time also affects the learning Methods of Learning
process. An individual can learn better in Psychologists give various methods for
morning and evening time than midday learning which helps the pupil to learn
and late night. things effectively some of the common
(c) Sex difference methods are as under.
Sex difference also plays a vital role in 1. Whole to part method
learning .there is some evidence that, 2. Whole vs part method
during the secondary school years in 3. The mediating method
particular, girls are more susceptible to 4. The recitation method
strain and worry than the majority of 5. Cramming
boys. Some male students also hesitates 1. Whole to Part Method
to attend class in presence of girls This method says that the general nature
similarly some girls also fear in presence of the learned material should be
of boys this directly affect their learning. apprehended first, at the level of the
(d) Age learner’s insight. This method is based
Age factor also plays a vital role in on the Gestalt principal that learning
learning process, adolescent can learn proceeds from the whole to its parts and
better than old. not vice-versa.
The Environmental factors 2. Whole vs Part Method
The environmental factors of learning This method says that learning can be
are related to physical conditions both whole as well as parts. Sometimes
prevailing at a learning place they the learner should use whole method
include temperature, ventilation, and and some time he /she should use part
peaceful environment. methods. When the learner learns small
(a) Temperature or short things he should be learnt as a
Temperature is one of the main factors in whole for example memorizing a poem.
learning; an individual can make full Here the material is too long the part
concentration towards his work when method should be used. The part
there is best temperature. If there is too method has proved most fruitful in non
hot or cool in the class room students verbal materials like skills; typewriting
can’t read and write properly. etc. The whole method is not valid here
(b) Ventilation because there is no logical unity or
Proper ventilation is also essential for continuity in the material.
learning. If the classroom is not properly 3. The Mediating Method
ventilated students will suffer from The mediating method is applicable to
long vocabulary material, as well as to
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more logical wholes proceeds from Thorndike’s trial and error theory of
whole to part as before but allows the learning.
marking off more difficult or unfamiliar Over the past century, educational
parts for more intensive study. psychologists and researcher have
4. The Recitation method posited many theories to explain how
When time allows, this method is individuals acquire, organize and deploy
valuable for all kinds of material. It skills and knowledge. To help readers
simply means checking upon one’s self organize and apply this extensive body
by being one’s own inquisitor, from time of literature various authors have
to time. It is also found that, recitation classified these theories in different
method of study is batter for both ways. For this summary, learning
immediate and delayed recall and both theories are classified into four basic
sense and non-sense material. categories.
5. Cramming 1. Behaviourist theories
Another method of learning is 2. Cognitive theories
cramming. Cramming is the attempt to 3. Humanistic theories
acquire control, usually for the purpose 4. Social theories
of immediate reproduction, of a
relatively large amount of material in Behaviourist Theories
comparatively short time. Behaviourist theories of learning focus
on observable behaviour. This class of
Theories of Learning theories includes following theories of
Educationalists have always known that learning:-
leering occurs but there is a good deal of 1. Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning
disagreement regarding what happens theory.
when learning takes place. One of the 2. Edward L. Thorndike’s trial and
oldest ideas has been that mind is like a error theory or connectivism theory
clean state on which knowledge gets of learning.
imprinted and this is called leering. 3. Edward Guthrie’s contiguity theory.
Another ancient idea is that leering is 4. B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning.
improving or strengthening the mind. 5. Edward C. Tolman’s sign theory and
According to this view leering merely latent learning.
implies that the mind needs to be 6. Clark Hull’s drive reduction theory.
developed through exercise. These old 7. Keneth W. Spence’s discrimination
views are based on more conjecture and learning.
not on experimentation. During the last 8. William Kaye Este’s stimulus
century there have been a number of sampling theory.
developments in the field of learning.
The first development occurs in the Cognitive Theories
British school of Associations. Another Cognitive theories are based on the fact
development was Ivan Pavlov’s work in that learning is purely a mental and
the field of learning. Third was Koehler’s neurological process. The list of
discovery in the light of insight learning? cognitive theories includes:-
And the last historical development in
the history of learning is the E.L.
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1. Gestalt learning theory by Max completed his PhD at Columbia

Wretheimer. University under the supervision of
2. Kurt Lewin’s field theoretical James Mc Keen Cattell, one of the
approach. founding fathers of psychometrics. On
3. Wolfgang Kohler’s insight learning. August 29, 1900, he wed Elizabeth
4. Kurt Koffka’s Gestalt learning. Moulton and they had five children. He
Wrote Animal Intelligence in 1911. In
Humanistic Theories 1912, Thorndike was elected president
Humanistic theories believed that for the American Psychological
emotions and affect play a vital role in Association. He was admitted to the
learning some of the main humanistic National Academy of Sciences in 1917.
theories are as:- He was one of the very first
1. Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychologists to be admitted to the
theory of learning. association. Thorndike is well known for
2. Experiential learning by Carl Rogers. his experiments on animals supporting
3. Transformational learning by Jack the law of effect. In 1934, Thorndike was
Mezirow. elected president of the American
Association for the Advancement of
Social Theories Science. In 1937 Thorndike became the
According to social theories of learning second President of the Psychometric
human learn best in group activities. Society. He was died in Montrose, N. Y.
Some social theories of learning are as:- on 9th August 1949.
1. Lev Vygotsky’s social constructivism. Thorndike is considered by many to be
2. Albert Bendura’s observational the first modern education psychologist
learning. who sought to bring a scientific
3. John Selly Brown’s Cognitive approach to the study of learning. He
Apprenticeship. believed that learning was incremental
and that people learned through trial
Trial and Error Theory and erreorch approach. His theory of
Edward Lee Thorndike (1879-1949) was learning did not consider that learning
the chief exponent of the trial and error took place as a result of mental
theory. This theory is also known as constructs. Instead he described how
pleasure-pain theory, theory of stimulus mental connections are formed through
or connectionism theory of learning. positive responses to particular stimuli.
Thorndike was born in Williamsburg, For Thorndike learning was based on an
Massachusetts on Aug. 31, 1874. He was association between sense impressions
the son of Edward Roberts Thorndike, a and an impulse to action. According to
Methodist minister in Lowell, him learning is a gradual process where
Massachusetts. Thorndike graduated the individual will make many attempts
from the Roxbury Latin School in 1891, to learn. The essence of this theory is as
in West Roxbury, Massachusetts. He the Essen trials increase the errors
completed his [Link] from Wesleyan decrease. According to trial and error
University in 1895. He earned an M.A. at theory animals and men learn through a
Harvard University in 1897. In 1898 he process of selecting and connecting in
particular problematic situations in
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which the animals or men have to reach 4 Chance success

a goal. They select the appropriate 5 Selection and
responses from a number of possible 6 Fixation
responses. Drive
The first stage in trial and error theory is
Thorndike’s Experiment drive. Drive is persistent stimulation.
Thorndike studies the character of trial When an animal is placed in a new
and error learning in a number of situation, he is under tension. He tries to
experiments on several animals. One of form new adjustment.
his experiments he conducted on hungry Block
cat is mentioned here. Block is an obstacle which is placed
Thorndike built an apparatus called a across the path of direct to direct relief of
puzzle box, a small cage with a trap the motivating tension.
door. The trap door would open if the Random Movement
animal performed a specific action, such Another stage in trial and error theory is
as pulling a string. Thorndike placed random movement according to this
food-deprived animals, usually cats, stage the animal persistently tries to
inside the puzzle box to see if they could reach a solution due to some movement
figure out how to escape. To motivate factors.
the cats, he would place food just outside Chance success
the box. When a cat was first placed in As the result of the striving and random
the box, it usually engaged in a number movements the animal by chance
of non-productive behaviours in an succeeds in overcoming the block.
attempt to escape. After 5-10 minutes of Selection
struggling, the cat would accidentally Now the random nature of learning
pull the string and the door would then movements disappears gradually,
return the cat to the box and repeat the unnecessary movements are eliminated.
trail. He found that the cats would pull The hesitant and halting behaviour gives
the string more quickly on each trail, place to goal-ward set movement.
until they soon learned to escape from Fixation
the puzzle box within seconds. Based on Gradually the slow halting and
this line of research Thorndike hesitating performance is changed to
developed a general theory of learning raped and smoothly following etc. so we
known as the law of effect, which states can say that trial and error learning
that any behaviour that leads to a involves first a motivate for the learner.
satisfying “state of affairs’’ is more likely For example, if a hungry cat is placed in
to occur again and that those lead to an a box, then the food can be motive. This
annoying state of affairs are less likely to motive leads to different kinds of
occur again. activities. During this process of
Stages in trial and error learning activities the learner tries a number of
The following are the stages in trial and responses. This leads to success that is
error learning lead to reward which satisfies the
1 Drive motive. In the case of the cat in the box.
2 Block It is able to reach food. Than those
3 Random movement responses which lead to success became
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fixated and those responses which do satisfaction and not to act gives
not lead to success are eliminated after annoyance. (2) When a conducting unit
repeated trials. is not ready to act is made to act,
From this theory Thorndike enunciated annoyance is cause. For example if the
the following laws of learning. child is ready to learn, he/she learns
1. The law of effect quickly and effectively. If the child is not
2. The law of exercise ready to learn he/she cannot learn
3. The law of readiness effectively.
4. The law of belongingness 4. The law of belongingness
1. The law of effect This law status that stimuli are more
According to this law when a connection likely to became associated if they are
is accomplished by satisfying effect, its related to each other in some way so that
strength is increased. By this Thorndike one may elicit another. In this law of
meant that the probability of its belongingness is meant a natural
occurrence is greater. This law also has connection between the stimulus and
been designated as the law of intensity. reaction.
This law shows that greater the size of Features of trial and error learning
the reward, the stronger is the  Learning by trial and error is gradual
motivation and so greater the learning. process.
2. The law of exercise  Learner must be motivated for
This law is also called the law of use or learning.
law of frequency or the law of practice.  While learning the learner makes
This law explains that exercise leads to random and variable response.
the strengthening of the connections, that  With the increase in number of trails
is, if practice is carried out the the level or number of error
connection are strengthened but if the decreases.
practice is discontinued the connections  The time taken to perform the task
are weakened. decrease with successive trails.
There are certain important conditions Educational implication of trial and
we must be filled before this law error theory
operates they are law of use and law of The trial and error theory have various
disuse. educational implications some of them
(a) Law of use are as under:-
This law runs as follows” when a 1 Trial and error theory emphasizes
modifiable connection is made between a the importance of motivation in
situation and a response that connects learning. So learning should be made
strength is increased”. purposeful and goal directed.
(b) Law of disuse 2 Mental preparation or readiness is
It runs as follows” when a modifiable essential for learning. The student
connection is not made between a should be ready to learn. Teachers
situation and a response over a length of should make their students mentally
time the connect strength is decreased”. prepared to learn new things.
3. Law of readiness 3 Law of exercise can be used by
This law states that (1) when a teachers to help their students for
conducting unit is ready to act. Act gives
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various purposes. For example in physiology with professor Cyon with

mathematical problems, in verbal whom he performed his first
activities like speech, group physiological research. In 1883 he
discussion, in non verbal actives like presented his doctor's thesis on the
indoor and outdoor games etc. subject of “The centrifugal nerves of the
4 This theory is also useful to help heart”. He became the professor
students to make adjustment and responsible of pharmacology in the
solve their everyday problems. Military Academy of Medicine in Saint
5 It will help children’s to accept Petersburg in 1890 and five years later he
challenges and make best. was appointed to the then vacant Chair
6 The law of effect has called attention of Physiology, which he held till 1925. It
to the importance of motivation and was at the Institute of Experimental
reinforcement in learning. Medicine in the years 1891-1900 that
7 The theory is also useful for those Pavlov did the bulk of his research on
people who have limited the physiology of digestion in which he
understanding in problem solving earned the Nobel Prize in Medicine in
ability. 1904. He died at 86 years of age in Saint
Petersburg in 1936.
Classical conditioning by Ivan His theory of learning is also known as
Pavlov respondent conditioning or Pavlovian
Classical conditioning is a relatively conditioning.
passive process in which subjects Classical conditioning is a basic form of
associate events that happen around learning in which one stimulus comes to
them. This form of conditioning does not serve as a signal for the occurrence of a
account for the many times that one of second stimulus. During classical
the events occurs because of some action conditioning, organisms acquire
on the part of the subject. information about the relations between
Classical conditioning gets its name from various stimuli, not simple associations
the fact that it is the kind of learning between them.
situation that existed in the early According to Pavlovian conditioning
‘’classical’’ experiments of Ivan Pavlov learning takes place by conditioning
(1849-1936). He was the famous Russian implies that attachment or association of
physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in natural response with the new stimuli.
1904 for his work on digestion. Pavlovian conditioning is a process by
Ivan Pavlov was born on September 14, which new emotional and glandular
1849 at Ryazan, a city today called reaction develop in response to
Pavlov in his honor. His father, Peter previously natural stimuli in the
Dmitrievich Pavlov, was a village priest. environment.
He was educated first at the church In classical conditioning, a physical
school in Ryazan. He started school at event-termed a stimulus-that initially
the age of 11 delayed because he had does not elicit a particular response
suffered a head trauma due to a fall. In gradually acquires the capacity of illicit
1870, he started at the University of Saint that response as a result of repeated
Petersburg in Natural Science, studying pairing with a stimulus that can elicit a
reaction. This type of learning plays a
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role in such varied reactions as strong Classical conditioning processes

fears, taste aversions, some aspects of Classical conditioning involves several
sexual behaviour and racial or ethnic different processes. We will discuss only
prejudice. five here.
Pavlov’s experiment 1 Acquisition
Ivan Pavlov developed a method for 2 Extinction
measuring and analyzing the secretion of 3 Spontaneous recovery
saliva. He surgically implanted a tube in 4 Stimulus generalization and
the salivary gland of a dog, than gave the 5 Stimulus discrimination
dog meat powder, the meat powder Acquisition
caused the dog to produce saliva, and Acquisition (learning something new) is
Pavlov collected and measured it. Pavlov the initial process in classical
spent many long hours in his laboratory, conditioning. Acquisition is the initial
driving his assistants to do the same, and learning of behaviour; it is the gradual
he often watched as the dog went formation of an association between the
through his experimental procedures. conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
In technical terms Pavlov wants to know Extinction
what happen if an unlearned or Extinction (eliminating learned responses)
unconditional reflex involving a is a process in which the conditioned
connection between the unconditioned response is weakened when the
stimulus of the food in the mouth and conditioned stimulus is repeated without
the unconditioned response of salivation. the unconditioned stimulus.
Pavlov found he could train a dog to Spontaneous Recovery
salivate to other stimuli. In some of his Spontaneous recovery is the weakened
studies, he presented a tone (a natural return of the conditioned response (CR)
stimulus which becomes the conditioned following the passage of time without
stimulus) just before food several times; exposure to the conditioned stimulus
so that the tone signaled that food would (CS). In Pavlov’s experiment
arrive soon. Finally, he presented the Spontaneous recovery shows that the
same tone (the test stimulus) on its own salivary response to the tone was inhibits
without any food he following and rather than lost during extinction.
found that dog salivated to the tone. In Stimulus generalization
technical terms the dog had learned a Stimulus generalization refers to the fact
conditioned reflex, in which the (CR) that the strength of the conditioned
conditioned stimulus (the tone) was response depends on the similarity
associated with the (UCS) unconditioned between the last stimulus and the
stimulus (sight the food), and the learned previous training stimulus. It occurs
or conditioned response (CR) was when stimuli that are similar but not
salivation. Note that it is essential for the identical to the CS produced the CR.
food to follow very shortly after the tone Stimulus discrimination
in order for a conditioned reflex to be Stimulus discrimination is a learned
formed. tendency to differentiate between two
similar stimuli if one is constantly
associated with unconditioned stimulus
and the other is not.
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Example of classical conditioning context to reflex physiology to

Before conditioning differentiate what he was interested in-
Causes little or
behaviour that affects the environment
“Beep” No reaction from the reflex – related subjected matter
of the Pavlovian. The term was Novel,
Unconditioned
Unconditioned
response
but its referent was not entirely new.
stimulus
USC
URS Burrhus Frederic Skinner, better known
Salivation in
Fried chicken
your mouth
as B. F. Skinner, was born in 1904 in
small town of Susquehanna,
During condition Pennsylvania. After graduating from
Conditioned Hamilton College in 1926, he studied at
stimulus Harvard University and got his masters
+
CS Unconditioned
in psychology in 1930 and his doctorate
“Beep” response
UCR in 1931. Later he married Yvonne Blue
+ Salivation in
your mouth
and had two daughters. He died on
Unconditioned August 18, 1990 from leukemia.
stimulus
CSC Operant conditioning is the learning
“Fried chicken” process in which the consequences of an
action determine the likelihood that it
After conditioning
will be performed in the future.
Conditioned Conditioned In operant conditioning organisms learn
stimulus response
CR the relationships between certain
CS
“Beep” Salivation in behaviours and the consequences they
your mouth
produce.
According to B.F. Skinner operant
Application of Classical conditioning is an enormous important.
Conditioning Indeed, Skinner believed that what we
Classical conditioning is not merely a learn and how we behave in everyday
laboratory demonstration. It also affects life are both very heavily influenced by
important aspects of human life. It is the conditioning experience we have had
useful to help people to learn new throughout our lives.
language’s, it is helpful to learn new Operant conditioning is also sometimes
behaviour, positive attitudes, values, known as instrumental conditioning. It is
beliefs, sentiments etc. in addition to the a method of learning that occurs through
development of phobias, it is involved in reward and punishment for behaviour
the learning of a wide range of normal through operant conditioning, an
behaviours and in helping smokers to association is made between behaviour
stop smoking. It also helps in the and a consequence for that behaviour. As
treatment of abnormal and emotional a behaviourist Skinner believed that
problems. internal thoughts and motivation could
not be used to explain behaviour.
Instead, he suggested, we should look
Operant Conditioning
only at the external, observable cause of
The term operant conditioning was
coined by B.F. Skinner in 1937 in the human behaviour.

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Skinner’s theory explained how we Skinner identified three types of

acquire the range of learned behaviours responses or operant that can follow
we exhibit each and every day. behaviour.
Skinner is regard as the father of operant 1. Natural operant’s
conditioning, but his work was based on 2. Reinforces or reinforcement
Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner 3. Punishment
introduced a new term into the law of 1. Natural operant's
effect-reinforcement. Natural operants are those responses
Skinners Experiment from the environment that neither
Skinner studied operant conditioning by increases nor decreases the probability of
conducting experiments using animals, a behaviour being repeated.
which he placed in a “Skinner Box”. One 2. Reinforces or Reinforcement
of his experiments is mentioned here. Reinforces are any event that strengthens
In a typical experiment, a pigeon is first or increases the behaviour it follows. The
placed in a skinner box. The box was most obvious reinforces are those that
specially designed chamber in which the are necessary for survival such as food or
pigeon can be systematically reinforced, water. Those that satisfy biological needs
usually with food pellets, and its are known as primary reinforces and
responses recorded. The pigeon is those events or objects that serve as
typically deprived of food, than placed reinforces but do not satisfy biological
in the box. The box contains only two needs are referred to as secondary
items a translucent disk with a light reinforces, these reinforces become
behind it and a hopper fed by a established through classical;
dispenser that contains food pellets. conditioning.
While it is moving and pecking around There are two kinds of reinforces
the box, the pigeon may accidentally (a) Positive reinforces
pick the key, which is on one wall. In (b) Negative reinforces
conditioning jargon, the pigeon is said to Positive Reinforces
have “emitted an operant key pecking Positive reinforces are those reinforces
response.” The key peck operates the that produces pleasure or satisfaction.
dispenser, giving the pigeon food. As The positive reinforcement increases the
result, the frequency of key pecking probability of a behaviour being
increases. In other words the pigeon repeated by a administering a
learn that by pecking the key food is pleasurable stimulus. Positive
presented. Through the pigeon released reinforcement often referred to as
that when he peck the key he would get reward or praise.
food. So he learns to peck the key more Negative Reinforces
and more by doing so gives him food. Theses reinforce increases behaviour
The releasing of food by pecking the key through the removal or an aversive
is known as reinforce, because it causes stimulus.
the operant behaviour (pecking the key to 3. Punishment
increasing). Food could also be described Punishment refers to a consequence that
as a conditioned stimulus because it follows a response and decreases its
causes an effect to occur. probability. It is easy to confuse
punishment with negative
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reinforcement. Just remember that in Intermittent Reinforcement

negative reinforcement the aversive Intermittent reinforcement is given only
stimulus occurs before the responses and part of the times the animal gives the
increases its probability, while in desired response.
punishment it occurs after the response Continuous Reinforcement
and decreases its probability. Continuous reinforcement is given every
There are two types of punishment time the animal gives the desired
 Positive punishment response.
 Negative punishment Ration Reinforcement
Positive Punishment Ratio reinforcement is that in which a
Positive punishment sometimes referred predetermined proportion of responses
to as punishment by applications will be reinforced.
involves the presentation of an Fixed ratio Reinforcement
unfavorable events or outcome in order Fixed ratio reinforcement is given on a
to weaken the response it follows. regular ratio, such as every 10th time the
Negative Punishment desired behaviour is produced.
Negative punishment is also known as Verbal ratio Reinforcement
punishment by removal, occurs when a Verbal ratio reinforcement is given for a
favorable event or outcome is removed predetermined proportion of responses
after behaviour occurs. by random instead of on a fixed
schedule.
Schedules of Reinforcement in Operant Interval Reinforcement
Conditioning Interval reinforcement is given after
predetermined period of time.
Operant conditioning
Fixed interval Reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement
Fixed interval reinforcement is given on
a regular schedule, such as every 10th
minute.
Intermittent Continuous
Variable interval Reinforcement
reinforcement reinforcement
Variable interval reinforcement is given
after random amount of time have
passed.
Interval Applications of Operant
Ratio
Reinforcement
reinforcement Conditioning
Following are some important
Fixed interval applications of operant conditioning
Fixed ratio
reinforcement
reinforcement 1. It is used in extensively in the
training of circus animals.
Variable 2. It is used in the treatment of patients
Variable ratio
reinforcement Interval suffering from various mental
reinforcement disorders.
3. It is also used for the treatment of
high blood pressure and migraine.
4. It is useful in group formation.

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5. It is useful in modifying student most human behavior is learned

behaviour. observationally through modeling: from
6. It will help students to learn new observing others one forms an idea of
things. how new behaviors are performed, and
7. It is useful in problem solving. on later occasions this coded information
serves as a guide for action.
Observational learning theory In his famous Bobo doll experiment,
The founder of observational learning Bandura demonstrated that children
theory is Albert Bandura. He was born learn and imitate behaviors they have
on 4th December 1925, in Mundare, a observed in other people. The children in
small town in Alberta, Canada. His Bandura’s studies observed an adult
family included five older sisters. He acting violently toward a Bobo doll.
received his B.A. from the University of When the children were later allowed to
British Columbia in 1949 and his Ph.D. in play in a room with the Bobo doll, they
psychology from the University of Iowa began to imitate the aggressive actions
in 1952. In 1953, he started teaching at they had previously observed. Bandura
Stanford University. Bandura married identified three basic models of
Virginia Varns while a graduate student observational learning (1) live model,
at the University of Iowa; they have two which involves an actual individual
daughters. In 1973 he became the demonstrating or acting out a behavior,
president of the American Psychological (2) verbal instructional model, which
Association and received the APA’s involves descriptions and explanations
Award for Distinguished Scientific of a behavior and (3) symbolic model,
Contributions in 1980. which involves real or fictional
The observational learning, also known characters displaying behaviors in books,
as social learning theory or social films, television programs, or online
cognitive theory of Bandura emphasizes media.
the importance of observing and According to social learning theory,
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and people learn by:
emotional reactions of others. Bandura,  Observing what other people do
like Skinner recognizes that much  Considering the apparent
learning takes place as a result of consequences experienced by those
reinforcement. He also stresses that people
virtually all forms of behavior can be  Rehearsing (at first mentally) what
learned without directly experiencing might happen in their own lives if
any reinforcement. they followed the other peoples’
Bandura's learning approach explains behavior
human behavior in terms of continuous  Taking action by trying the behavior
reciprocal interaction between cognitive, themselves
behavioral, an environmental influences.  Comparing their experiences with
Bandura (1977) states that learning what happened to the other people
would be exceedingly laborious, not to  Confirming their belief in the new
mention hazardous, if people had to rely behavior
solely on the effects of their own actions
to inform them what to do. Fortunately,
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Principles of social learning Memory

1. The highest level of observational Memory is the capacity of the nervous
learning is achieved by first system to acquire and retain usable skills
organizing and rehearsing the and knowledge, allowing organisms to
modeled behavior symbolically and benefit from experiences. It is the process
then enacting it overtly. by which we encode store and retrieve
2. Individuals are more likely to adopt information. Memory is the sum totals of
a modeled behavior if it results in what we remember and gives us the
outcomes they value. capacity to learn and adapt from
3. Individuals are more likely to adopt previous experiences as well as to build
a modeled behavior if the model is relationships. It is the ability to
similar to the observer and has remember past experiences and the
admired status and the behavior has power or process of recalling previously
functional value. learned facts, experiences, impression,
Application skills and habits.
Social learning theory has been applied Etymologically, the modern English
extensively to the understanding of Word “Memory” comes to us from the
aggression and psychological disorders, Middle English “Memorie” which in turn
particularly in the context of behavior comes from the Anglo-French “Memoire”
modification. It is also the theoretical or “Memorie”, and ultimately from the
foundation for the technique of behavior Latin “Memoria” and “Memor” meaning
modeling which is widely used in “Mindful” or “Remembering”.
training programs. In recent years, In psychology memory is considered a
Bandura has focused his work on the mental process which provides the basis
concept of self-efficacy in a variety of for all cognitive process such as problem
contexts. The principles of social learning solving, logical thinking, imagination
can be applied to almost any social and and decision making. Memory is an
behavior change communication amazing capacity; we remember millions
program that aims to influence social of pieces of information from the trivial
behaviors, particularly behaviors that are to the vital. Our entire sense of self is
complex or involve interactions with that which we know from our memories,
other people. It may be especially useful from our recollection of personal
when a particular behavior is difficult to experiences. What kind of you are? Are
describe, but can be explained through you Shy or outgoing? To answer such
demonstration or modeling. Also, when questions we rely upon our memories of
adopting or practicing a particular past experiences. Yet, as you will see, our
behavior requires overcoming barriers or memories are often incomplete, biased
challenges, social learning principles can and distorted. We are often surprised at
be used to demonstrate how a person how our memories for events differ
can overcome those challenges and vastly from those of others who
succeed. experiences the identical event. The
specific nature of memory mechanisms
processes, and capacities varies from one
species to another. This variability

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reflects the differing environmental Components of Memory

demands to which different species have Memory consists of three separate but
had to adopt over the cause of evolution. interrelated components they are
Birds can recall the location of the nest; encoding, storage, and retrieval. They
Squirrels remember for months, where are also called the stages of memory.
they stored food; and antelope retain the
association of the lion’s roar with danger Stages of Memory
each species is using memories to adapt
to its environment. Encoding Storage Retrieval
“Memory is a learned capacity for
responding and its persistence over time is
measured by the retention test.”– Adams Creating a Deals with Involves
memory trace different accessing and
“Memory is the process of maintaining take place information recovering
during for different
information over time.”– Martin 2005 presentation length of
stored
information
“Memory is the process by which learned of material time

material is retained.” - C. G. Morris

“Memory is the means by which we draw on Encoding
our past experiences in order to use this Encoding is the first stage of memory, in
information in the present.”– Sternberg this stage the sensory information or the
“Memory consists in remembering what has physical stimulus is received from the
previously been learned.”– Woodworth environment and transformed into
“Memory is an active system that receives neural impulses that can be processed
stores, organizes, alters and recovers further or storage for later use. In
information.” - Liberman 2004 encoding stage information is received
“Memory is a general property of brain and some meaning is derived. In
structure from one individual to another. encoding information is converted into a
Memory of a given item depends not simply form (code) in which it can be placed into
upon the individuals brain but also upon a memory.
specific brain path way.”- William James Storage
“Memory is the ability of an organism to The second stage of memory is storage;
store information from earlier learning in storage the encoded information is
process (experience, retention and reproduce stored so it can be later use. Storage
that information in answer to specific refers to the retention of encoded
stimuli).”– Eysenck representations over time and
"Memory is the general ability, or faculty,
corresponds to some change in the
that enables us to interpret the perceptual
nervous system that registers the event.
world to help organize responses to changes
Stored representations are referred to as
that take place in the world”-Eliasmith
memories.
“Memory is the means by which we retain &
Retrieval
draw on our past experiences to use that
The third stage of memory is retrieval, it
information in the present.”- Tulving & Craik
is the process by which previously
encoded, stored memorized are brought
back for current use. Retrieval is the act
of recalling or remembering the stored
information in order to use it. The act of
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retrieval often involves an explicit effort (even some memories throughout life
to access the contents of memory storage. like school days, marriage, death of
Retrieval is involved in both explicit and loved one etc) and can be placed back
implicit memory systems. into short-term memory in future
through retrieval process.
Information Processing Model of Strengths
Memory 1. The model pioneered the new
The Information Processing Model of approach to memory where humans
memory is given by Richard Atkinson are seen as information processors.
and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. This model 2. The model’s conceptualization of
is also known as multi-store model of memory as multi-stores is supported
memory. The basic tenets of this model by research.
is that information received through our 3. It has been possible to make
sense organs (Eyes, Nose, Ears, Skin, predictions based on the model and
Tongue) from the environment is passed to design experiments.
through two temporary storage buffers Limitations
(stores) before it can be placed into more 1. This model fails to explain how
permanent storage and then retrieved for interaction between the different
later use. stores takes places
2. Research into the encoding of LTM
Attention Rehearsal
has challenged the single-store
Sensory
version of LTM. It is now accepted
Store STM LTM that LTM contains several stores (e.g.
semantic, episodic, and procedural).
Forgetting Forgetting
Forgetting
Methods of testing memory
The obtained information from the There are three main ways of testing
environment is first placed into sensory memory performance, and the type of
store; here the sensory information is test chosen has a strong influence over
immediately and initially recorded of the retrieval scores obtained. The three
sensory. In sensory store the visual methods are:
information can be stored approximately 1. Free recall
1/4 of a second & auditory information 2. Cued recall
up to 3 seconds. 3. Recognition
When the information is successfully Free recall
recognized or attended in sensory store In free recall (also called spontaneous
than information is transferred into the recall) you are required to generate the
short-term memory (STM). In short-term test items from your own memory
memory information is stored up to 20 without any outside help.
seconds, here information is rehearsed Cued recall
(repeated again & again). After that Cued recall also requires you to generate
rehearsed information is transferred test items from your own memory, but
from short-term memory into the long- with the aid of reminders, or ‘retrieval
term store. In long term memory we can cues’ which may help to jog your
store unlimited information for long time memory
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Recognition sensory memory holds an explicit and

In a recognition test the original test literal record of incoming information for
items are re-presented at the retrieval few seconds or less. In sensory memory
stage, and you are merely required to information is received from physical
indicate whether or not you recognize environment by our sensory organs like
them eye, nose, tongue, skin and ears.
Types of Memory Sensory memory is affiliated with the
There are various types of memory transduction of energy (change from one
which are broadly categorized in three form of energy to another). The
stages or types. environment makes available a variety of
1. Sensory memory sources of information (light, sound,
2. Short- term memory smell, heat, cold etc.), but the brain only
3. Long- term memory understands electrical stimulation. The
body has special sensory receptor cells
Human Memory that transducer this external energy to
something the brain can understand. In
the process of transduction, a memory is
Sensory Working Long term created. This memory is very short (less
Memory Memory Memory than ½ seconds for vision, about 3
seconds for hearing).
A sensory memory is one that is special
Visual Auditory to a particular sensory modality and
Sensory Sensory
Memory Memory very briefly continues the sensation of a
stimulus after the stimulus ends.
Characteristics of Sensory Memory
The first and for most characteristics of
Implicit Memory sensory memory is, its contents solely a
Explicit Memory
(Conscious) (Unconscious) record of the sensory effects of the
stimulus. The information perceived in
sensory memory is more or less than a
Declarative Procedural representation of the physical
Memory Memory characteristics of the stimulus.
(Facts, Events) (Skill, Tasks)
A second characteristic of sensory is its
relatively large capacity. In sensory
memory we take in much more
information in a single.
Episodic Memory Somatic memory
Types of Sensory Memory
(events, Experiences) (Facts, Concepts)
Autobiographical 1. Visual sensory memory
memory 2. Auditory sensory memories
Visual Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory Visual sensory memory also known as
Sensory memory is the memory for iconic memory, in iconic memory
sensory information that is stored briefly information is received by May last for
in its originally sensory form. The only 20-400 milliseconds. The idea of
iconic memory is somewhat
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controversial. Most of the evidence for may be stored as images, it works

iconic memory is found in laboratory basically the same as a computers RAM
studies. (Random Access Memory) in that it
Auditory Sensory Memory provides a working space for short
Auditory sensory memory is also known computations and then transfers it to
as echoic memory. In echoic memory other part of the memory system or
information is received by ears. From the discards it. Short term memory is
physical environment like voice song, vulnerable to interruption or
etc. an echo is a brief flurry of activity in interference.
the auditory system. Echoic memory is It has been estimated that short term
the brief registration of sounds or echo’s memory can hold information in it not
in memory. Auditory echoes are slightly more than 18 seconds without rehearsal
longer than icons up to 4,000 information can be hold up to 30 seconds
milliseconds (4 seconds) or 7+2 chunks (Millers Magic Numbers),
however memory capacity can be
Short Term Memory increased through a process called
Look up from this book for a moment chunking, for example, to remember a 10
and note what attracts your visual digit mobile number (9103133348) a
attention? Try to identify the sounds and person could chunk the digits into three
sensation that you are experiencing now. groups like 9103,1333,48. This method of
What you have identified the content of remembering mobile number is far more
your short term memory. effective than attempting to remember a
Short term memory is also called sting of 10 digits. This is because we are
primary memory or working memory. able to chunk the information into
Short term memory holds information meaningful groups of numbers.
received from sensory memory for a Short term memory is also called
short period of time and makes further working memory because it relates to
processing. Short term memory is an what we are thinking about at any given
active system which constantly handles movement of time. In Freudian terms,
combiners and transforms information short term memory is conscious
drawn from both sensory memory and memory. It is created by our paying
long term memory. Short term memory attention to an external stimulus, an
is rapid memory, it is trass dependent internal through, or both it has also been
and no cues are needed while recalling experimentally demonstrated that in
anything. short term memory, sensory information
The concept of short term memory were is maintained in three codes they are
originally introduced by William James acoustic code, visual code and semantic
and revived by Waugh and Normen in code.
1965. Acoustic Coding
Researchers found that short term Acoustic coding is related to sound. It is
memory has limited capacity, Herbert also known as sound coding. In acoustic
Simon and his colleagues indicates that coding information is maintained in
the storage capacity of STM likely varies terms of sounds.
depending on how the information
sounds, especially in recalling words, but
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Visual Coding consonants and asked to remember

In short term memory some information them.
is stored in visual forms like the 3. The visuospatial Sketchpad
photograph of any person it is visual The visuospatial sketchpad is used to
coding. Posner and his associates 1969 process visual information such as
found that at least part of the time objects features and where they are
information is called visually in short located. Suppose while walking alone
term memory. you see a dog. The visuospatial
Semantic Coding sketchpad allows you to keep track of
Semantic code refers to what the item both where the dog is located and
means. In semantic coding information is whether it is the sort of dog that one
coded in short term memory on the base needs to be especially careful to track.
of its means. Patients with some type of brain injury
Components of Working Memory might have great difficulty
The three components of working remembering. Spatial layouts but have
memory are the central executive, little difficulty remembering words,
phonological loop and the visuospatial where as others slow the exact opposite
sketchpad. pattern.
1. The Central Executive
The central executive presides over the Rehearsal
interactions between the subsystems and Rehearsal is a technique people use for
long-term memory, it’s the boss. It keeping information active. Memory
encodes information from the sensory rehearsal is a term for the role of
system and then filters information that repetition in the retention of memories.
is sufficiently important to be stored in The process of rehearsal consists of
long term memory. It also retrieves keeping items of information in the
information from long term memory as center of attention. Rehearsal involves
needed. The central executive relies on repeating information over and over in
two subcomponents that temporarily order to get the information processed
hold auditory or visual information. and stored as a memory. Rehearsal may
2. The Phonological loop be overt, in which case it is usually aloud
The phonological loop encodes auditory and obvious to anyone watching. Or it
information and is active whenever you may be covert, in which case it is silent
read, speak or repeat words to yourself and hidden. When the information is
in order to remember them. You have informed is rehearsal properly it can
probably noticed this “Inner voice” that better stored in long term memory.
reads along as your eyes process written The functions of rehearsal are to
material. If you have not, try to read the maintain information in a temporarily
next sentence without “speaking” the active state during short-term tasks and
words in your head. It is difficult to to create memory traces with some
obtain meaning simply by scanning your permanence. The latter of these functions
eyes across the text. Evidence for the has often been attributed to the class of
phonological loop is found in studies in processes called "elaborative" rehearsal,
which people are shown lists of processes such as chunking, forming

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images, or recoding material in various to one another and therefore more

ways. memorable. This type of rehearsal is
Without any kind of elaboration, the effective because it involves thinking
information cannot be organized and about the meaning of the information
transferred (Tulving, 1962). and connecting it to other information
Types of Rehearsal already stored in memory. It goes much
1. Maintenance Rehearsal deeper than maintenance rehearsal.
2. Elaborative Rehearsal According to the levels-of-processing
Maintenance Rehearsal effect by Fergus I. M. Craik and Robert S.
Maintenance rehearsal is a type of Lockhart in 1972, this type of rehearsal
memory rehearsal that is useful in works best because of this depth of
maintaining information in short term processing. This rehearsal function has
memory or working memory. However, been associated with frontal networks
it is not an effective way of having such as the Broca's area. Elaborative
information processed and transferred rehearsal is also sometimes known as
into long term memory. In maintenance Processes rehearsal.
rehearsal, the individual simply
repetitiously rehearses the items to be Long term Memory
repeated. Such rehearsal temporarily Long term memory (LTM) is that part of
maintains information in short-term memory in information is retained for
memory without transferring the very long period of time, once
information to long-term memory. information is stored there, it may persist
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) posit that through out one’s life. It has been found
maintenance rehearsal causes that certain information we learnt during
information to be transferred from short- is available for retrieval even often 50
to long-term memory. According to the years. It is also true that with passage of
levels-of-processing view (Craik & time a lot of information is stored in long
Lockhart, 1972), maintenance rehearsal term memory. Generally however, long
serves only to hold a particular level of term memory describes a system in the
code intact without creating a deeper brain that can store vast amounts of
level of code information on a relatively enduring
Elaborative Rehearsal basis.
Elaborative rehearsal is a type of Long term memory (LTM) is the final
memory rehearsal that is useful in stage of the dual memory model
transferring information into long term proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin, in
memory. Elaborative rehearsal is that which data can be stored for long
type of rehearsal which makes periods of time.
information more meaningful. In According to Mazur (2006) “long-term
elaborative rehearsal, the individual memory has also been called reference
somehow elaborates the items to be memory, because an individual must refer to
remembered. Such rehearsal makes the the information in long-term memory when
items either more meaningfully performing almost any task”.
integrated into what the person already When most of us talk about memory,
knows or more meaningfully connected however, we usually are talking about
long-term memory. Here we keep
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memories that stay with us over long Types of long term Memory
periods, perhaps indefinitely.
Long term Memory
All of us rely heavily on our long-term
memory. The storage capacity of long
term memory for all practical purposes is
infinite and its duration is more than 30 Explicit Memory Implicit Memory
(Conscious) (Unconscious)
seconds. We hold in it information we
need to get us by in our day-to-day lives
people’s names, where we keep things, Declarative Memory Procedural
how we schedule ourselves on different (Facts, Events) Memory
(Skill,Tasks)
days, and so on. All types of words of
English, Urdu, Hindi or any other
language, scientific facts, past and
Episodic Memory (events, Somatic memory
present events of history all are stored in Experiences) (Facts, Concepts)
long term memory. In LTM the Autobiographical memory
information is stored in temporal
sequence. Explicit Memory
Some neuro-psychologists are of the Explicit memory is that type of long term
view that there are as many items stored memory which includes past experiences
in LTM as there are synapses in the that are consciously brought to mind,
cerebral cortex of the brain. Some think recall recognition and test you’re taken
that more than 1 billion items are stored in school rely on explicit memory.
in ones long term memory. Explicit memory involves the processes
Long term memories are maintained by used to remember specific information.
more stable and permanent changes in Explicit memory refers to the deliberate
neural connections widely spread conscious recollection of facts and past
throughout the brain the hippocampus experiences
area of the brain essentially acts as a kind Declarative Memory
of temporary transit point for long term Declarative memory refers to cognitive
memories, and is not itself used to store information that can be brought to mind.
information. However, it is essential to Declarative memory can involve words,
the consolidation of information from concepts, visual images or both. It is the
short term memory to long term memory for specific facts and personal
memory, and is thought to be involved experiences. It is that type of memory
in changing neural connection for a which an individual learns or receive by
period of 3 months or more after the theories and Laws from childhood up to
initial learning. till death.
Psychologists have different theories Episodic Memory
about how information enters in long Episodic memory refers to one’s
term memory. The traditional view is personal past experiences. It is the sub
that the information enters short term part of declarative memory that records
memory and depending on how it is personal experiences that are linked with
processed may than transfer to long term specific times and places. Episodic
memory. memories are also called

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autobiographical memories. Episodic individual because the source of

memory stores facts, relating to information stored in semantic memory
information we have received or understands. The units of semantic
experience we have had. Such type of memory are concepts, ideas and facts. It
memory consist information regarding is not related to time and space. In this
ones personal life for example what your memory information is stored in form of
first day of school was like, what you did symbols, cues, alphabetic etc.
on your last vacation. It must be Collins and Quillian (1972) have
remember that episodic memory is based proposed that semantics memory might
on individuals own sensory experiences. be organized as an interconnected
The units of episodic memory are network. In the network, each word is
episodes or an event that takes place in stored with a set of pointers to other
one’s life. It is organized in relation to words in the network. The word, concept
time and space. It means that this kind of are the nodes, and the pointers are the
memory consists of not only what connections in the network. Basic to this
happened (the event) but also when network is the assumption that
happen (time) and where it happen information about a particular class of
(place). An important characteristic of things is stored only at the level of the
episodic memory is the emotional nature hierarchy for that class.
of events. It has been commonly Implicit Memory
experienced that highly pleasant as well Implicit memory is that type of long
as painful experienced are remembered term memory in which we use
for longer period of time then non- information from memory but are not
emotional or less emotional events. consciously aware that we are doing so.
Another characteristic of episodic Implicit memory is the process by people
memory is that longer to remember the show an enhancement of memory, most
contents of an event experienced in the often behaviour, without deliberate
past. effort and without any awareness that
Semantic Memory they are remembering anything. Implicit
It is the subpart of declarative memory memory is pervasive throughout daily
that records impersonal knowledge experiences. This type of memory does
about the world. The term “Semantic” not require attention , For instance, you
refers to the meaning including probably have had the experience while
connotations. driving of realizing at some point that
Semantic memory represents ones you have been day dreaming and have
knowledge of trivial or important facts no episodic memory of the past few
independent of personal experience. For seconds or minutes. However, during
instance, people know the capitals of that time you remembered how to drive
countries that they have never visited, and where you were going. Implicit
and even those who have never played memory happens automatically and
base ball know the three strikes means without deliberating effort.
you are out. Procedural Memory
Semantic memory holds all kind of Procedural memory is the sub part of
knowledge held by a person in different implicit memory. It is the unconscious
forms. It is the mental dictionary of an memory of skills and how to do things
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particularly the use of objects or memory knowledge base may be

movements of the body. This memory described as three layers of knowledge:
refers to the way we remember how lifetime periods that span periods of
things are done. Procedural memory is years or decades.
memory for motor, cognitive, and Autobiographical memory refers to
perceptual skills, it includes stimulus – memory of an individual’s history.
response, association and skills patterns Autobiographical memory is
of responses. It is used to acquire and constructive. One does not remember
retain different kinds of skills for exactly what has happened. Rather, one
example swimming or driving a car. In remembers one’s construction or
other words we may say that procedural reconstruction of what happened.
memory deals with memories of action. People’s autobiographical memories are
Our procedural memories have generally quite good. Nevertheless, they
automatic, unconscious aspects to them. are subject to distortions (as will be
For instance, the next time you are discussed later). They are differentially
walking try to think about each step good for different periods of life. Middle-
involved in the process: first you left aged adults often remember events from
your right foot of the ground and their youthful and early-adult periods
slightly bend the knee, and then you better than they remember events from
extend the foot forward while their more recent past.
transferring weight to the right leg, etc. One way of studying autobiographical
Most people find that consciously memory is through diary studies. In such
thinking about automatic behaviours studies, individuals, often researchers,
such as walking interferes with the keep detailed autobiographies (e.g.,
smooth production of those behaviours. Linton, 1982; Wagenaar, 1986). One
Difference between STM and LTM investigator, for example, kept a diary
STM LTM
for a 6-year period (Linton, 1982). She
STM is called LTM is called recorded at least two experiences per
primary memory secondary memory day on index cards. Then, each month
STM has limited STM has unlimited she chose two cards at random and tried
capacity capacity to recall the events she had written on
STM is trace LTM is also trace the cards as well as the dates of the
dependent dependent events. She further rated each memory
memory memory for its salience and its emotional content.
It is rapid memory It is slow memory Surprisingly, her rate of forgetting of
Frontal lobe is Temporal lobe is events was linear. It was not curvilinear,
related for STM related for LTM as is usually the case. In other words, a
Duration is less Duration is more typical memory curve shows substantial
than 30 seconds than 30 seconds forgetting over short time intervals and
then a slowing in the rate of forgetting
over longer time intervals. Linton’s
Autobiographical Memory
Autobiographical memory is memory for forgetting curve, however, did not show
any such pattern. Her rate of forgetting
the events of one’s life. Research
indicates that the autobiographical was about the same over the entire 6-
year interval. She also found little
Psychology for Beginners 74
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

relationship between her ratings of the the accident occur. For example the flood
salience and emotionality of memories, of 2014 is the eye witness memory for
on the one hand, and their memo ability, many people in Kashmir.
on the other. Thus, she surprised herself Psychologists agree that eye witness is
in what she did and did not remember. not always accurate in the recollection of
Flush Bulb Memories events.
The term “Flush Bulb Memory” was It is due to eye witness testimony that in
coined by Brown and Kulikin in 1977. ever year thousands of people has been
Flush bulb memories are the memories sentenced or declared guilty by the
of the events that are very arousing or court, which are not really perform any
surprising, such memories are very unlawful activity. Similarly lot of guilty
detailed. In other words we may say that people has been sentenced innocent by
flush bulb memory is an unusually vivid the court.
memory of an especially emotional or
dramatic past event, these memories Forgetting
may also be associated with vivid Forgetting is defined as the loss of
emotional experiences in one’s own life information over time. Forgetting is one
like the death of a family member, close of the more vexing aspect of memory, it
friend or the birth of a baby in a car. refers to apparent loss or modification of
Flush bulb memories are like image information already encoded and stored
frozen in a memory card tied to a in an individual’s long term memory.
particular place, dates, and times. Forgetting is a spontaneous or gradual
Psychologists use the term flush bulb process in which old memories are
memory to describe images that seems to unable to be recalled from memory
be frozen in memory of an individual at storage. Forgetting follows
times of personal tragedy, accident or memorization if forgetting is completely
other emotional events. Flush bulb eliminated the human memory will be
memories are one type of burdened with much unnecessary
autobiographical memory. Flush bulb materials and with unpleasant
memory as term was firstly used to experiences thus making the life
describe recollections that seemed to be miserable. It is essential to forget
usually vivid and permanent. unwanted and painful things or
Psychologists found that flush bulb situations and episodes. Forgetting also
memories are not always accurate. helps to reconcile the storage of new
According to Robin 1985 Flush bulb information with old knowledge.
memories are most often formed when The subject of forgetting is one of the
an event is surprising important or oldest topics in experimental
emotional. psychology. Psychologists from very
beginning find the answer of the major
Eye witness Memory question, How forgetting occurs?
Eye witness memory can be defined as Psychologists start experiments aimed at
the memory which is related to any answering this question in the late 19th
witnessed event. In which an individual century with the work of Greman
see any accident is happen and recalls it psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus who
in his memory and later describes how initiated the scientific study of human
Psychology for Beginners 75
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

memory in experiments that he began in Types of Forgetting

1879 and published in 1885 in his book 1. Natural forgetting
“On Memory “. He developed 2300 non 2. Abnormal forgetting
sense syllables strings of letters that 3. Active forgetting
mean nothing each consisting of three 4. Passive forgetting
letters, with a vowel between consonants Natural Forgetting
like ZIK, DAS,TER etc. using himself as a Natural forgetting is normal forgetting,
subject, he than selected groups of seven this type of forgetting is found in every
to thirty six non sense syllables, learned human being. According to this type of
them , and tried to recall them,. He forgetting an individual forget things
found that after 20 minute he could with the passage of time or due to the
remember 58% of list, after 48 hours less disuse of learnt material we all forget
than 40%. When he learned a forgetting various things in our life like operating a
list, he took him fewer trails than it had computer if not use for long period of
taken to learn it in the first place. By time, in this type of forgetting a person
relating savings on relearning to time forget unnecessary and unwanted
since learning, a forgetting curve can be things.
obtained. The Ebbinghaus curve shows, Abnormal Forgetting
forgetting is rapid at first and then Abnormal forgetting is that type of
becomes more and more gradual. More forgetting in which an individual forget
recent studies have shown that other things due to some psychological
types of memory tasks typically follow problems, Brain chemistry, accident or
this pattern but vary in forgetting rates any sever problem. Depression, anxiety,
(Fioravanti and Dicesare, 1992) and that O.C.D etc. are some psychological
memory for words is lost more quickly problems which are responsible for
than memory for picture (Hart and O. forgetting. Any neurological problem or
Shanick, 1993). There are a number of accident which damages the brain also
possible of explanations for forgetting: causes forgetting. Abnormal forgetting
the limits of STM may be exceeded; the includes amnesia, functional amnesia,
encoding of information may be organic amnesia, intergrades amnesia
inadequate or incomplete; information and retrograde amnesia.
stored briefly in STM may not have been Active Forgetting
transferred to LTM, or the material may Active forgetting is that type of
have been stored in LTM but still be in forgetting in which an individual makes
accessible because cues necessary for a conscious effort to forget unpleasant
retrieval are absent. and painful experience of his life. In
“Forgetting is failing to retain or recall what active forgetting an individual repressed
has been acquired.” - Norman and Munn his/ her unwanted thoughts, feelings
“Forgetting is a passive mental process, it and events in unconscious mind. In
continues automatically and individual active forgetting individual deliberately
cannot do much about it.” – Ebbinghaus wants to forget things.
“Forgetting is fading of original experience with Passive Forgetting
passage of time. It arises due to disuse.”– Aristotle In passive forgetting a person forget
things without making any attempts. He
forgets things automatically as natural
Psychology for Beginners 76
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

process. This type of forgetting is little Brain Chemistry

similar to normal forgetting. Damage of any part of the brain like
medial diencephalon, frontal cortex,
Causes of Forgetting hippocampus, temporal cortex,
Following are some factors which are thalamus, and amygdala can cause
responsible for forgetting forgetting. Loss of neurons and neural
1. Faculty memory process connections is also responsible for
2. Interference disuse forgetting.
3. Interest Drugs
4. Brain chemistry Use of drugs that decrease the levels of
5. Drugs acetylcholine (Ach) in the brain also
Faculty Memory Process causes forgetting.
One of the main causes of forgetting is
faculty memory process like encoding, Theories of Forgetting
storage and retrieval. We forget that There are two general classes of theories
information which is not properly of forgetting. One class is based on the
encoded, stored or recalled by our idea that information can be lost from
memory. long term memory. These theories are
Interferences known as availability theories. The
Interference is the main cause of second and current dominant approach
forgetting. We forget things because they suggested that information is not
are somehow interfered with by other permanently lost from long term
items learned before or after. There are memory but may became difficult to
two types of interference. retrieve there are called accessibility
 Proactive interference theories.
 Retroactive interference Availability theories include trace decay
Proactive Interference theory, disuse theory, interference theory
Proactive interference is that when the and encoding failure. Accessibility
learning task interferes with later task theories include retrieval theory and
and inhibits recall of new task. motivational theory.
Retroactive interference
Retroactive interference is that exposure Availability theories of Forgetting
to new information, impedes the The older, but still active theories of
recollection of previously memorized forgetting are based on a concept of true
material. information loss. If you can’t remember
Disuse it, it is simply gone-deleted from the
Another main cause of forgetting is brain and no longer available. The four
disuse of learned material. When a major theories of this type are trace-
learned material is not used for long decay, disuse, interference and encoding
period of time it forgets. failure.
Interest
Interest is also a cause of forgetting. Trace-Decay Theory
Psychologists found that we forget more The emphasis in trace decay theory is on
dislike things. the failure to store information
permanently in memory. Trace-decay
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Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

theory holds that forgetting results when repeated retrieval of similar information
memory traces in the brain weaken and that leads to memory loss
disappear with the simple passage of
time. The term decay theory was first Interference Theory
coined by Edward Thorndike in his book Interference theory refers to the view
“The Psychology of Learning” in 1914. that forgetting occurs because recall of
Decay theory asserts that information is certain words interferes with recall of
forgotten because of the gradual other words. Evidence for interference
disappearance, rather than displacement, goes back many years (Brown, 1958;
of the memory trace. Thus, decay theory Peterson & Peterson, 1959). In one study,
views the original piece of information participants were asked to recall
as gradually disappearing unless trigrams (strings of three letters) at
something is done to keep it intact. This intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds
view contrasts with interference theory, after the presentation of the last letter
in which one or more pieces of (Peterson & Peterson, 1959).
information block recall of another. Interference theory holds that we retain,
Although there is evidence that decay everything we learn unless other
does occur, this does not seem to be the memories either prior to or following
complete explanation for forgetting. current learning compete with the
Often there is no relationship between information to be retained.
how long ago a person was exposed to According to interference theory, our
information and how well that ability to remember what we are
information is recalled. If decay currently learning can be disrupted (or
explained all forgetting, we would interfered) with either by what we have
expect that the more time that has previously learned or by subsequently
elapsed between the initial learning of learning. When previous learning
information and our attempt to recall it, interferes with our memory of later
the harder it would be to remember it learning, we have proactive interference.
because there would be more time for When later learning disrupts memory for
the memory trace to decay. Yet people earlier learning, there is retroactive
who take several consecutive tests on the interference are both maximal when two
same material often recall more of the different responses have been associated
initial information when taking later with the same stimulus, intermediate
tests than they did on earlier tests. If when two similar responses have been
decay were operating, we would expect associated with the same stimulus and
the opposite to occur (Payne, 1986). minimal when two different stimuli are
Because decay does not fully account for involved (Under Wood and Postman
forgetting, memory specialists have 1960).
proposed an additional mechanism to There are mainly two kinds of
find how we forget. interference retroactive interference and
proactive interference.
Disuse Theory Retroactive Interference
A new version of the trace –decay view, Retroactive interference (Retro-
disuse theory suggests that it is not the backward) also known as retroactive
mere passage of time, but rather the inhibition, it occurs when newly
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Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

acquired knowledge impedes the recall alcoholic patients have difficulty

of older material. Retroactive integrating past information with new
interference is that in which there is information. Thus, alcoholic patients
difficulty in the recall of information may have difficulty binding together
learned earlier because of later exposure unrelated items in a list (De Rosa &
to different material Sullivan, 2003). Taken together, these
This kind of interference is caused by findings suggest that Brodmann area 45
activity occurring after we learn is likely involved in the binding of items
something but before we are asked to into meaningful groups. When more
recall that thing. information is gathered, an attempt to
Proactive Interference relate them to one another can occupy
Proactive interference (Pro-forward) also much of the available resources, leaving
known as proactive inhibition, this type limited processing ability for new items.
of interference occurs when material that Proactive as well as retroactive
was learned in the past impedes the interference may play a role in short-
learning of new material. In proactive term memory Thus; retroactive
interference, information learned earlier interference appears to be important but
disrupts the recall of newer material. In not the only factor impeding memory
this case, the interfering material occurs performance.
before, rather than after, learning of the
to-be-remembered material. If you have Accessibility theories of Forgetting
studied more than one foreign language, Availability theories have become
you may have experienced this effect increasingly unpopular in recent years,
quite intensely. though they are by no means dead. The
The amount of proactive interference currently dominant view is that
generally climbs with increases in the memories are retained in long term
length of time between when the memory stored somewhere in your brain
information is presented (and encoded) but that some become inaccessible. Two
and when the information is retrieved major accessibility theories are retrieval
(Underwood, 1957). Also as you might failure theory and motivational theory
expect, proactive interference increases
as the amount of prior and potentially Retrieval Failure theory
interfering learning increases (Greenberg The Retrieval failure theory of forgetting
& Underwood, 1950). Proactive suggests that memories, though trivial
interference generally has stronger cues, words or images that are associated
effects in older adults than in younger with memory and can elicit it are not
people (Ebert & Anderson, 2009). present. Suppose an exam question asks
Proactive interference seems to be you to discuss the major structures of the
associated with activation in the frontal central nervous system. If you cannot
cortex. In particular, it activates remember the retrieval cues for example,
Brodmann area 45 in the left hemisphere that ‘’fore-brain” is a sub category under
(Postle, Brush, & Nick, 2004). In alcoholic “brain” you will have great difficulty
patients, proactive interference is seen to remembering the specific structures in
a lesser degree than in non-alcoholic the fore-brain.
patients. This finding suggests that the
Psychology for Beginners 79
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

A considerable amount of research repetition in the retention of memories.

suggested that the best cues for retrieval The process of rehearsal consists of
are distinctive events (Watkins 1985). keeping items of information in the
“Tool” would be a distinctive and center of attention. Rehearsal involves
therefore excellent retrieval cue for repeating information over and over in
“Hammer” if all the other items in the order to get the information processed
memory list were fruits and vegetables, and stored as a memory.
it would be a virtually useless cue if all Chunking
the other items were also tools. Chunking is the process through which
the large material or information is
Motivational Theory stored in long term memory by breaking
So you have forgotten once again where it into many meaningful units called
you left your notes for the impossible Chunks for example, to remember a 10
math course, the specific criticisms the digit mobile number (9103133348) a
boss mentioned when he called into his person could chunk the digits into three
office last week and the name of the girl groups like 9103,1333,48. This method of
in high school you repeatedly rejected remembering mobile number is far more
your proposal. effective than attempting to remember a
Such forgetting appears to be motivated sting of 10 digits. This is because we are
by our need and desires we tend, for able to chunk the information into
example to remember positive aspects of meaningful groups of numbers
our experiences better than negative Elaborative Processing
ones. Gamblers remember times they There is evidence that more elaborative
have won and forget times they have processing results better memory.
lost, and students have more detailed Elaborative processing involves thinking
memories relating to courses they did of information that relates to and
well in than courses did poorly in. expands on the information that needs to
be remembered. For instance, you want
Techniques for improving memory remember the name of your class teacher
Researchers found following fruitful who teach you math in 10th, in
techniques for improving human elaborative process you recall your
memory. school days first than all related
Proper attention information will be send back from long
Proper attention plays a vital role in term memory to short term memory and
remembering process, without paying you get the name of your class teacher.
proper attention towards the information Mnemonics
received through sense organs from the The mnemonic devices are found to be
environment we can't send it to our short good methods in helping people to
term memory. Maximum time's people remember material quickly and easily.
forget things due to less or no attention The mnemonic device is a method of
towards them. organizing materials, through this device
Rehearsal the person consciously puts certain
Rehearsal is a technique used for systems or order in the material he
keeping information active. Memory learns. He can use meanings, rhythms
rehearsal is a term for the role of
Psychology for Beginners 80
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

and groupings as means of organizing

the material.
Sleep
Studies have shown that the brain
requires 7-8 hours of sleep per night.
Sleep strengthens relevant associations
and weakens irrelevant associations,
thus improving your access to memories.

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Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

Do you know? father of modern experimental

 The simplest kind of learning is research in memory.
called conditioning.  Short term memory is called primary
 Effect of prior learning on new memory.
learning is called transfer of learning.  Long term memory is called
 In America earliest work on secondary memory.
instrumental conditioning was  Frontal lobe is related for short term
started by Edward Lee Thorndike. memory.
 Ivan Pavlov won Nobel Prize in  Temporal lobe is related for long
Medicine in 1904. term memory.
 There are three types of transfer of  Proactive interference is also known
learning, positive transfer, negative as proactive inhibition.
transfer and zero transfer.  Auditory echoes are slightly longer
 Latent learning is the example of than icons up to 4,000 milliseconds (4
classical conditioning. seconds).
 Ivan Pavlov was the Russian  Amnesia means partial or complete
Physiologist. loss of memory.
 The author of The Behaviour of  According to Tulving, there are three
organisms is Burrhus Frederic types of long term memory namely,
Skinner. episodic, semantic and procedural
 Reinforcement can be both positive memory.
and negative.  The situation of feeling certain we
 In 1912, Thorndike was elected know a specific name or word, yet
president for the American being unable to recall it immediately
Psychological Association. is called tip-of-the-tongue state.
 Conditioned reflex is a reflex that can  Echoic memory is the brief
be evoked in response to a registration of sounds or echos in
conditioned stimulus. memory.
 Negative transfer is a type of  Rehearsal is a major factor in
learning in which prior experience retention.
imparts negatively on the new one.  Episodic memory stores facts relating
 Positive transfer is a situation where information.
by a previously learnt fact or  Procedural memory is memory for
information aids in the motor, cognitive, and perceptual
understanding of a new task. skills.
 Stimulus control is a condition in  Sigmund Freud argued that selective
which the specific stimulus can forgetting is result of repression.
reliably produced the brain.  A widely used mnemonic is called
 Hippocampus plays a vital role in first latter technique.
learning.  Maintenance rehearsal is useful for
 Shaping is a classical concept in maintaining information in the STM.
instrumental and operant
conditioning. Choose the correct answer
 Herman Ebbinghaus (1985) a 1. An eventual aspect of all learning is
German psychologist is consider the A. Emotional
Psychology for Beginners 82
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

B. Imitation 9. The Behaviour of organisms is

C. Association written by
D. Motivation A. Thorndike
2. Observational learning is also called B. Skinner
A. Imitation C. Pavlov
B. Social learning D. Kohler
C. Modeling 10. Who was the wife of Thorndike
D. All of the above A. Elizabeth Moulton
3. Much learning in human being takes B. O. Anna
place by C. Anna Freud
A. Trial and error D. Yvonne Blue
B. Imitation and insight 11. Who was the wife of Burrhus
C. Insight and conditioning Frederic Skinner
D. Conditioning and imitation A. Yvonne Blue
4. Which of the following is most likely B. Elizabeth Moulton
to be a primary reinforcer? C. O. Anna
A. Praise D. Anna Freud
B. Money 12. Gestalt learning theory was given by
C. Attention A. Max Wretheimer.
D. Water B. Yvonne Blue
5. The learning situation in classical C. Elizabeth Moulton
conditioning is one of _____learning D. Skinner
A. S-S 13. Cognitive Apprenticeship is related
B. S-R to
C. R-S A. Carl Jung
D. R-R B. Anna Freud
6. Conditioned stimulus is also known C. Ivan Pavlov
as D. John Selly Brown’s
A. Neutral stimulus 14. Associative learning includes
B. Specific stimulus A. Classical conditioning
C. General stimulus B. Instrumental conditioning
D. None of them C. Complex learning
7. Stimulus substitution theory was D. All of the above
originated by 15. Non-Associative learning includes
A. Thorndike A. Habitualization
B. Skinner B. Sensitization
C. Pavlov C. Both A & B
D. Kohler D. None of the above
8. A dependable inborn stimulus 16. The contiguity theory was given by
response connection is called A. Jung
A. Shaping B. Edward Guthrie
B. ACER C. Kohler
C. A reflex D. Elizabeth Moulton
D. A reinforcer 17. When learning involves the
formation of concepts is called
Psychology for Beginners 83
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

A. Concept learning C. Mneme

B. Operant learning D. Phoneme
C. Instrumental learning 25. Memory span is affected by
D. Insight and conditioning A. Sex
18. Transformational learning is given B. Age
by C. Both A & B
A. Blue D. Only B
B. Mounlton 26. Dual-code hypothesis was proposed
C. Mezirow by
D. Wretheimer A. Paivio
19. The concept of learned helplessness B. Ebbinghaus
was given by C. Freud
A. Freud D. Adler
B. Seligman 27. PQRST is a technique developed by
C. Kohler Thomas and Robinson to help
D. Thorndike students in studying their textbooks
20. When the UCS is removed and the refers to
CS is presented alone for the period A. Preview
of time what will occur. B. Question
A. Classical conditioning C. Read
B. Generalization D. All of the above
C. Acquisition 28. Putting coded information into
D. Extinction memory is
21. Eidectic imagenery is more frequent A. Retrieval
among B. Encoding
A. Children C. Storage
B. Adults D. Rehearsal
C. Male 29. In short term memory information is
D. Female stored up to
22. “I spend my college days in Japan” A. 50 seconds
remembering this is B. 40 seconds
A. Episodic memory C. 30 seconds
B. Short term memory D. 20 seconds
C. Sensory memory 30. The term “amnesia” is a kind of
D. Semantic memory A. Loss of memory
23. The most essential feature of memory B. Loss of beloved
is C. Memory
A. Recall D. Schema
B. Recognition 31. Visual sensory memory is also
C. Fixation known as
D. Retention A. Echoic memory
24. Altered state of living tissue B. Iconic memory
responsible for memory is called C. Both A & B
A. Axon D. None of the above
B. Engram
Psychology for Beginners 84
Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

32. Auditory sensory memory is also B. LTM

known as C. Forgetting
A. Echoic memory D. Sensory memory
B. Iconic memory 41. _______ is slow memory
C. Both A & B A. STM
D. None of the above B. LTM
33. 7+2 are C. Forgetting
A. Millers unique numbers D. Sensory memory
B. Millers best numbers 42. _____developed 2300 Non Sense
C. Millers magic numbers Syllables.
D. All of the above A. Quillian
34. The visuospatial Sketchpad is used to B. Brown and Kulikin
A. Process visual information C. Collin and Quillian
B. Process Auditory information D. Hermann Ebbinghaus
C. Process both visual and 43. ____ found that after 20 minutes he
auditory information could remember only 58 %
D. None of the above A. Quillian
35. Elaborative rehearsal is a type of B. Brown and Kulikin
A. Memory Rehearsal C. Collin and Quillian
B. Maintenance Rehearsal D. Hermann Ebbinghaus
C. Both A & B 44. Proactive interference is also known
D. None of the above as
36. Semantic memory is subpart of A. Pro Forward
A. Episodic memory B. Proactive interference
B. Declarative Memory C. Both A & B
C. Explicit memory D. None of the Above
D. Procedural memory 45. Senile dementia is characterized by
37. The term Flush Bulb Memory was defects in
coined by A. Memory and abstract thought
A. Collins B. Attention
B. Quillian C. Judgment
C. Brown and Kulikin D. All of the above
D. Collin and Quillian 46. Memory trace in brain is called
38. Frontal Lobe is associated with A. Flashbulb
A. STM B. Engram
B. LTM C. Both A & B
C. Forgetting D. None of these
D. Sensory memory 47. Forgetting of past events together
39. Temporal Lobe is associated with with the inability to form new
A. STM memories are_______
B. LTM A. Transient global amnesia
C. Forgetting B. Dream amnesia
D. Sensory memory C. Defense amnesia
40. _______ is rapid memory D. Childhood amnesia
A. STM
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Learning and Memory Mumta Psychology

48. Forgetting events one was exposed to

in the past is called
A. Transient global amnesia
B. Dream amnesia
C. Defense amnesia
D. Retrograde amnesia
49. Reconstruction in memory is
sometimes called
A. Confabulation
B. Forgetting
C. Subjective organisation
D. Schemata
50. Meaning of words and concepts and
the rules for using them in language
are contained in
A. Episodic memory
B. Declarative Memory
C. Semantic memory
D. Procedural memory

Answer
01 D 11 A 21 A 31 B 41 B
02 D 12 A 22 A 32 A 42 D
03 D 13 D 23 D 33 C 43 D
04 D 14 D 24 B 34 A 44 C
05 A 15 C 25 C 35 A 45 D
06 A 16 B 26 A 36 B 46 B
07 C 17 A 27 D 37 C 47 A
08 C 18 C 28 C 38 A 48 D
09 B 19 B 29 C 39 B 49 A
10 A 20 D 30 A 40 A 50 C

Psychology for Beginners 86