0% found this document useful (0 votes)

2 views109 pages

Physics Notes & Pyqs

The lecture notes cover the redesigned syllabus for Applied Physics, focusing on Quantum Mechanics, Differently Conducting Materials, Fibre Optics, and the Physics of Sensors. Each unit includes detailed explanations, derivations, and diagrams, addressing key concepts such as the inadequacy of classical theory, the band theory of solids, and the principles of supercapacitors. The notes aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of these topics for engineering physics students.

Uploaded by

vihaangandhi2007

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

2 views109 pages

Physics Notes & Pyqs

Uploaded by

vihaangandhi2007

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

LECTURE NOTES • ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Applied Physics
Redesigned to the Revised Syllabus (4 Units)

A complete, self-contained set of notes with full derivations, worked

expressions and labelled diagrams — covering Quantum Mechanics,
Differently Conducting Materials & Supercapacitors, Fibre Optics, and the
Physics of Sensors.

Unit 1. Quantum Mechanics

Unit 2. Differently Conducting Materials (Semiconductors &

Supercapacitors)

Unit 3. Fibre Optics

Unit 4. Physics of Sensors

Redesigned edition • All non-syllabus topics removed • Derivations & diagrams added
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Contents

Unit Topic

1 Quantum Mechanics — inadequacy of classical theory; de Broglie

hypothesis & experimental verification; wave packet, group & phase
velocity; Heisenberg uncertainty principle, thought experiments &
applications; wave function & its interpretation; Schrödinger’s time-
dependent and time-independent equations; free particle; finite potential
well (qualitative).

2 Differently Conducting Materials — band theory; direct & indirect band

gap; FD distribution; Fermi level; intrinsic & extrinsic semiconductors, Fermi-
level expressions, effective mass, carrier concentration, mobility &
conductivity, law of mass action, minority carriers; p–n junction (depletion
region, drift/diffusion, band diagrams & currents); supercapacitors —
principle, construction, materials, applications, comparison with capacitor &
battery.

3 Fibre Optics — structure, material & principle; critical angle; acceptance

angle; numerical aperture; fractional index change; modes, single & multi-
mode; step-index & graded-index; V-number & allowed modes; fibre-optic
communication system.

4 Physics of Sensors — optical sensors (photodiode, photoresistor, solar

cell); magnetic sensor (Hall effect & applications); mechanical sensor
(piezoelectricity & applications).

2
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Unit 1 — Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that describes the motion and interaction of
microscopic particles such as electrons, protons, atoms and molecules. It was born out of the
failure of classical physics to explain certain experimental observations at the atomic scale.

1.1 Inadequacy of Classical Theory

Classical physics (Newtonian mechanics, Maxwell’s electromagnetism and classical
thermodynamics) successfully explains the motion of macroscopic bodies. However, towards
the end of the 19th century several experiments could not be explained by it. These failures
led to the development of quantum theory:

• Black-body radiation — the classical Rayleigh–Jeans law predicted that the energy
radiated by a hot body rises without limit at high frequencies (the ultra-violet
catastrophe), which is physically impossible. Max Planck (1900) resolved it by proposing
that energy is emitted in discrete quanta,

.
• Photo-electric effect — classical wave theory could not explain why electrons are
emitted instantly, why there is a threshold frequency, and why the kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons depends on frequency (not intensity). Einstein (1905) explained it using
light quanta (photons).
• Atomic spectra & stability of the atom — an electron revolving in a circular orbit
should, by classical electromagnetism, continuously radiate energy and spiral into the
nucleus; yet atoms are stable and emit discrete line spectra.
• Specific heat of solids and the Compton effect also required a quantum picture.

3
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Black-body radiation: Planck’s law fits experiment, whereas the classical Rayleigh–Jeans
law diverges at high frequency (UV catastrophe).

Photo-electric effect: light of frequency ν ejects electrons from a metal cathode; the
current is read by a galvanometer.

1.2 de Broglie Hypothesis of Matter Waves

In 1924 Louis de Broglie proposed that matter possesses dual nature (wave + particle),
just like radiation. A moving particle is accompanied by a wave called the matter wave (or
de Broglie wave).

Statement
• The waves associated with a moving material particle are called matter waves.
• The wavelength of the matter wave (de Broglie wavelength) is

.
• Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves; they travel with a velocity greater than
that of light (the phase velocity), but the particle itself moves with the group velocity ≤ c.

Derivation of the de Broglie wavelength

From Planck, the energy of a photon is

From Einstein’s mass–energy relation,

Equating (1) and (2):

4
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

de Broglie generalised this from a photon to any material particle of momentum p = mv,
giving

Other useful forms

In terms of kinetic energy :

In terms of accelerating voltage (E = eV): (for an electron)

In terms of temperature (E = 3kBT/2):

Experimental verification
(1) Davisson & Germer experiment (1927). A beam of electrons accelerated through a
potential difference was scattered from a single nickel crystal. The intensity of the scattered
electrons showed a sharp maximum at an angle satisfying Bragg’s law, producing a
diffraction pattern. The wavelength obtained from the diffraction peak agreed with the
de Broglie value, proving the wave nature of electrons.

Davisson–Germer experiment: electrons accelerated by voltage V strike a Ni crystal and

are collected at different scattering angles.

From Bragg’s law with Ni (d = 0.909 Å), first order, θ = 65°:

From the de Broglie formula with V = 54 V:

5
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

The two values agree, confirming matter waves.

(2) G. P. Thomson experiment (1928). A narrow electron beam was passed through a
thin polycrystalline gold foil and recorded on a photographic plate. A pattern of concentric
diffraction rings (similar to X-ray diffraction) was obtained. Deflecting the beam with a
magnetic field shifted the rings, proving they were produced by electrons. From ring
geometry, , again matching the de Broglie value.

G. P. Thomson experiment: electrons diffracted by a thin gold foil produce concentric rings
on a photographic plate.

1.3 Wave Packet, Group Velocity & Phase Velocity

A single plane wave of definite wavelength extends over all space and therefore cannot
represent a particle, which is localised. A particle is instead represented by a wave packet
— formed by the superposition of a large number of plane waves of slightly different
wavelengths and frequencies. The packet is localised in a small region of space that moves
with the particle.

6
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

A wave packet: the rapidly varying wave inside moves with the phase velocity vp, while
the envelope (the particle) moves with the group velocity vg.

Phase velocity
The velocity with which a wave crest (a point of constant phase) travels is the phase
velocity:

Group velocity
The velocity with which the envelope (and hence the particle/energy) of the packet travels is
the group velocity:

Relation for a free particle

For a free particle and , so . Using and :

So the group velocity equals the particle velocity. The phase velocity is ,

and the two are related by

Because vg = v ≤ c, the relation vg·vp = c2 means the phase velocity vp can exceed c — this
does not violate relativity because no energy or information travels with vp.

1.4 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle (HUP)

Because a particle is described by a wave packet, it cannot simultaneously have a precisely
defined position and momentum. In 1927 Heisenberg stated:

7
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Uncertainty Principle

“It is impossible to measure simultaneously the exact position and exact momentum of a
particle.” Mathematically:

Analogous forms:

If the position is measured exactly ( ), then and vice-versa.

Thought experiment — Heisenberg’s γ-ray microscope

To locate an electron we must “illuminate” it with light. For accurate position we need a
short wavelength, i.e. a high-energy γ-photon. But such a photon carries a large momentum
and, on scattering (Compton scattering) into the microscope, transfers an unknown
momentum to the electron.

Heisenberg’s γ-ray microscope: using a short-λ photon to pin down Δx necessarily disturbs
the momentum by Δp.

• Resolving power limits the position uncertainty to .

• The scattered photon (entering the microscope anywhere within the cone of half-angle θ)
gives the electron a recoil momentum uncertain by .

• Multiplying: , of the order of .

Thus the very act of measurement introduces the uncertainty — it is a fundamental limit, not
a flaw of the instrument.

8
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Applications of HUP
• Non-existence of electrons inside the nucleus (an electron confined to ~10−15 m would
need Δp so large that its KE exceeds nuclear binding).
• Estimation of the ground-state energy / radius of the hydrogen atom (Bohr radius).
• Binding energy of a nucleon in the nucleus.
• Natural width of spectral lines ( of excited states).

• Existence of zero-point energy in a potential well (a particle can never be at rest).

1.5 Wave Function & its Physical Interpretation

The state of a particle is described by a complex-valued wave function , also

called the eigen-function. It must be single-valued, finite and continuous.

Since is complex it has no direct physical meaning; but is real and positive.

Max Born’s interpretation: is the probability density — the probability of finding

the particle per unit volume.

The probability of finding the particle in a volume element is .

Because the particle must be somewhere, the total probability is unity:

This is the normalisation condition; a wave function satisfying it is a normalised wave

function.

1.6 Schrödinger’s Wave Equations

Schrödinger (1926) wrote the matter-wave equation in two forms.

(a) Time-dependent Schrödinger equation (TDSE)

Start from a plane matter wave

Differentiate twice w.r.t. x and once w.r.t. t, and use , with :

This is the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (in 3-D), where is the Laplacian and

the potential energy.

(b) Time-independent Schrödinger equation (TISE)

For stationary states of definite energy E we write and substitute into

the TDSE. The time part cancels, giving

9
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

or equivalently

This is the time-independent (amplitude) Schrödinger equation; it gives the allowed energy
levels E and the stationary wave functions ψ(x).

Derivation outline of the TISE: The classical wave equation for a particle moving in 3-D is
. Substituting the harmonic solution and using

with the de Broglie relation and yields Eq. (1.5).

1.7 Free Particle and Particle in a Potential Well

Free particle
A free particle has V = 0 everywhere, so the TISE becomes

With , the solution is a plane wave . The energy E is

continuous (not quantised) and . A free particle has a definite momentum

but is completely unlocalised.

Particle in a one-dimensional infinite potential well (particle in a box)

Consider a particle of mass m confined to 0 < x < L with V = 0 inside and V = ∞ at the
walls. The boundary conditions are . The TISE inside is

Putting , the general solution is . Applying

ψ(0)=0 gives B=0; applying ψ(L)=0 gives , with n=1,2,3,…

Energy levels:

Energy is quantised: only discrete values E1, 4E1, 9E1,… are allowed. The lowest level
E1 ≠ 0 is the zero-point energy (a consequence of HUP).

Normalised wave function: using gives A = √(2/L):

10
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

The probability density is .

Particle in a 1-D infinite well: quantised energy levels and the corresponding wave
functions ψn(x).

Probability density |ψn(x)|2 for n = 1, 2, 3 in the infinite well.

Finite potential well (qualitative)

For a well of finite depth V0, the particle is not strictly confined. The boundary conditions
now require ψ and dψ/dx to be continuous at the walls, and the solution does not vanish
outside the well — instead it decays exponentially into the classically forbidden region.
This phenomenon is called quantum tunnelling (or barrier penetration).

Consequences in a finite well:

• Only a finite number of bound energy levels exist (unlike the infinite well).
• Each level lies slightly lower than the corresponding infinite-well level, because the
wave function spreads beyond the walls (effectively increasing L).

11
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

• The wave number inside the well is ; outside it is imaginary, giving the

evanescent decay with .

• As the well becomes deeper (V0→∞) the levels approach those of the infinite well.

Finite potential well: the wave function penetrates into the walls (evanescent tail),
illustrating quantum tunnelling.

Summary

Key results of Unit 1

de Broglie: • , • HUP: • Born: =

probability density • TISE gives quantised in an infinite well, with tunnelling

in a finite well.

12
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Unit 2 — Differently Conducting Materials

This unit deals with materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and insulators —
the semiconductors — their band structure, carrier statistics, p–n junction behaviour, and
the energy-storing supercapacitor.

2.1 Band Theory of Solids

When N identical atoms are brought together to form a solid, their outermost energy levels
overlap and split. For N atoms each discrete atomic level splits into N very closely spaced
levels that form an almost continuous energy band. The bands are separated by regions of
forbidden energy called forbidden gaps.

• Valence band (VB): the highest band that is completely (or nearly) filled with electrons
at 0 K.
• Conduction band (CB): the next higher band, essentially empty at 0 K.
• Forbidden energy gap ( ): the energy interval between the top of the VB and the

bottom of the CB.

Classification of solids by band gap: conductor (overlapping bands), semiconductor (small

Eg), insulator (large Eg).

Based on and band filling:

Type Band gap Conduction at 0 K Examples

Conductor ~0 (CB & VB overlap) High Cu, Ag, Al

Semiconductor ~1 eV (1–3 eV) Nil; rises with T Si, Ge, GaAs

Insulator > 5 eV Nil Diamond, glass

Table 2.1 — Energy-band classification of solids.

13
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

2.2 Fermi–Dirac (FD) Distribution Function

Electrons are fermions (half-integral spin) and obey Pauli’s exclusion principle. The
probability that an energy state E is occupied by an electron at temperature T is given by
the Fermi–Dirac distribution:

where is the Fermi energy and Boltzmann’s constant.

Fermi–Dirac function at T = 0 K (step) and at two higher temperatures.

At : f(E)=1/2. At T=0, f(E)=1 for E<EF and f(E)=0 for E>EF — all states up to EF

are filled, all above are empty. As T rises, electrons are thermally excited from just below to
just above , smearing the step over an energy range ~2kBT.

Fermi energy level: the energy at which the probability of occupation is exactly ½. In a
conductor it lies inside a partially filled band; in an intrinsic semiconductor it lies near
the middle of the forbidden gap.

2.3 Effective Mass

Inside a crystal an electron moves under both an external field and the periodic potential of
the lattice. Its response is described by an effective mass that differs from the free-

electron mass. From and , the acceleration is

, so

14
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

The effective mass depends on the curvature of the E–k curve: it is positive near the bottom
of the CB and negative near the top of the VB (a negative effective mass corresponds to a
hole). It allows us to treat carriers in bands as free particles of mass m*.

2.4 Direct and Indirect Band-Gap Semiconductors

E–k diagrams: (a) direct band gap — VB maximum and CB minimum at the same k; (b)
indirect — at different k.

Direct band gap Indirect band gap

VB max & CB min at the same k value VB max & CB min at different k values

Recombination emits a photon (radiative) Recombination releases heat + a phonon (non-

radiative)

Short carrier lifetime; high recombination Long carrier lifetime

probability

Used for LEDs and laser diodes Used for transistors, diodes, signal amplification

Ex: GaAs, InP Ex: Si, Ge

Table 2.2 — Direct vs indirect band-gap semiconductors.

2.5 Intrinsic Semiconductors

A pure semiconductor (no impurities) is an intrinsic semiconductor. At 0 K the VB is full
and the CB empty — it behaves as an insulator. At T>0 K, thermal energy breaks some
covalent bonds, creating electron–hole pairs: electrons jump to the CB leaving holes in the
VB. Both contribute to conduction and, being generated in pairs, . Examples:

pure Si, Ge.

15
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

(a) Electron–hole pair generation in intrinsic Si; (b) energy band diagram with Fermi level
near mid-gap.

Carrier concentration in the conduction band

The number of electrons in the CB is obtained by integrating (density of states)×(occupation
probability):

Using and the Boltzmann approximation

(valid since in the CB), and evaluating the integral

via the gamma function (Γ(3/2)=√π/2):

where the effective density of states at the CB edge is .

By an exactly analogous calculation for holes in the VB:

with .

Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor

For an intrinsic material . Equating (2.3) and (2.4):

Taking logs and substituting :

16
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Since the effective masses are comparable, the second term is small and

— the Fermi level lies at the middle of the forbidden gap.

Intrinsic carrier concentration, mobility & conductivity

Multiplying the electron and hole concentrations gives the law of mass action:

For an intrinsic semiconductor n=p=ni, hence

The intrinsic carrier concentration rises rapidly with temperature (exponentially)

because thermal generation of pairs increases.

Law of mass action

At thermal equilibrium, the product of electron and hole concentrations is constant at a

given temperature, independent of doping: . This is the basis for finding

minority-carrier concentrations in extrinsic material.

Mobility ( ) is the drift velocity per unit field, ; it decreases with

temperature (more lattice scattering). Conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of

electron and hole contributions:

For an intrinsic material (n=p=ni): . Unlike metals, the conductivity of a

semiconductor increases with temperature because the rise in ni dominates.

2.6 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Adding a small, controlled amount of impurity (doping) to an intrinsic semiconductor
creates an extrinsic semiconductor whose carrier concentration is set mainly by the
dopant.

n-type (donor impurity)

Doping with a pentavalent atom (P, As, Sb) provides an extra loosely-bound electron. A
donor level ED lies just below EC; thermal ionisation donates electrons to the CB. Electrons
are the majority carriers, holes the minority carriers.

17
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

p-type (acceptor impurity)

Doping with a trivalent atom (B, Al, Ga, In) leaves an unfilled bond — a hole. An acceptor
level EA lies just above EV. Holes are the majority carriers, electrons the minority carriers.

Fermi-level position: (a) n-type — EF near EC; (b) p-type — EF near EV.

Expression for Fermi level in extrinsic material

From charge neutrality, for an n-type material (donor concentration ND) :

Solving for the n-type Fermi level:

and for a p-type material (acceptor concentration NA):

Minority-carrier concentration
Using the law of mass action :

18
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Effect of impurity concentration & temperature on EF and carriers

Variation of Fermi level with (a) temperature and (b) doping concentration.

• With doping: as ND increases, EF moves up toward EC (n-type); as NA increases, EF

moves down toward EV (p-type).
• With temperature: at low T (ionisation region) only a fraction of dopants are ionised. In
the extrinsic (plateau) region all dopants are ionised and carrier concentration is roughly
constant. At high T intrinsic generation dominates and EF returns toward mid-gap — the
material becomes intrinsic.

2.7 The p–n Junction

Formation of the depletion region & potential barrier

When p- and n-type material are joined, the large concentration gradient causes holes to
diffuse from p→n and electrons from n→p. Near the junction they recombine, leaving behind
immobile ionised donor (positive) and acceptor (negative) ions. This narrow region,
depleted of mobile carriers, is the depletion region (or space-charge region).

The exposed ions set up an internal electric field pointing from n to p, which builds up a
potential barrier ( , about 0.7 V for Si, 0.3 V for Ge) that opposes further diffusion.

Equilibrium is reached when the diffusion current is exactly balanced by the drift current —
the net current is zero.

19
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Formation of a p–n junction: diffusion of carriers leaves a depletion region of immobile ions
that creates the built-in potential barrier.

Drift & diffusion of carriers — current densities

Drift current is due to carriers moving under the electric field; diffusion current is due to
carriers moving from high to low concentration. The two current densities are:

where D is the diffusion coefficient, related to mobility by the Einstein relation

. The total current is the sum of drift and diffusion terms.

Energy band diagram under bias

At equilibrium the Fermi level is flat across the junction and the bands bend by .

Applying an external bias shifts the relative bands:

20
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Energy band diagrams of the p–n junction: (a) unbiased, (b) forward bias (barrier reduced),
(c) reverse bias (barrier increased).

• Forward bias (p to +, n to −): barrier reduced to . Majority carriers flood across;

diffusion current » drift current and a large forward current flows (exponential with V).
• Reverse bias (p to −, n to +): barrier increased to . Majority carriers are held

back; only a tiny reverse saturation current (due to minority carriers) flows.

The diode equation (current densities) is

V–I characteristics of a p–n junction diode: large forward current after knee voltage; tiny
reverse saturation current until breakdown.

Current densities summary

Unbiased: , net J = 0. Forward bias: , large forward current.

Reverse bias: , only small J0 (minority carriers).

2.8 Supercapacitors
A supercapacitor (ultracapacitor) is an electrochemical energy-storage device that bridges
the gap between a conventional capacitor and a rechargeable battery: it stores far more
charge than an ordinary capacitor and delivers/accepts it much faster than a battery.

Principle — Electric Double-Layer Capacitance (EDLC)

When a voltage is applied, ions in the electrolyte migrate to the electrode surfaces and
accumulate, forming two layers of charge (a Helmholtz double layer) separated by a
molecular-distance insulating layer at each electrode. Each interface behaves like a tiny

21
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

capacitor. Because the separation is only ~1 nm and the electrodes have a huge surface
area, the capacitance — and hence stored energy — is enormous ( ).

Construction of an EDLC supercapacitor: two high-surface-area porous-carbon electrodes,

an ion-permeable separator and an electrolyte.

Construction & materials

• Electrodes: high-surface-area activated porous carbon (~1000–2000 m2/g); sometimes
carbon nanotubes or graphene, or pseudocapacitive metal oxides (RuO2, MnO2).
• Electrolyte: aqueous (KOH, H2SO4) or organic (tetraethyl-ammonium salts) — provides
the mobile ions.
• Separator: a thin porous ion-permeable membrane (e.g. cellulose/polymer) that prevents
electrical shorting while allowing ion transport.
• Current collectors: aluminium foils contacting the electrodes.

Stored energy
The energy stored is the same as for any capacitor:

The maximum voltage V is limited by the electrolyte breakdown.

22
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Comparison with capacitor and battery

Ragone plot comparing energy density and power density: supercapacitors fill the region
between conventional capacitors and batteries.

Property Capacitor Supercapacitor Battery

Energy density Very low (~0.1 Wh/ Moderate (5–30 Wh/kg) High (30–200 Wh/kg)
kg)

Power density Very high (>105 W/ High (103–104 W/kg) Low–moderate (50–200 W/
kg) kg)

Charge time Microseconds–ms Seconds–minutes Hours

Charge/discharge ∞ 105–106 ~500–2000

cycles

Storage mechanism Electrostatic Electrostatic (double Chemical (Faradaic)

layer)

Life / leakage Long, low leakage Long, higher leakage Limited life

Table 2.3 — Comparison of capacitor, supercapacitor and battery.

Energy density = energy stored per unit mass (Wh/kg) — how much energy the device holds.
Power density = power delivered per unit mass (W/kg) — how fast it can deliver it.
Supercapacitors excel at power density and cycle life; batteries excel at energy density.

Applications
• Regenerative braking and burst-power delivery in electric/hybrid vehicles and lifts,
cranes and trains.
• Backup/peak-power supply for memory, UPS and grid stabilisation.
• Quick-charge energy storage for cameras, power tools, LED flash units.
• Buffering renewable energy (solar/wind) output.
• Starting large engines and providing cold-crank assistance.

23
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Unit 3 — Fibre Optics

An optical fibre is a thin, transparent dielectric wave-guide that transmits information-

carrying light signals over long distances by total internal reflection. Because light has a
very high frequency (~1014–1015 Hz), a fibre can carry far more information than radio or
microwave links.

3.1 Structure, Material & Advantages

An optical fibre is a flexible cylindrical guide made of glass or plastic, consisting of three
coaxial layers:

• Core — the central light-carrying region of refractive index (denser), made of silica

(SiO2).
• Cladding — outer layer of refractive index (rarer); it confines the light to the

core. Silica is doped (e.g. with P, B, Ge) to lower its index.

• Buffer / outer jacket — a plastic (polyurethane) coating protecting the fibre from
moisture and abrasion; a strength member gives tensile strength.

Structure of an optical fibre: (a) cross-section (core, cladding, jacket); (b) light guided by
total internal reflection along the core.

Advantages of optical fibres

Enormous bandwidth & high data rate; very low signal loss; small size and light weight;
immunity to electromagnetic interference; electrical isolation and safety (no sparks);
high data security.

3.2 Working Principle — Total Internal Reflection

Light is guided along the core by total internal reflection (TIR) at the core–cladding
interface. The conditions for TIR are:

• Light travels from a denser to a rarer medium ( ).

24
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

• The angle of incidence at the interface exceeds the critical angle: .

Critical angle
Applying Snell’s law at the interface when the refracted ray grazes the boundary (r = 90°):

Three cases at the core–cladding interface: refraction (i<θc), grazing (i=θc), and total
internal reflection (i>θc).

3.3 Acceptance Angle & Numerical Aperture

The acceptance angle is the maximum angle (in air) at which light can enter the fibre

core and still undergo TIR. Consider a ray entering the core face at angle (to the axis);

inside it strikes the core–cladding interface at angle . From geometry , and

applying Snell’s law at the entrance (medium n0 = air):

For the limiting (maximum) ray, , so . Hence

(For air, n0=1.) All rays within the cone of half-angle are accepted.

25
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Acceptance angle and acceptance cone of an optical fibre.

Numerical aperture
The numerical aperture (NA) is the light-gathering efficiency of the fibre, equal to the
sine of the acceptance angle:

Fractional refractive-index change (Δ)

The fractional change in refractive index between core and cladding is

Since , the NA can be written , giving

A larger Δ gives a larger NA (more light accepted) but also increases inter-modal dispersion.
Typical Δ is small (<0.01) so that the fibre guides light efficiently with low distortion.

3.4 Modes of Propagation — Single & Multi-mode Fibres

A mode is a specific allowed path (or ray pattern) along which light can propagate and still
satisfy TIR at every reflection. Fibres are classified by the number of modes:

• Single-mode (mono-mode) fibre: very small core (~8–10 µm); supports only one mode
(the axial ray). No inter-modal dispersion → very high bandwidth for long-haul
communication.
• Multimode fibre: larger core (~50–200 µm); supports many modes. Easier coupling to
sources but suffers inter-modal dispersion, limiting distance.

26
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Single-mode fibre (only one axial mode) vs multimode fibre (many paths).

3.5 Refractive-index Profile — Step-index & Graded-index

Top: RI profiles of step-index and graded-index fibres. Bottom: ray paths — step-index
(different path lengths) vs graded-index (self-focusing sinusoidal paths).

Step-index fibre: the core has a uniform index n1 that drops abruptly to n2 at the cladding.
Different modes travel different path lengths, so a pulse broadens (inter-modal
dispersion), reducing data rate.

Graded-index (GRIN) fibre: the core index varies continuously — maximum on the axis,
decreasing radially to n2 at the cladding:

(n1 = axial index, a = core radius, Δ = fractional index change, p = profile parameter; p=2
is parabolic.) Rays off-axis travel through lower-index (faster) regions along a longer
sinusoidal path, while axial rays travel a shorter but slower path, so all modes arrive almost
together — inter-modal dispersion is greatly reduced.

27
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

3.6 V-Number & Allowed Modes

The V-number (normalised frequency) is the key parameter that decides how many modes a
fibre can support:

where a is the core radius, λ the vacuum wavelength of light and NA the numerical
aperture.

Single-mode condition & number of modes

A fibre guides only the fundamental mode (single-mode operation) when .

For a multimode fibre the approximate number of allowed modes is (step-

index) or (graded-index). Increasing the core size or NA, or decreasing λ,

increases V and hence the number of modes.

So the V-number directly links the fibre geometry, wavelength and NA to the number of
modes — it is used to design single-mode vs multimode fibres.

3.7 Fibre-optic Communication System & Applications

A complete fibre-optic communication link has three parts — transmitter, transmission
medium and receiver:

Block diagram of a fibre-optic communication system: information source → electrical

transmitter → light source → optical fibre → photodetector → receiver.

• Transmitter: the information (voice/video/data) is converted to an electrical signal,

which drives a light source (LED or semiconductor laser) that intensity-modulates the
light into the fibre.
• Transmission medium: the optical-fibre cable guides the modulated light over long
distances by TIR; repeaters/optical amplifiers boost weak signals.
• Receiver: a photodetector (PIN/APD photodiode) converts the optical signal back to an
electrical signal, which is amplified and the original information recovered.

28
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Applications: long-distance telephone and internet backbone links; cable TV; computer
LAN/WAN networks; links in aircraft, ships, submarines and space vehicles; industrial
process control, security and biomedical sensing (e.g. endoscopy, pressure sensors).

29
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Unit 4 — Physics of Sensors

A sensor is a device that converts a physical quantity (light, magnetic field, force, pressure,
temperature…) into a measurable electrical signal. This unit covers optical, magnetic and
mechanical sensors.

4.1 Optical Sensors

(a) Photodiode
A photodiode is a p–n junction (or PIN) diode that converts light into an electric current
using the photoconductive effect. It is normally operated under reverse bias.

Construction: a silicon p–n junction is housed so that light can fall on the depletion region
through a transparent window; the p-region is thin and the n-region thick. Metal contacts
are provided and the diode is reverse-biased.

Working: incident photons with energy are absorbed in (or near) the depletion

region and create electron–hole pairs. The strong built-in field (aided by reverse bias)
sweeps the electrons to the n-side and holes to the p-side, producing a reverse
photocurrent proportional to the light intensity.

Photodiode: (a) reverse-bias circuit — light generates electron–hole pairs that produce a
photocurrent; (b) cross-section of construction.

Uses: light/detection and measurement, optical communication receivers, smoke detectors,

camera exposure meters, barcode scanners, position encoders, and as the sensing element
in many instruments.

(b) Photoresistor (LDR)

A photoresistor or LDR (Light-Dependent Resistor) is a passive device whose resistance
decreases when light falls on it (photoconductive effect). It is made of a high-resistivity
semiconductor such as cadmium sulphide (CdS) or cadmium selenide (CdSe).

Construction: a thin film or zig-zag track of CdS is deposited on an insulating ceramic

substrate between two metal electrodes, sealed behind a transparent window.

30
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Working: in the dark, few free carriers exist, so the resistance is high (~MΩ). When light
strikes, photons excite electrons from the VB to the CB, generating free electron–hole pairs
that lower the resistance (down to a few hundred ohms in bright light). The resistance thus
varies inversely with light intensity.

Photoresistor (LDR): symbol and construction (CdS film on a ceramic substrate).

Uses: automatic street-light and lighting control, dawn/dusk switches, alarm systems,
camera shutter control, and simple light-activated switching circuits.

(c) Solar cell (photovoltaic cell)

A solar cell is a specially-made p–n junction that converts sunlight directly into
electrical energy by the photovoltaic effect — it is operated with no external bias (unlike
the photodiode).

Construction: a thin, heavily-doped n+ layer is formed on a thick, lightly-doped p-type base

(so that most light is absorbed near the junction). The top has a transparent anti-reflection
(AR) coating and a finger-grid metal contact to let light in while collecting current; a full
metal contact covers the back. Materials: Si (1.1 eV), GaAs (1.43 eV), CdTe (1.45 eV), CIGS.

Solar cell: (a) construction (AR coating, thin n+ emitter, thick p base, grid contact); (b) I–V
characteristics with Isc, Voc and Pmax.

31
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Working (three steps):

1. Generation: photons create electron–hole pairs in (or near) the depletion region.
2. Separation: the built-in field sweeps electrons to the n-side and holes to the p-side,
building up an open-circuit voltage .

3. Collection: when an external load is connected, a current flows. The cell delivers
maximum power .

Important parameters: short-circuit current (current at V=0), open-circuit voltage

(voltage at I=0), and fill factor ; the conversion efficiency =

Pout/Pincident.

Uses: power generation (solar panels for homes, satellites, space vehicles), calculators and
watches, solar water pumps, roadside lighting and remote-area power.

4.2 Magnetic Sensor — Hall Effect

When a current-carrying conductor or semiconductor is placed in a magnetic field
perpendicular to the current, a voltage is developed across the material in a direction
perpendicular to both the current and the field. This is the Hall effect and the voltage is the
Hall voltage .

Hall effect: a current I in the x-direction and a magnetic field B (×) into the page produce a
transverse Hall voltage VH.

Derivation: charge carriers (here holes) of charge q moving with drift velocity in field

B experience a Lorentz force that pushes them to one face. The accumulated

charge sets up a transverse electric field ; at equilibrium the electric and magnetic

forces balance:

32
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

Using current density , where (width × thickness) and

Defining the Hall coefficient (taking account of the random thermal velocity

distribution introduces the factor 3π/8):

Sign of RH tells the carrier type

RH is negative for n-type (electrons) and positive for p-type (holes). The correction
factor gives (n-type) and (p-type).

From the carrier concentration is found; combining with the measured conductivity

gives the mobility .

Applications: determination of carrier type, concentration and mobility of a semiconductor;

measurement of magnetic field (Hall-probe gaussmeter / magnetometer); Hall-effect current
and power sensors; automotive ignition and anti-lock-brake sensors; proximity and position
sensing; and as an analogue multiplier (VH ∝ I×B).

4.3 Mechanical Sensor — Piezoelectricity

Piezoelectricity (from the Greek piezein, to press) is the property of certain non-
centrosymmetric crystals to generate an electric charge (voltage) when mechanically
stressed — the direct piezoelectric effect. The converse also holds: an applied electric field
produces a mechanical deformation (the converse effect).

Direct piezoelectric effect: an unstressed crystal is neutral; compressing it produces one

polarity of voltage, stretching it the opposite polarity.

Principle: in a piezoelectric crystal (e.g. quartz, rochelle salt, PZT — lead zirconate
titanate, BaTiO3) the centres of positive and negative charge coincide, so there is no net

33
Applied Physics — Lecture Notes

dipole. When pressure is applied, the lattice is distorted, the charge centres are displaced,
and a net dipole (and hence a surface charge / voltage) appears. Reversing the stress
reverses the polarity.

Working as a mechanical sensor: the crystal is placed between two metal electrodes. A
mechanical force (pressure, acceleration, vibration) deforms it and produces a charge
(d = piezoelectric coefficient) across the electrodes, which is measured as a

voltage — so the sensor converts force/pressure directly into an electrical signal, with no
external power needed.

Applications:

• Pressure & force sensors and accelerometers (vibration, impact, blast).

• Microphones and acoustic/guitar pickups — converting sound vibrations to electrical
signals.
• Ultrasonic transducers — for medical ultrasound, non-destructive testing, sonar and
distance measurement.
• Piezoelectric actuators — precision positioning (AFM/STM stages, ink-jet printer
heads) using the converse effect.
• Quartz crystal oscillators — stable frequency / timing reference in clocks,
microprocessors and radios.
• Gas lighters and spark ignition — a sharp mechanical blow generates a high voltage
spark.

Sensor families at a glance

Optical: photodiode, photoresistor (LDR), solar cell — sense light. Magnetic: Hall-effect
sensor — senses magnetic field/current. Mechanical: piezoelectric sensor — senses
force/pressure/vibration.

34
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

P R E V I O U S Y E A R Q U E S T I O N S • C O M P L E T E S O LU T I O N S • C H A P T E R-W I S E

Engineering Physics
221 Questions — Theory • Derivations • Numericals (organised by chapter)

Every question is answered (repeats included), in simple language. Inside

each chapter the questions are grouped as Theory, Derivations and
Numericals. Each answer uses an easy introduction, step-by-step working
with the formulas named, a diagram wherever asked, and a highlighted final
result.

Chapter Topics

1 Quantum Mechanics

2 Semiconductors & Supercapacitors

3 Fibre Optics

4 Physics of Sensors

5 LASER (PYQ section)

1
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

2
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

CHAPTER 1

Quantum Mechanics
de Broglie waves • wave packet & velocities • uncertainty principle • wave function • Schrödinger
equation • particle in a well

Questions are kept with their original numbers. Each one (including repeats) is answered in full.

A. Theory Questions

T6. Write the expression for the probability of finding a particle in a 1-D potential well (finite
width, infinite height), mentioning all parameters. Draw the probability function at the ground
state and first three excited states.

In a 1-D infinite well (width L), the probability of finding the particle between two points is
the area under the probability-density curve. The probability density is:

Parameters: L = width of the well; n = quantum number (1,2,3,…); x = position. n=1 is the
ground state; n=2,3,4 are the first three excited states.

Easy way to read the graph

For even n there is a node (zero probability) at the centre; for odd n the probability is
maximum at the centre.

Probability density |ψₙ|² for n = 1, 2, 3, 4.

T16. Write the expression for the wave function of a particle in a 1-D potential well (finite width,
infinite height). Draw the wave function at the ground state and first three excited states.

Solving Schrödinger's equation inside the well with the condition that the wave function is
zero at both walls gives the normalised wave function:

3
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

Parameters: L = width of the well; n = quantum number (1 = ground state; 2,3,4 = first
three excited states). At the walls (x=0 and x=L) the wave function is always zero.

Wave functions ψₙ(x): each has n half-wavelengths inside the well.

T21. What is a matter wave? Explain the wave-packet construction of a matter wave using a
diagram, and obtain the concept of the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle from the wave packet.

Matter wave: a wave associated with a moving particle (electron, proton, etc.), first
proposed by de Broglie. Its wavelength is .

A single plane wave spreads over all space, so it cannot stand for a particle that is located at
one point. To represent a localised particle we add (superpose) many plane waves of slightly
different wavelengths. The result is a small bulge called a wave packet. This packet moves
with the particle, at the group velocity.

A wave packet: the envelope (outline) travels with the particle.

How this gives the uncertainty principle: to make the packet narrow (so the position is
well known, small ), we must mix waves with many different wave-vectors (large ).
Since momentum is , a large spread in k means a large spread in momentum . So
we cannot make both Δx and Δp small at the same time:

If we squeeze the packet to a point ( ), the momentum becomes completely unknown

( ). This is the physical meaning of the Heisenberg principle.

4
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

T31. (Repeated) What is a matter wave? Explain the wave-packet construction and the
Heisenberg principle from the wave packet.

Same as T21. Matter wave = the wave (wavelength ) attached to a moving particle.
A wave packet is made by adding many plane waves of nearby wavelengths; the packet is
localised and moves with the particle. Because a narrow packet needs a wide spread of
wave-vectors (and hence momenta), the position and momentum cannot both be sharp:

Wave packet: narrow in position ⇒ wide in momentum.

B. Derivations & Proofs

D1. Write the time-independent Schrödinger equation. Find the wave function of a free
particle. Draw the E–k graph and comment on the energy.

The time-independent Schrödinger equation (1-D) is:

For a free particle the potential V = 0 everywhere, so the equation becomes

. Putting , the solution is:

Each term is a plane wave (one moving right, one left). The energy is .

Comment on the energy

Because k can be any value, the energy is continuous (not quantised). The E–k curve is
a parabola. A free particle has a definite momentum but is spread over all space (|ψ|² =
constant).

5
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

E–k for a free particle: a continuous parabola.

D3. State de Broglie's hypothesis with the correct expression. Derive the de Broglie
wavelength of (i) a particle of charge q accelerated through V, and (ii) a particle at temperature
T.

Hypothesis: every moving particle carries a matter wave of wavelength ,

where p = mv is the momentum.

(i) Charge q accelerated through a potential V

The kinetic energy gained equals the electrical work done by the field:

Electron shortcut

put m=me, q=e:

(ii) Particle at temperature T (thermal particle)

From kinetic theory the average kinetic energy is , so , giving

D8. Show that the energy of an electron in a 1-D infinite well of length L is quantised. Can it
have zero energy?

Inside the well V = 0; at the walls V = ∞, so . The equation gives

with .

Applying gives B = 0. Applying gives , so kL must be a whole

number of π:

6
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

✓ Energy is quantised (Eₙ ∝ n²): only E₁, 4E₁, 9E₁, … are allowed.

Zero energy is NOT allowed. n = 0 would give ψ = 0 (no particle at all). The smallest
energy is the zero-point energy. This is a direct result of the uncertainty

principle: a confined particle can never be perfectly still.

Quantised energy levels and wave functions.

D10. Derive vp·vg = c2 (vp = phase velocity, vg = group velocity, c = speed of light).

For a matter wave, use and de Broglie :

Using the relativistic energy and (m = relativistic mass):

But the group velocity equals the particle's own velocity, vg = v. Therefore:

✓ v_p · v_g = (c²/v)·v = c²

D11. Derive Schrödinger's time-dependent wave equation in one dimension.

Start with a plane matter wave . Differentiate it twice w.r.t. x and once w.r.t. t:

Now use the quantum relations and the energy equation .

Substituting and rearranging:

✓ Time-dependent Schrödinger equation (1-D): −(ħ²/2m)∂²ψ/∂x² + Vψ = iħ ∂ψ/∂t

⚠ Tip: The whole derivation needs only two things: the plane-wave form, and E = p²/2m + V.

7
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

D12. State and write the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. Show that if the uncertainty in an
electron's position equals its de Broglie wavelength, the uncertainty in its momentum equals its
momentum itself. Explain how a shorter lifetime increases the monochromaticity.

HUP: a particle cannot have both exact position and exact momentum at the same time:

Given . Using and :

This is of the same order as p itself (only the factor 2π different). So if a particle is localised
to within one wavelength, its momentum is uncertain by an amount equal to the momentum:
.

Monochromaticity & lifetime: the energy–time uncertainty links the width

of an energy level to its lifetime. A shorter lifetime (small Δt) gives a larger energy spread
, so the emitted photon line is broader (less monochromatic). A long-lived
(metastable) level gives a narrow, sharp line — that is why metastable states are needed for
laser action.

D14. Derive the phase velocity and group velocity of a matter wave for a particle of velocity v.
Find their relation in a dispersive medium and the condition for them to be equal.

Phase velocity (speed of one wave-crest): . Using and :

Group velocity (speed of the envelope = particle):

So vg = v and vp = v/2, hence vg = 2vp.

In a dispersive medium

When are they equal?

only in a non-dispersive medium, where (phase velocity does not depend on

k).

8
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

D16. Write the probability-density function of a particle in a box. Draw it for the first four states
and show the probability at the centre is zero for even n.

At the centre x = L/2:

For even n, , so P = 0 at the centre. For odd n, , so P is

maximum. Hence the particle is never found at the centre for even quantum numbers.

|ψₙ|² for n=1,2,3,4; central node for even n.

D17. (Repeated) Derive Schrödinger's time-dependent wave equation in one dimension.

Same as D11. From the plane wave and the relations

, we get

✓ −(ħ²/2m)∂²ψ/∂x² + Vψ = iħ ∂ψ/∂t

D19. Using the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, show that a proton can exist in the nucleus
but an electron cannot.

Confine the particle to the nuclear size . Then the least uncertainty in
momentum is

The kinetic energy needed is .

Electron (m=9.1×10⁻³¹ kg)

KE ≈ 1.5×10⁻⁹ J ≈ 10⁴ MeV — far larger than nuclear binding (~8 MeV). So an electron
cannot be held inside the nucleus.

9
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

Proton (m=1.67×10⁻²⁷ kg)

KE ≈ 3.3×10⁻¹² J ≈ 0.2 MeV — much smaller than the binding energy. So a proton can
stay inside the nucleus.

D20. Show that the energy of an electron in a box varies as the square of the natural number.

(See D8.) Applying the boundary conditions to the well gives ), i.e.

. The allowed levels are therefore E1, 4E1, 9E1, 16E1,… — the energy grows as the

square of the quantum number n.

Levels vary as n².

D22. What is the phase velocity of a matter wave? Why is it not significant? Show that the
group velocity equals the particle velocity.

Phase velocity . It is not physically significant because it is greater than c

(since vg·vp=c2 and vg=v<c); no energy or information travels at vp, and a single phase has
no real existence.

Group velocity:

✓ v_g = v (the particle's velocity).

D23. Write the time-dependent Schrödinger equation and obtain its time-independent form.

TDSE:

Assume a product solution and substitute. The variables separate; both

sides must equal a constant E. The time part gives ) and the space part

becomes the time-independent equation:

✓ ∇²ψ + (2m/ħ²)(E − V)ψ = 0 ⇔ −(ħ²/2m)∇²ψ + Vψ = Eψ

10
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

D27. (Repeated) Derive the time-dependent Schrödinger equation in one dimension.

Same as D11. From , , , :

✓ −(ħ²/2m)∂²ψ/∂x² + Vψ = iħ ∂ψ/∂t

D29. Show that the de Broglie wave packet moves with the same velocity as the particle.

For a free particle . The group velocity is

✓ The wave packet (and so the particle) moves with velocity v.

D32. State the Heisenberg principle with expression. Show that electrons cannot exist in the
nucleus.

HUP: . (Full proof in D19.) Confining an electron to the nuclear size

m needs a momentum uncertainty giving KE ≈ 10⁴ MeV, far above nuclear
binding, so an electron cannot stay in the nucleus.

D33. Write the TDWE and TIWE. Find the free-particle wave function and show its probability is
constant everywhere.

For a free particle (V = 0), . Its probability density is

✓ |ψ|² = constant — a free particle is equally likely to be found anywhere.

D34. Derive the relation between phase velocity and group velocity. State when they are equal.

(See D14.)

They are equal only when , i.e. in a non-dispersive medium.

11
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

D35. (Repeated) Derive the time-dependent Schrödinger equation in one dimension.

Same as D11/D17. Result:

✓ −(ħ²/2m)∂²ψ/∂x² + Vψ = iħ ∂ψ/∂t

D37. (Repeated) Show that the energy of an electron in a box varies as the square of the
natural number.

Same as D20. , so . Levels: E1, 4E1, 9E1,…

D38. Using the Heisenberg principle, prove that electrons cannot stay inside the nucleus.

Same as D19. Confining an electron to ~10⁻¹⁵ m needs KE ≈ 10⁴ MeV » nuclear binding (~8
MeV), so it cannot remain in the nucleus.

D40. Derive the TIWE (1-D) from the TDWE.

Same as D23. Assume , substitute into the TDWE; the time parts cancel

and we get .

D41. Derive the relation between group velocity and particle velocity.

Same as D22/D29. .

D42. Derive Schrödinger's time-independent wave equation in one dimension.

From the classical wave relation and the de Broglie relation (see D8):

D43. State the Heisenberg principle with all parameters. Find the energy of the first Bohr orbit
of hydrogen using the principle (rn = ε0n2h2/πmZe2).

HUP: . For the first orbit (n=1, Z=1), take and . Then

and PE = −e2/(4πε0r). So

Putting ) (and ℏ=h/2π):

✓ E = − m e⁴ / (8 ε₀² h²) = −13.6 eV

12
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

D45. Show that the energy of an electron in a 1-D well (finite width, infinite depth) is quantised.

Same as D8. Boundary conditions give ) (n = 1,2,3,…); energy takes only

discrete values.

D47. Show that (i) the phase velocity of a de Broglie wave is greater than c, (ii) the group
velocity equals the particle velocity.

(i) . Since v < c, vp = c2/v > c.

(ii) .

✓ (i) v_p > c ; (ii) v_g = v

D49. Find the mathematical expression for the energy of a free particle.

For a free particle (V = 0), p = ℏk and

Comment

E is continuous; the E–k curve is a parabola.

E–k parabola.

C. Numericals

N5. A rest electron is accelerated through 60 V. Find (i) velocity, (ii) de Broglie wavelength, (iii)
momentum, (iv) phase velocity, (v) wave number.

Given:
V = 60 V

Formula(s) used — electron:

13
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

✓ v=4.59×10⁶ m/s; λ=1.58 Å; p=4.18×10⁻²⁴; vₚ=1.96×10¹⁰ m/s; k=3.97×10¹⁰ /m

N12. An electron has kinetic energy 100 eV. Find its de Broglie wavelength.

Given:
KE = 100 eV ⇒ V = 100 V

✓ λ ≈ 1.23 Å = 1.23×10⁻¹⁰ m

N20. Find the kinetic energy of an electron whose de Broglie wavelength equals that of a 100
keV photon.

Given:
photon E = 100 keV

✓ KE ≈ 9.8 keV (less than 100 keV — the electron also carries mass energy)

14
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

N35. Through what potential must a π+ meson be accelerated to have λ=10−14 m? Find its
velocity (mπ=0.15 mp, q=e).

Given:
λ= 10⁻¹⁴ m
mπ = 0.15×1.67×10⁻²⁷ = 2.5×10⁻²⁸ kg
q= e

✓ V ≈ 5.5×10⁷ V; v ≈ 2.65×10⁸ m/s

N62. (Repeated) Pion π+, λ=10−14 m — find V and v.

Same as N35.

✓ V ≈ 5.5×10⁷ V; v ≈ 2.65×10⁸ m/s

N42. Find the energy (eV) of a neutron whose de Broglie wavelength is 3×10−10 m.

Given:
λ= 3×10⁻¹⁰ m
mn = 1.675×10⁻²⁷ kg

✓ E ≈ 0.0091 eV

N52. A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same potential. Which has the
longer wavelength?

Given:
mα = 4 mp
qα = 2e

✓ The proton has the longer wavelength (2.83× that of the alpha).

15
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

N70. (Repeated) Proton and alpha particle, same potential — which longer wavelength?

Same as N52.

✓ The proton (2.83× longer)

N59. Find the de Broglie wavelengths of hydrogen and helium atoms at room temperature.

Given:
mH = 1.67×10⁻²⁷ kg
mHe = 4 mH
T= 300 K

Formula(s) used — thermal:

✓ λ_H ≈ 1.46 Å; λ_He ≈ 0.73 Å

N73. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength and velocity of a thermal neutron at 27°C.

Given:
mn = 1.675×10⁻²⁷ kg
T= 300 K

✓ λ ≈ 1.45 Å; v ≈ 2720 m/s

N79. An electron is accelerated through 50 V. Find its de Broglie wavelength.

✓ λ ≈ 1.74 Å = 1.74×10⁻¹⁰ m

16
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

N81. Find the energy of an electron whose de Broglie wavelength equals that of 100 keV X-rays.

Same as N20.

✓ KE ≈ 9.8 keV

N91. Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated through 180 V.

✓ λ ≈ 0.91 Å

N98. Find the de Broglie wavelength of an electron whose kinetic energy is 120 eV.

✓ λ ≈ 1.12 Å

[Link] is heated to 400 K; a beam of He atoms emerges. Find the de Broglie wavelength
(mHe = 4 mp).

✓ λ ≈ 0.63 Å

N1. A particle in an excited state has lifetime uncertainty 2.5×10−14 s and velocity 3×104 m/
s. Find the uncertainty in its momentum.

Given:
Δt = 2.5×10⁻¹⁴ s
v= 3×10⁴ m/s

Formula(s) used — energy–time:

17
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

✓ Δp ≈ 7.03×10⁻²⁶ kg·m/s (= 0.703×10⁻²⁵)

N47. (Repeated) Electron v=3×104 m/s, lifetime 2.5×10−14 s — uncertainty in momentum.

Same as N1.

✓ Δp ≈ 7.03×10⁻²⁶ kg·m/s

N15. An electron's speed is 5.0×103 m/s to 0.003% accuracy. Find the uncertainty in its
position.

Given:
v= 5.0×10³ m/s
Δv = 0.003% × v = 0.15 m/s

✓ Δx ≈ 0.39 mm

N23. A particle in a box of width 10 Å moves at 4×106 m/s. Find the uncertainty in its
momentum and energy.

Given:
Δx = 10 Å = 10⁻⁹ m
v= 4×10⁶ m/s

✓ Δp = 5.27×10⁻²⁶ kg·m/s; ΔE = 2.11×10⁻¹⁹ J (1.32 eV)

N30. An electron has speed 4×105 m/s accurate to 0.01%. With what accuracy can we locate
it? Is the uncertainty principle applicable to daily life?

Given:
Δv = 0.01% × 4×10⁵ = 40 m/s

✓ Δx ≈ 1.45 μm

18
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

The uncertainty principle is not noticed in daily life. For a heavy object like a cricket ball,
the corresponding Δx is so tiny compared with its size that it is completely negligible.

N36. An excited hydrogen state has lifetime 2.5×10−14 s. What is the minimum error in its
energy?

Given:
Δt = 2.5×10⁻¹⁴ s

✓ ΔE ≈ 2.11×10⁻²¹ J = 0.013 eV

N49. Calculate the velocity at 27°C of a particle whose de Broglie wavelength is 1.452 Å. If the
minimum uncertainty in frequency is 7.96×106 Hz, find the mean lifetime. (Particle = neutron.)

✓ v ≈ 2720 m/s; τ ≈ 2.0×10⁻⁸ s (20 ns)

N64. Δp = 0.703×10−25 kg·m/s, lifetime 2.5×10−14 s. Find the velocity.

✓ v ≈ 3.0×10⁴ m/s

N65. (Repeated) Δp=0.7×10−25, τ=2.5×10−14 — velocity.

Same as N64 with .

✓ v ≈ 3.0×10⁴ m/s

19
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

N85. Compare the uncertainties in the velocities of a proton and an electron confined in a box
of length 10 Å.

✓ Δv_e ≈ 5.8×10⁴ m/s; Δv_p ≈ 31.6 m/s (electron ≈ 1836× larger)

N93. An electron is confined to a spherical box of diameter 10−8 m. Find the minimum
uncertainty in its velocity.

✓ Δv_min ≈ 5.8×10³ m/s

[Link] the uncertainty in the position of an electron is 4×10−10 m, find the uncertainty in its
momentum.

✓ Δp ≈ 1.32×10⁻²⁵ kg·m/s

N6. Electron in an infinite well of width 5 Å makes a transition to the next lower state emitting
λ=2.74×10−7 m. Find the order of both states.

Given:
L= 5Å
λ = 2.74×10⁻⁷ m

Formula(s) used — transition:

20
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

✓ Transition n = 2 → n = 1

N17. Electron in an infinite well of length 1 Å excited from ground to the fourth excited state.
Find the energy required.

Given:
L= 1Å
transition = n = 1 → n = 5

✓ ΔE ≈ 905 eV ≈ 1.45×10⁻¹⁶ J

N18. Electron in an infinite well of length 2 Å, ground state: probability in x = 0 to 0.25 Å.

Given:
L= 2Å
n= 1

✓ P ≈ 0.0125 (1.25%)

N26. Electron in a 1-D box of length 4 Å has E = 3.81×10−17 J. Find the order of the level and
the momentum.

Given:
L= 4Å
E = 3.81×10⁻¹⁷ J

✓ n = 10; p = 8.28×10⁻²⁴ kg·m/s

21
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

N33. ψ(x)=√(π/2) x, 0≤x≤1. Find the probability between x = 0.45 and 0.55.

✓ P ≈ 0.0394

N38. Electron in an infinite well of length 2 Å. Find energies in the ground and first three excited
states.

✓ E₁=1.51 eV, E₂=6.03 eV, E₃=13.6 eV, E₄=24.2 eV

N40. Electron in an infinite well of length 2 Å, first excited state: probability in x = 0 to 0.25 Å.

✓ P ≈ 0.045 (4.5%)

N54. Electron in an infinite well of width 5 Å. Find the energy and wavelength emitted in the
transition second excited → ground state.

Given:
L= 5Å
transition = n = 3 → n = 1

✓ ΔE = 12.05 eV; λ ≈ 103 nm

N58. (Repeated) Infinite well 5 Å, second excited → ground — energy and wavelength.

Same as N54.

✓ ΔE = 12.05 eV; λ ≈ 103 nm

22
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

N67. Wavelength emitted by an electron confined in 10 nm, transition third excited → first
excited.

Given:
L= 10 nm
transition = n = 4 → n = 2

✓ λ ≈ 27.5 μm

N78. Find the momentum and energy of a neutron in a 1-D box of length 1 Å (ground state).

✓ p = 3.31×10⁻²⁴ kg·m/s; E = 3.28×10⁻²¹ J (0.0205 eV)

N89. Electron in an infinite well of width 5 Å. Energy and wavelength for first excited → ground.

✓ ΔE = 4.52 eV; λ ≈ 274 nm

N97. Electron in an infinite well of width 5 Å. Find its energy in the ground state and first two
excited states.

✓ E₁ = 1.51 eV, E₂ = 6.03 eV, E₃ = 13.6 eV

23
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

CHAPTER 2

Semiconductors & Supercapacitors

band theory • Fermi–Dirac & Fermi level • intrinsic/extrinsic • p–n junction • supercapacitors

A. Theory Questions

T7. Define the Fermi–Dirac distribution function. Draw a graph showing its variation with
energy at different temperatures.

The Fermi–Dirac function f(E) tells us the probability that a state of energy E is occupied
by an electron at temperature T:

Here EF is the Fermi energy and kB is Boltzmann's constant.

Three simple facts

• At E = EF, f = ½ at any temperature.

• At T = 0 K: f = 1 for E<EF and f = 0 for E>EF (a step).
• As T rises, the step softens symmetrically about EF over an energy ~2kBT.

f(E) at T = 0 K and at two higher temperatures.

T20. Define the Fermi–Dirac distribution function. Draw a graph showing its variation with
energy at different temperatures.

The Fermi–Dirac function f(E) tells us the probability that a state of energy E is occupied
by an electron at temperature T:

Here EF is the Fermi energy and kB is Boltzmann's constant.

24
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

Three simple facts

• At E = EF, f = ½ at any temperature.

• At T = 0 K: f = 1 for E<EF and f = 0 for E>EF (a step).
• As T rises, the step softens symmetrically about EF over an energy ~2kBT.

f(E) at T = 0 K and at two higher temperatures.

T35. Define the Fermi–Dirac distribution function. Draw a graph showing its variation with
energy at different temperatures.

The Fermi–Dirac function f(E) tells us the probability that a state of energy E is occupied
by an electron at temperature T:

Here EF is the Fermi energy and kB is Boltzmann's constant.

Three simple facts

• At E = EF, f = ½ at any temperature.

• At T = 0 K: f = 1 for E<EF and f = 0 for E>EF (a step).
• As T rises, the step softens symmetrically about EF over an energy ~2kBT.

f(E) at T = 0 K and at two higher temperatures.

25
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

T44. Define the Fermi–Dirac distribution function. Draw a graph showing its variation with
energy at different temperatures.

The Fermi–Dirac function f(E) tells us the probability that a state of energy E is occupied
by an electron at temperature T:

Here EF is the Fermi energy and kB is Boltzmann's constant.

Three simple facts

• At E = EF, f = ½ at any temperature.

• At T = 0 K: f = 1 for E<EF and f = 0 for E>EF (a step).
• As T rises, the step softens symmetrically about EF over an energy ~2kBT.

f(E) at T = 0 K and at two higher temperatures.

T26. Draw well-labelled diagrams showing the variation of the Fermi energy level in n- and p-
type semiconductors with temperature and impurity concentration.

The extrinsic Fermi level is:

26
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

Fermi-level variation: n-type (top) and p-type (bottom) with temperature (left)
and doping (right).

n-type

• More doping ND ⇒ EF moves up toward EC.

• Higher temperature ⇒ EF falls back toward the mid-gap (becomes intrinsic).

p-type

• More doping NA ⇒ EF moves down toward EV.

• Higher temperature ⇒ EF rises back toward the mid-gap.

T32. Draw well-labelled diagrams showing the variation of the Fermi energy level in n- and p-
type semiconductors with temperature and impurity concentration.

The extrinsic Fermi level is:

27
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

Fermi-level variation: n-type (top) and p-type (bottom) with temperature (left)
and doping (right).

n-type

• More doping ND ⇒ EF moves up toward EC.

• Higher temperature ⇒ EF falls back toward the mid-gap (becomes intrinsic).

p-type

• More doping NA ⇒ EF moves down toward EV.

• Higher temperature ⇒ EF rises back toward the mid-gap.

T43. Draw well-labelled diagrams showing the variation of the Fermi energy level in n- and p-
type semiconductors with temperature and impurity concentration.

The extrinsic Fermi level is:

28
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

Fermi-level variation: n-type (top) and p-type (bottom) with temperature (left)
and doping (right).

n-type

• More doping ND ⇒ EF moves up toward EC.

• Higher temperature ⇒ EF falls back toward the mid-gap (becomes intrinsic).

p-type

• More doping NA ⇒ EF moves down toward EV.

• Higher temperature ⇒ EF rises back toward the mid-gap.

T3. With an energy-band diagram, show the variation of the Fermi level in n-type
semiconductor (i) with increase in doping, (ii) with increase in temperature.

Same idea as T26, for n-type only.

n-type

(i) Doping ND ↑ ⇒ EF rises toward EC. (ii) Temperature T ↑ ⇒ EF falls toward the mid-
gap.

29
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

n-type E_F vs doping (top-right) and vs temperature (top-left).

T4. (Repeated) Show how the Fermi level shifts with increasing impurity concentration in n-
type semiconductor.

Same as T3(i). As ND rises, moves up toward . See top-right panel of the diagram.

n-type: E_F vs N_D.

T15. With a diagram, explain the variation of the Fermi level with temperature and doping for p-
type semiconductors.

Same as T26 for p-type.

30
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

p-type

More doping ⇒ EF down toward EV; higher T ⇒ EF up toward mid-gap.

p-type E_F (bottom row).

T18. (Repeated) Show how the Fermi level shifts with increasing impurity concentration in p-
type semiconductor.

Same as T15. As NA rises, EF moves down toward EV.

p-type E_F vs N_A (bottom-right).

T34. (Repeated) Fermi energy level in p-type with temperature and impurity concentration.

Same as T15.

31
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

p-type Fermi-level variation (bottom row).

T37. Draw the energy-band diagram for p-type to show EF variation with (i) temperature, (ii)
low impurity, (iii) high impurity.

p-type: E_F vs T (bottom-left) and vs doping (bottom-right).

Three cases

(i) T ↑ ⇒ EF rises toward mid-gap. (ii) Low NA ⇒ EF just above EV. (iii) High NA ⇒ EF
shifts down, closer to EV.

32
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

T24. Draw the variation of the Fermi level in a metal at T = 0 K and T > 0 K. Show EF variation
with temperature for n and p type semiconductors for different temperature zones.

In a metal at T = 0 K all states up to EF are full (a step). At T > 0 K a few electrons just
below EF jump to just above it, smearing the step; EF itself barely changes.

Metal: f(E) at T = 0 K and T > 0 K.

Semiconductor E_F vs temperature (three zones: ionisation, extrinsic

plateau, intrinsic).

T39. Show the variation of the Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor when (i) me*=mh*, (ii)
me*>mh*, (iii) me*<mh*, (iv) shift when mh* = 2 me*.

33
Engineering Physics — Chapter-wise PYQ Solutions

Four cases

(i) me=mh ⇒ EF at mid-gap.

(ii) me*>mh* ⇒ EF shifts down (toward VB).
(iii) me*<mh* ⇒ EF shifts up (toward CB).
(iv) mh* = 2 me* ⇒ shift = upward.

Intrinsic E_F for the three mass cases.

T2. Explain how the depletion-layer width, barrier height and Fermi level change under
unbiased and forward-biased conditions of a p–n junction with a well-labelled band diagram.