Module 7
Single-variable functions: derivative’s theorems
Prof. Serena Brianzoni
Mathematics
Digital Economics and Business - Bachelor’s Degree
Marche Polytechnic University
Single-variable functions:
derivative’s theorems
Rolle’s Theorem
• Hypothesis: let y = f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b) with f (a) = f (b).
• Thesis: ∃c ∈ (a, b) at which f ′ (c) = 0
1
Rolle’s Theorem: graphically
Graphically: under these assumptions, there is at least one point
on the graph with a horizontal tangent.
2
Rolle’s Theorem: hypothesis violations
3
Rolle’s Theorem
Example
Let y = f (x) = x3 − x in the interval [−1, 1]. f (x) is continuous
on [−1, 1] and differentiable on (−1, 1). Furthermore, we have
f (−1) = f (1) = 0 ⇒ the hypotheses are satisfied.
⇒ ∃c ∈ (−1, 1) with f ′ (c) = 0
√
1 3
f ′ (c) = 3c2 − 1 ⇒ c2 = ⇒c=±
3 3
4
Mean value theorem
• Hypothesis: let y = f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b) with f (a) ̸= f (b).
• Thesis: ∃c ∈ (a, b) with
f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
Geometrically: there is at least one point on the graph at which
the tangent is parallel to the line joining (a; f (a)) and (b; f (b)).
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Mean value theorem: graphically
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L’Hopital’s Rule
• Applies to the resolution of the following indeterminate forms
of limits:
f (x) 0 ±∞
lim = ,
x→c g(x) 0 ±∞
f (x) 0 ±∞
lim = ,
x→±∞ g(x) 0 ±∞
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L’Hopital’s Rule
Hypothesis:
→ let f (x) and g(x) be differentiable on a neighborhood of c (or
infinity)
→ in the neighborhood of c (or infinity) g ′ (x) ̸= 0
→ with x→clim fg(x)
(x)
= 00 , ∞
∞
(x→∞)
f ′ (x)
→ there exists x→c
lim g ′ (x)
(x→∞)
8
L’Hopital’s Rule
Thesis: the first limit exists and we have:
f (x) f ′ (x)
lim
x→c
= x→c
lim ′
(x→∞)
g(x) (x→∞) g (x)
NOTE
We must take the quotient of the derivatives and not the
derivative of the quotient!
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L’Hopital’s Rule
Example
Calculate the limit:
loga (1 + x) 0
lim = I.F.
x→0 x 0
1
Numerator: D(loga (1 + x)) = 1+x loga e
Denominator: D(x) = 1
loga (1 + x) 1
lim = lim loga e = loga e
x→0 x x→0 1 + x
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L’Hopital’s Rule
Example
Calculate the limit:
ax − 1 0
lim =
x→0 x 0
′ x
f (x) a · log a
lim ′ = lim = log a
x→0 g (x) x→0 1
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L’Hopital’s Rule
Example
Calculate the limit:
(1 + x)a − 1 0
lim =
x→0 x 0
f ′ (x) a · (1 + x)a−1
lim = lim =a
x→0 g ′ (x) x→0 1
12
Remarks
• The condition of the theorem is only sufficient, but not
necessary
• The rule can be applied repeatedly to subsequent derivatives if
the limit of the quotient of the derivatives still has an
indeterminate form of the required type
f ′ (x) f ′′ (x)
lim = lim ′′ =L
x→c g ′ (x) x→c g (x)
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Indeterminate form 0 · ∞
• An indeterminate form of the type
lim f (x) · g(x) = 0 · ∞
x→c
can be traced back to the previous forms by noting that:
f (x) f (x) 0
f (x) · g(x) = 1 ⇒ lim =
x→c 1 0
g(x) g(x)
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Indeterminate form 0 · ∞
Example
log x ∞
lim+ (x · log x) = lim+ 1 =
x→0 x→0
x
∞
1
f ′ (x) x
lim = lim+ −1 = lim+ (−x) = 0
x→0+ g ′ (x) x→0 x→0
x2
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Other indeterminate forms
Let’s start from the limit
lim f (x)g(x) = lim eg(x)·log f (x)
x→c x→c
We can have 3 cases for the exponent:
lim g(x) · log f (x) = +∞ ⇒ lim f (x)g(x) = +∞
x→c x→c
lim g(x) · log f (x) = l ⇒ lim f (x)g(x) = el
x→c x→c
lim g(x) · log f (x) = −∞ ⇒ lim f (x)g(x) = 0
x→c x→c
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Other indeterminate forms
If instead:
lim g(x) · log f (x) = 0 · ∞
x→c
→ we can go back to the indeterminate forms of the type:
0 ∞
,
0 ∞
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Other indeterminate forms
Example
Let’s calculate
lim+ xx = lim+ ex·log x
x→0 x→0
lim+ (x · log x) = 0 ⇒ lim+ xx = e0 = 1
x→0 x→0
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Other indeterminate forms
Example
Let’s calculate
x1
= lim e x ·log(x +1)
1 3
lim x3 + 1
x→+∞ x→+∞
3
1 log x + 1 ∞
· log x3 + 1 = lim
lim = =
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x ∞
3x2
= lim 3 =0
x→+∞ x + 1
1
⇒ lim x3 + 1 x = e0 = 1
x→+∞
19
Increasing and decreasing functions
The function f (x) is strictly increasing at c if there exists a
neighborhood of c such that:
f (c + ∆x) > f (c) with ∆x > 0
f (c + ∆x) < f (c) with ∆x < 0
The function f (x) is strictly decreasing at c if there exists a
neighborhood of c such that:
f (c + ∆x) < f (c) with ∆x > 0
f (c + ∆x) > f (c) with ∆x < 0
Remark: the point x = c belongs to the domain and the considered neighborhood is entirely
20
contained in the domain
Increasing and decreasing functions
Equivalent conditions: setting ∆y = f (c + ∆x) − f (c)
→ f (x) strictly increasing:
)
∆y > 0 with ∆x > 0 ∆y
⇒ >0
∆y < 0 with ∆x < 0 ∆x
→ f (x) strictly decreasing:
)
∆y < 0 with ∆x > 0 ∆y
⇒ <0
∆y > 0 with ∆x < 0 ∆x
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Increasing function: example
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Increasing and decreasing functions
• A function f (x) is strictly increasing on an interval (or in its
domain) if it is increasing at every point of the interval (at
every point of its domain)
• A function f (x) is strictly decreasing on an interval (or in its
domain) if it is increasing at every point of the interval (at
every point of its domain)
• REMARK. In general, we will speak of increasing functions
instead of strictly increasing ones (same applies for decreasing
functions)
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Increase and decrease for differentiable functions
• THEOREM If f (x) is differentiable at c with f ′ (c) > 0, then
f (x) is increasing at c
• THEOREM If f (x) is differentiable at c with f ′ (c) < 0, then
f (x) is decreasing at c
Proof. From the hypothesis:
∆y
f ′ (c) = lim >0
∆x→0 ∆x
By applying the theorem of sign permanence →
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Increase and decrease for differentiable functions
we can determine a δ neighborhood of c such that
∆y
∀x = c + ∆x ∈ Iδ (c) ⇒ >0
∆x
that is, f is increasing at c.
The proof for decreasing functions is similar.
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Increase and decrease for differentiable functions
Previous theorems can be extended to an interval I (or to the
entire domain).
• THEOREM If f (x) is differentiable on I with
f ′ (c) > 0 (∀c ∈ I), then f (x) is increasing on I
• THEOREM If f (x) is differentiable on I with
f ′ (c) < 0 (∀c ∈ I), then f (x) is decreasing on I
• Remark The opposite does not hold. For example, y = x3 is
strictly increasing on (−∞, +∞) but f ′ (0) = 0
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Increase and decrease for differentiable functions
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Increase and decrease for differentiable functions
• THEOREM If f (x) is differentiable at c and if f (x) is
increasing at c then we have:
f ′ (c) ≥ 0
• THEOREM If f (x) is differentiable at c and if f (x) is
decreasing at c then we have:
f ′ (c) ≤ 0
Same statements apply for differentiable functions on an interval
(or on the domain)
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Relative maxima and minima
DEFINITION. Point c is a local maximum for f (x) if there exists a
neighborhood of c such that:
f (x) ≤ f (c) ∀x ∈ I(c)
DEFINITION. Point c is a local minimum for f (x) if there exists a
neighborhood of c such that:
f (x) ≥ f (c) ∀x ∈ I(c)
An absolute extremum (the previous inequalities hold on the entire
domain) is also local (but not viceversa).
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Relative maxima and minima for differentiable func-
tions
THEOREM (necessary condition). If the function f is differentiable
at point c and has a relative extremum then:
f ′ (c) = 0
Proof. It cannot be f ′ (c) > 0 as it implies increase and neither
f ′ (c) < 0 as it implies decrease. We therefore have the thesis.
Remark. Points at which the derivative is zero are called stationary
points (the tangent to the graph at a stationary point is horizontal).
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Relative maxima and minima for differentiable func-
tions
Not all stationary points are relative extrema. Sufficient conditions
are needed:
• THEOREM. Let f be differentiable at point c with c being the
stationary point. If the derivative changes sign in a
neighborhood of the point c then c is a relative extrema.
Otherwise, we have an inflection with a horizontal tangent.
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Relative maxima and minima
Local study of stationary points:
• Relative maximum
• Relative minimum
• Inflection with ascending horizontal tangent
• Inflection with descending horizontal tangent
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Relative maximum
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Relative minimum
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Inflection with ascending horizontal tangent
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Inflection with descending horizontal tangent
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Relative maxima and minima
Instead of studying the first derivative around a stationary point, we
can compute the value of the second derivative at the point →
second-order sufficient conditions.
THEOREM. Let c be a stationary point for f and suppose that
there exists f ′′ (c). Then:
• if f ′′ (c) > 0, we have a minimum.
• If f ′′ (c) < 0, we have a maximum.
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Concavity and Curve Sketching
Concavity and convexity
Concavity and convexity are related to the sign of the second
derivative. We will consider concavity/convexity in the strict sense.
• THEOREM (sufficient condition). If f ′′ is positive at a point
(interval) then the function is convex at that point (interval).
• THEOREM (sufficient condition). If f ′′ is negative at a point
(interval) then the function is concave at that point (interval).
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Concavity and convexity
Remark: the oppsite does not hold. Specifically:
• THEOREM. If f is convex at a point and the second derivative
exists, then it is non-negative (it can also be zero).
• THEOREM. If f is concave at a point and the second
derivative exists, then it is non-positive (it can also be zero).
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Inflection points
• If at a point the second derivative is zero, changing sign in a
neighborhood of that point, we have a change of concavity,
that is, an inflection point.
• The tangent to the graph at the inflection point is above the
graph in the left neighborhood and below the graph in the
right neighborhood (or vice versa).
• The inflectional tangent ”crosses” the graph at the inflection
point.
40
Inflection points
THEOREM. If the second derivative exists at an inflection point, it
is equal to zero.
→ This is a NECESSARY but NOT SUFFICIENT condition for the
existence of inflection points. Specifically, the second derivative
must change sign in a neighborhood of the inflection point (this
condition is linked to a change in concavity).
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Inflection points
To find the inflection points we can use higher-order derivatives:
• if f ′′ (c) = 0, f ′′′ (c) ̸= 0, we have an inflection point.
• if f ′′ (c) = f ′′′ (c) = 0 → look for higher-order derivatives.
THEOREM. Let f ′ (c) = f ′′ (c) = 0. If the first non-zero derivative
has an even order then we have an extremum (a maximum if the
derivative is negative; a minimum if the derivative is positive). If it
has an odd order, we have an inflection point.
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Inflection points
Example
f (x) = x4 → minimum at the origin
f (x) = −x4 → maximum at the origin
f (x) = x5 → inflection at the origin
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Inflection points
The inflectional tangent (at the inflection point c) has equation:
y − f (c) = f ′ (c) · (x − c)
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Second derivative for stationary points
• Relative maximum
• Relative minimum
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Inflection points
• Inflection point with ascending horizontal tangent
• Inflection point with descending horizontal tangent
46
Critical points
Hypothesis. The function exists at c, it is continuous but not
differentiable at the point considered.
Case 1. CORNER POINT
The right and left derivatives at c both exist, have finite but
different values:
f ′ (c)+ ̸= f ′ (c)−
Example
The absolute value function at the origin
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Critical points: cusp
Case 2. CUSP
The left and right derivatives are opposite and have infinite value:
f ′ (c)+ = −f ′ (c)− = ±∞
Cusp example
√ 2 1
y = x2 = x 3 → E = R, y ′ = 2
· x− 3 = 2
3
3
√
33x
→ E = R \ {0}
lim+ y ′ = +∞, lim− y ′ = −∞
x→0 x→0
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Critical points: cusp
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Critical points: vertical tangent inflection point
Case 3. VERTICAL TANGENT INFLECTION POINT
The right and left derivatives coincide and have infinite value:
f ′ (c)+ = f ′ (c)− = ±∞
Example
√
y = 3 x → E = R, y ′ = 3 √31x2 → E = R \ {0}
lim+ y ′ = +∞, lim− y ′ = +∞
x→0 x→0
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Critical points: vertical tangent inflection point
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Study of a single-variable function
Procedure for graphing y = f (x)
1. Identify A: the domain of f
Hint: write existence conditions and solve them
2. Find any possible intercepts with the axes and study the sign
of f (x)
Hint: a) if 0 ∈ A compute f (0), b) solve f (x) = 0
52
Study of a single-variable function
3. Calculate limits of interest and identify any asymptotes that
may exist
Hint: for x → ±∞ if the domain is an unbounded set, for
x → x0 if x0 is an accumulation point not belonging to the
domain or x0 ∈ A is a discontinuity point
4. Calculate the derivatives y = f ′ (x) and y = f ′′ (x)
5. Find the critical points of f and where it is increasing or
decreasing
53
Study of a single-variable function
6. Find any possible inflection points and study the concavity of
the function
Always plot the information you obtain step by step on the graph!
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Study a single-variable function: example
1
Example y = f (x) = x · e x
1. Domain Existence Condition x ̸= 0
⇒ A = R − {0} = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)
1
2. Intercepts and sign of f (x): f (x) = x · e x = 0 ⇔ x = 0
unacceptable solution because it does not satisfy the
conditions of existence ⇒ there are not intercepts
1
Sign: x · e x > 0 ⇔ x > 0
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3. Limits to calculate: x → ±∞ and x → 0
There are no more because the function is continuous at every
point x0 ∈ A (since product and composition of continuous
elementary functions)
1 1
limx→+∞ x · e x = +∞, limx→−∞ x · e x = −∞
1
limx→0− x · e x = 0 · 0 = 0
1
1 1
ex e x · x12 1
limx→0+ x · e = limx→0+
x
1 = limx→0+ 1 = limx→0+ e x =
x x2
+∞
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4. f is differentiable, as it is product and composition of
1 1
differentiable functions: f ′ (x) = 1 − x1 e x , f ′′ (x) = x13 e x
1
5. Critical points: f ′ (x) = 1 − x1 e x = 0 ⇔ x = 1
1
Increase of the function: f ′ (x) = 1 − x1 e x > 0 ⇔ x < 0 V
x>1
1
6. There are no inflection points: f ′′ (x) = x13 e x ̸= 0 ∀x ∈ A
1
Concavity of the function: f ′′ (x) = x13 e x > 0 ⇔ x > 0
57
1
Graph of y = f (x) = x · e x
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