CAMPBELL BIOLOGY: CONCEPTS & CONNECTIONS
Tenth
Edition
CHAPTER 11
HOW GENES ARE
CONTROLLED
BIOL 1306 – General Biology 1
Ethan Ebner, M.S.
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Control of Gene Expression
Gene Expression – the process whereby genetic
information flows from genes to proteins (from
genotype to phenotype)
Gene Regulation – the turning of genes on or off in
response to the environment or other factors
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Gene Structure
Promoter – a specific nucleotide sequence that RNA
polymerase can bind to and transcription can begin
Terminator – a specific nucleotide sequence that RNA
polymerase will detach at and transcription will stop
Operator – a DNA control sequence, serves as a
binding site and “genetic switch” for all the genes of
an operon
Operon – a unit of genetic regulation in prokaryotes,
a cluster of genes with related functions along with a
promoter, operator, and terminator
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Gene Structure
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Control of Gene Expression
Regulatory Gene – a gene that codes for a protein
that controls the transcription of another gene or
operon
Repressor – a protein that blocks the transcription of
a gene by binding to a section of DNA
Activator – a protein that switches on a gene and
increases the likelihood of transcription by section of
DNA
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Control of Gene Expression
Lac Operon in E.
coli
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Control of Gene Expression
Lac Operon in E.
coli
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Control of Gene Expression
Inducible Operon – usually turned off and can be
turned on by the presence of a particular small
molecule
Default is off
Lac Operon in E. coli
Repressible Operon – usually turned on and can be
turned off by the presence of a particular small
molecule
Default is on
Trp Operon in E. coli
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Control of Gene Expression
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Control of Gene Expression
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Control of Gene Expression
Almost all cells in an organism contain identical
genotypes
The difference between cell types is not due to
different genes but the selective gene expression or
which genes are active, and which are suppressed for
each cell
DNA packing
Epigenetics
Chemical Modifications
X Inactivation
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Control of Gene Expression
Euchromatin – less condensed, gene-rich, and more
accessible to RNA polymerase for transcription
Heterochromatin – more condensed, gene-poor, and
transcriptionally silent due to compact structure
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Control of Gene Expression -
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes are more complex and have more genes
Not all eukaryote genes need to be turned on so
often the “default” state is off
Housekeeping genes – genes continually active in
all cells, constantly on
Transcription Factors – proteins that bind to DNA or
other proteins that initiate and regulate transcription
in eukaryotic cells
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Control of Gene Expression -
Eukaryotes
Enhancers – short sections of DNA that can be bound
by activators (proteins) to increase the likelihood of
transcription
Silencers – short sections of DNA that can be bound by
repressors (proteins) that induce a negative effect on
transcription
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Control of Gene Expression -
Eukaryotes
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RNA Slicing
21,000 genes can produce more than 100,000
polypeptides
Alternative RNA Splicing – a type of regulation where
multiple mRNA molecules can be produced from the
same primary transcript
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Control of Gene Expression – After Transcription
Breakdown of mRNA – longer-lived mRNA can be
translated to produce more proteins
Initiation of Translation – many proteins are involved
in translation and if the needed components are not
available, the start of translation can be halted
Protein Processing – eukaryotic polypeptides undergo
physical modifications and chemical modifications to
function properly
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Noncoding RNAs
Only ~1.5% of the entire human genome codes for
proteins
microRNAs (miRNAs) – a small, single-stranded RNA
molecule that associates with proteins in a complex to
degrade or prevent translation of mRNA
May regulate the expression of at least ½ of all
human genes
small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) – a small, double-
stranded RNA molecule that utilizes the RNAi pathway,
can be used for artificially controlling a specific gene
Inject a siRNA that targets only 1 type of mRNA that
can turn off the expression of a gene
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Control of
Gene
Expression
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Monitoring the Expression of Specific
Genes
Nucleic Acid Hybridization – the process of base
pairing a gene (mRNA) with a complementary
sequence of another nucleic acid molecule that
contains a fluorescent tag
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Monitoring the Expression of Specific
Genes
DNA Microarrays – a process used to identify which
genes are being utilized in one tissue compared to
another
Outlined Steps
1. A large # of ssDNA fragments are added to glass
wells (ideally all the genes of an organism)
2. A cell of interest is broken down and the mRNA in
that cell is purified
3. Reverse transcriptase + fluorescent dye added to
mRNA to create ss cDNA fragment
4. Labeled cDNA added to glass wells
5. If a molecule in the cDNA matches a DNA
fragment, it will produce a distinct glow
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Monitoring the Expression of Specific
Genes
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Signal Transduction Pathways
Signal Transduction
Pathways – a series
of molecular
changes that
converts a signal on
a cell’s surface to a
specific response
inside the cell
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Signal Transduction Pathways
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Cloning
Totipotent – a cell that can give rise to all the different
types of cells within an organism, examples include
most plant cells and a zygote
Cloning is used with respect to plants by creating
plants that don’t produce sexually (watermelon),
reproduce poorly in an artificial setting (orchids), and
create desirable traits (high-yield or disease resistance)
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Cloning
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Cloning
Nuclear Transplantation – a technique where the
nucleus of a somatic cell replaces the nucleus found in
an egg or zygote
Reproductive Cloning – using a somatic cell from a
multicellular organism to get the birth of a new living
organism that is genetically identical
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
Oncogene – cancer-causing gene, usually enhances
the amount or activity of a growth factor
Proto-oncogene – a normal gene that has the potential
to become an oncogene through a virus, mutation,
etc.; often codes for proteins involved in the cell cycle
Tumor-Suppressor Gene – a gene whose product
inhibits cell division, a mutation may and often leads
to cancer
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
Many cancers have a gradual timeline – more
protooncogenes becoming oncogenes and more
tumor-suppressor genes being inactivated leads to fully
developed cancer
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
TP53 Gene – codes for a protein called tumor
protein p53
“Guardian of the Genome”
Main functions include growth arrest, DNA
repair, and apoptosis
HRAS, KRAS, NRAS Gene – codes for a protein called
ras
Small GTPases
Main functions include cell growth,
differentiation, and survival
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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Genetic Understanding of Cancers
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