Chapter 2: Distance measurement:

One of the fundamentals of surveying is the need to measure distance. Distances are not necessarily
linear, especially if they occur on the spherical earth. We will deal with distances in geometric
space, which we can consider a straight line from one point or feature to another.
Two principles of measuring distance
1) It takes two points to form a line.
2) The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.

Distance:
In surveying, the term “distance” has two uses.
 The common use is to measure the displacement (distance) between two or more points.
 Distance can also be used to define the dimensions of an object
Selecting the “Best” Method:
The best distance measuring method/device to use is influenced by many factors.

Environment Use of the Personal preference

data Equipment Topography
available Expertise of Client specifications
individuals Units of Regulations
measurements: Standard practice

The most important factor is the intended use of the data.

Types of Measurements
Horizontal angles
Horizontal distances
Vertical angles
Vertical distances
Slope distances
Units of Measurements
Length
Angle
Area
Volume

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Units of Distance:
British System – Older system, ft, inch, yard
Metric System – meter, cm, mm
Units of Angle
Sexagesimal – Nepal, USA, UK, India etc.
Centesimal – Europe
Hours System – Astronomy & Navigation
The system most commonly used in the measurement of distance and angle is the „System
International‟, abbreviated to SI. The basic units of prime interest are:
Length in meters (m)
From which we have:
1 m = 103 millimeters (mm)
1 m = 10–3 kilometers (km)
Thus a distance measured to the nearest millimeter would be written as, say, 142.356 m.
Similarly for areas we have:
1 m2 = 106 mm2
104 m2 = 1 hectare (ha)
106 m2 = 1 square kilometer (km2)
And for volumes, m3 and mm3.
There are three systems used for plane angles, namely the sexagesimal, the centesimal and
radians (arc units). The sexagesimal units are used in many parts of the world, including the UK,
and measure angles in degrees (°), minutes (') and seconds ('') of arc, i.e.
1° = 60'
1' = 60''
and an angle is written as, say, 125° 46' 35''.
The centesimal system is quite common in Europe and measures angles in gons (g), i.e.
1 gon = 100 cgon (centigon)
1 cgon = 10 mgon (milligon)
A radian is that angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc on the circumference equal in
length to the radius of the circle, i.e.
2π rad = 360° = 400 gon
Thus to transform degrees to radians, multiply by π /180°, and to transform radians to degrees,
multiply by 180°/π. It can be seen that:
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 1 rad = 57.2957795° = 63.6619972 gon
A factor commonly used in surveying to change angles from seconds of arc to radians is:
α rad = α''/206 265
Where 206 265 is the number of seconds in a radian.
Other units of interest will be dealt with where they occur in the text.
Land measurement system in Nepal:

Method of linear measurement /devices:

Pacing
Odometer
Chaining
Tachometry
Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
1. Pacing:
Measuring distance by counting steps (paces). Distance is calculated by multiplying the number
of paces by the individuals pace factor. For rough and speedy work. Walking step generally
considered 80 cm or 2.5 ft. but may vary person to person. Generally used in reconnaissance
survey.
Advantages
Simple
Low tech
No specialized equipment
Disadvantages
Topography affects accuracy
Requires practice to take a consistent pace.
Must be able to traverse the distance.
Only measures slope distance.
Unsuitable in irregular and sloping ground
With practice, accuracy is about 2% of distance paced. Precision – 1/50 to 1/200.

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2. Odometer:
An odometer is a mechanical revolution counter. An odometer wheel is a wheel which uses an
odometer to count the rotations of the wheel. The gear ratio of the odometer is usually designed
to provide a measurement of the distance in standard units--feet, decimal feet, feet and inches
and/or meters. Uses in preliminary survey.
Advantages
Easy to use
Low tech
Disadvantages
Accuracy is influenced by surface conditions.
Must be able to traverse distance.
Only measures slope distance.
Error 1% of distance.

3. Chaining / Taping:
Chaining or taping carries same meaning
Use of either chain or tape.
One of the accurate method of direct measurements
This method is basis for all surveying.
Precision
1/1000 to 1/5000 (ordinary land survey)
1 /10,000 to 1/30,000 (excellent land survey & precise construction work
1 /100,000 to 1/1000,000 (precise geodetic survey)
Use of chain or tape
Chain (Early 1600s)
Steel tape in use by early 2000s
Tape is very common nowadays.
Error 0.1% of distance.

4. Tachometry:
Subtense bar method
Stadia hair method
Subtense bar method:
A horizontal bar with sighting marks 2 m apart
Tripod mounting the bar

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 A theodolite
Precision – 1/1000 to 1/5000
Suitable for measurement across the rivers, canyons, busy streets, other difficult areas…

Stadia hair method:

A theodolite or transit equipped with 3 horizontal cross hair
A scaled vertical rod (staff rod)
Precision – 1/250 to 1/1000
Suitable for rough survey and locating details

5. Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM):

The term EDM is used to describe a category of instruments that measure distance using an
electronic signal. The instrument broadcasts a focused signal that is returned by a prism or
reflection from the object.
How the process works can be shown using the velocity equation.

Distance = Velocity * Time

Therefore, if the speed of the signal is known (speed of light), and the time for the signal to
travel to the target and back is known, the distance can be calculated.
Advantages of EDM’s
Precise measurement of distance.
Line of sight instrument
Capable of measuring long distances
Reflector less are single person operation

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Disadvantages of EDM’s
Electronic = batterers
Accuracy affected by atmospheric conditions.
Can be expensive
Error ± (2 mm + 2 ppm x D). Precision – 1in 300,000.

6. Global Positioning System (GPS):

GPS (global Positioning System) is a system of 21-24 satellites in orbit around the earth. Each
satellite knows its position and uses a unique signal to continuously broadcast this information.
Along with the position information is a time signal. When a GPS receiver receives a signal from
at least four (4) satellites it can compute its position by trilateration.
The receiver position can be expressed in degrees of latitude and longitude, or distance (meters)
using Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates. Because UTM distances are based on
a x-y coordinate system distances between points can be determined by simple math.
Example: Determine the distance between Stillwater and City when the UTM coordinates for
Stillwater are 675087E & 3998345N and the UTM coordinates for City are 639982E &
3925518N

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:
Engineers and surveyors communicate a great deal of their professional information using
numbers. It is important, therefore, that the number of digits used, correctly indicates the
accuracy with which the field data were measured. This is particularly important since the advent
of pocket calculators, which tend to present numbers to as many as eight places of decimals,
calculated from data containing, at the most, only three places of decimals, whilst some eliminate
all trailing zeros.
This latter point is important, as 2.00 m is an entirely different value to 2.000 m. The latter number
implies estimation to the nearest millimeter as opposed to the nearest 10 mm implied by

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the former. Thus in the capture of field data, the correct number of significant figures should be
used.
By definition, the number of significant figures in a value is the number of digits one is certain of
plus one, usually the last, which is estimated. The number of significant figures should not be
confused with the number of decimal places. A further rule in significant figures is that in all
numbers less than unity, the number of zeros directly after the decimal point and up to the first
nonzero digit are not counted. For example:
Two significant figures: 40, 42, 4.2, 0.43, 0.0042, 0.040
Three significant figures: 836, 83.6, 80.6, 0.806, 0.0806, 0.00800
The number of significant figures in any observed value includes the positive (certain)
digits plus one (only one) digit that is estimated or rounded off.
e.g. A distance measured with a tape whose smallest graduations are 0.01 m and recorded
as 53.27 m is said to have four significant figures.
First three certain and last digit rounding off.
Significant figures changes precision.

Rounding off numbers:

The process of dropping one or more digits so the answer contains only those digits that
are significant.
When the digit to be dropped is lower than 5
 78.374 ► 78.37
 78.3748 ► 78.37
When the digit to be dropped is exactly 5, the nearest even number is written with the
preceding digit increased by 1.
 78.375 ► 78.38
 78.385 ► 78.38
When the digit to be dropped greater than 5, the number is written with the preceding
digit increased by 1.
 78.376 ► 78.38
Two stage rounding off is improper.
 78.3749 ► 78.375 ► 78.38 (Wrong)
 78.3749 ► 78.37 (Right)

Equipment for chaining/taping: (Accessories for linear measurements)

 Chain/tape
 Arrows
 pegs
 Ranging rods
 Plumb bob
 Hand level / Abney level
Chain
A chain is prepared with 100 or 150 pieces of galvanized mild steel wire of diameter of 4mm.
The ends of pieces are bent to form loops. Pieces are connected together with oval rings to make
flexible. Two brass handles at two ends. Tallies are provided at every 10 or 25 links for facility
of counting. One link means the distance between the centers of adjacent middle rings.
Metric chain (available in 5,10,20 meter)
Gunter‟s or surveyor‟s chain (66 ft of 100 links)
Engineer‟s chain (100 ft of 100 links)
Revenue chain (33 ft of 16 links)
Steel band or band chain ( 20 or 30 m)

Tape:
Cloth or Lenin tape
Metallic tape
Steel tape
Invar tape
Ranging rods
Used to range intermediate points on survey line
Length 2 m ( very common) or 3 m
Bands of 20 cm painted alternate color (red & white, black & white)
Ranging poles
Similar to ranging rod but big in size
Used in case of long lines
Used to range intermediate points on survey line
Plumb bob
Verticality of ranging pole
Transferring the points to ground

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 Also used for centering purpose in other surveying methods.

Arrows
10 arrows
Pegs
Station position
Terminal points of survey line

Ranging
When the length of survey line is greater than chain or tape length
Process of establishing intermediate points Methods
 Direct Ranging
 Indirect Ranging
Direct Ranging
The process of making straight line.
When two end points are indivisible
Either by eye or through optical instruments such as
 Line ranger
 Theodolite
Code of signals used to direct assistant

Indirect Ranging
When two end points are not indivisible
With the aid of two intermediate points very near to the line

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Taping over level ground
Chaining/taping seems simple in theory
But most difficult part of good surveying.
Precise distance measurement by chaining/taping requires thought, care and experience.
Two ranging rod fixed at the end stations
Leader moves forward carry ranging rod and arrows
The follower stands at the starting station
When chain stretch fully follower directs to the leader
Repeating this procedure we measure total length
Two way measurement is required
Precision 1 in 2000

Taping party
Head tape man (leader) & rear tape man( follower)
Transfer of arrows by follower to leader

Method of chaining on sloping ground: (Taping over sloping ground)

Methods
1. Direct method or method of stepping
2. Indirect method
a) With the aid of vertical angle measurement
b) With the aid of difference in level measurement
c) Hypotenusal allowance

1. Direct method or method of stepping

Applied when ground is very steep
Ground is divided into number of horizontal & vertical strip
All the horizontal strip added
Convenient to proceed down-hill
Tape shall be horizontal
Sufficient pull to avoid sag

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 Lengths of steps inversely proportion to degree of slopes. Precision 1 in 1000.

2.a. Indirect method (Vertical angle measured)

Clinometer to measure vertical angle
When the slope of the ground surface is long & gentle stepping method is not suitable.
Precision 1 in 500

D1 = s1×cosΦ1
The required horizontal distance (D) =Σs cosΦ

2.b. Indirect method (difference in level measured)

Level machine or any relevant method is used to measure h to compute D.
D = √(s 2 - h 2)

2.c. Indirect method (Hypotensual allowance)

Hypotensual allowance AA' (slope correction) is computed for each slope change by
formula.
BA' = BC = 1 CHAIN
BA = 1 CHAIN × sec θ
AA' = BA – BA'
= 1 CHAIN (Sec θ – 1)

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Errors:
It should now be apparent that position fixing simply involves the measurement of angles and
distance. However, all measurements, no matter how carefully executed, will contain error, and
so the true value of a measurement is never known. It follows from this that if the true value is
never known, the true error can never be known and the position of a point known only within
certain error bounds.
No measurement in surveying is exact
Exact error present is always unknown (true value unknown)
Discrepancy is not error
Discrepancy means deviation in the two measurements of a quantity. (e.g. FW-BW of
same length = discrepancy.)
Error(e) = Measured Value - True Value
Source of errors:
Sources of error in making measurements:
1. Natural error
2. Instrumental error
3. Personal error

1. Natural error:
Caused by variation in or adverse weather conditions, refraction, obstacles to measure
magnetic declination gravity effects, etc.
E.g length of steel tape varies with temperature.

2. Instrumental error:
Caused by imperfect construction and adjustment of the surveying instruments used.
Incorrect graduation of steel tape.

3. Personal error:
Caused by the inability of the individual to make exact observations due to the limitations
of human sight, touch and hearing.

Types/Classification of errors:

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 1. Mistakes
2. Systematic error (Accumulated error or cumulative error)
3. Accidental error (Compensating error)

1. Mistakes:
Mistakes are sometimes called gross errors, but should not be classified as errors at all. They are
blunders, often resulting from fatigue or the inexperience of the surveyor. Typical examples are
omitting a whole tape length when measuring distance, sighting the wrong target in a round of
angles, reading „6‟ on a levelling staff as „9‟ and vice versa. Mistakes are the largest of the errors
likely to arise, and therefore great care must be taken to obviate them.
Caused by inattention, inexperience, carelessness, poor judgement and confusion in the
mind of observer
Every value recorded in the field to be checked by independent field measurement
 Make approximate eye judgement of measured distance
 Close the circle in angle measurement

2. Systematic error (Accumulated error or cumulative error):

Systematic errors can be constant or variable throughout an operation and are generally attributable
to known circumstances. The value of these errors can be calculated and applied as a correction to
the measured quantity. They can be the result of natural conditions, examples of which are:
refraction of light rays, variation in the speed of electromagnetic waves through the atmosphere,
expansion or contraction of steel tapes due to temperature variations. In all these cases, corrections
can be applied to reduce their effect. Such errors may also be produced by instruments, e.g.
maladjustment of the theodolite or level, index error in spring balances, ageing of the crystals in
EDM equipment.
Same size and sign under same condition
Follow some definite mathematical or physical law
Error can be computed and correction can be applied
Seriously affects the accuracy of work
Error length of line
Positive error measured length is more than the actual length i.e. chain is too short.
Negative measured length less than actual i.e. chain is too long.
Example
A tape p cm short if used for n times then total error in measurement will be p×n
Vertical circle of theodolite reads different than zero when line of sight is horizontal
Note: Develop habit to check the instrument if they are in adjustment before carrying out survey
3. Accidental error (Compensating error):
These are types of errors that remain after elimination of mistakes and systematic errors. They
occur because neither the surveyor nor his instruments are perfect. The magnitude of this type
can be estimated (standard deviation) but unlike that of systematic errors their sign cannot be
determined. Hence correction cannot be applied.
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These types of errors are random in their nature and are thought to have normal probability
distribution. Their effect can be greatly decreased by exercising care and vigilance by the part of
surveyors and by using high precision instruments.
Error caused by the reasons beyond the capacity of observer to control it
Tends to make result larger or smaller (positive or negative)
Tends to balance each other
Doesn‟t follow definite law
Must be handled by mathematical law of probability
Do not affect survey work seriously
An accidental error in single observation is the difference between (a) true value of the
quantity, and (b) the observation i.e. free from mistakes and systematic errors.
It therefore represents the limit of precision in the determination of value
Example
A person reads the observation one time higher and other time lower than what exactly is
An error of 2 cm in tape may fluctuate either side because of the variation in the pull
Accuracy:
Mostly creates confusion with meaning of accuracy & precision
Accuracy is the degree of Conformity (precision) with the standard or accepted value.
Denotes how close the measured value with the true value is
Relates quality of results.
An exact known value of interior angle of triangle = 180º
Accuracy = True value − Most probable value
Accuracy depends on
 Precise instruments
 Precise methods
 Good planning
Precision:
Precision also known as apparent accuracy
Precision is the degree of perfection used in instruments, methods and observation
Closeness of one measurement to another
Good precision doesn‟t mean that good accuracy
If tape is 29.99 m instead of 30m precise but not accurate
Meaning of precision in distance measurement

 How to get both accuracy and precision in surveying?

 Answer is simple in saying but hard in practicing
 Use care, patience, good instruments and good procedure
Relative precision:
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Universal fact

No one‟s sense is perfect

There is no perfect instrument
Surveying has to be carried out in lots of limitations.
It is practically impossible to make exact measurement.
The difference between the measured quantity and true quantity is error or mistake

Accuracy in surveying and permissible errors:

In conclusion,
Measurements can‟t be made exact to true value owing to several factors as explained
earlier
Some allowable limit is set for each type of survey based on
Scale of work
Purpose of survey
Instruments available
Resource available
This maximum allowable limit that a measured value may vary from true value or
previously adopted value is permissible error

It is therefore, the best surveyor is not he/she who is extremely accurate in all his/her work, but
he/she who does it just accurately enough for the purpose without waste of time or money.

Map Scales:
It is not always possible to represent actual length on drawing.
The ratio by which the actual length of the object is reduced or increased is known as the
scale.
Simply defined, scale is the relationship between distance on the map and distance on the
ground.
A map scale might be given in a drawing (a graphic scale), but it usually is given as a
fraction or a ratio-1/10,000 or 1:10,000.
Full size scale, reducing scale, enlarging scale.

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From 1992 to 2002 a definitive series of large scale topographic maps were surveyed and
published through a joint project by Government of Nepal Survey Department and Finland's
Ministry for Foreign Affairs contracting through the FinnMap consulting firm Japan
International Cooperation Agency substituted for FinnMap in Lumbini Zone.
Topographic sheets at 1:25,000 scale covering 7.5 minutes latitude and longitude map the
densely populated Terai and Middle Mountain regions. Less populated high mountain regions
are on 15-minute sheets at 1:50,000.

For maps
A large scale denotes a small of land represented by a large map e.g. a scale of 1cm to 10km. A
small scale on the other hand climate a comparative likely large area of land represented by a
small map e.g. 1cm represent 200km.
a) Large scales < 1:200
b) Intermediate scales 1:2000 to 1:10,000
c) Small scales 1:10,000 to 1:100,000,000
For plans
a) Site plans 1:50 to 1:500
b) Detail plans 1:1 to 1:20
A scale bar or a graphical scale is another form of indicating the scale of a drawing. It usually
appears with numerical scales on the drawing sheet.
Plan and Map:
The difference between a map and a plan is that on a map the scale is too small to allow every
feature to be properly represented to scale. Thus, conventional symbols are used to represent
features that would otherwise be too small to be recognized. A plan, on the other hand, shows all
features on the ground correctly to scale.
Method of Scales:
1. Numerical Scale
2. Graphical Scale

1. Numerical scale:
a) Engineer‟s Scale: e.g. 1cm = 5m, 1 cm = 10m etc.
b) Fraction scale: 1:500, 1:1000, 1:5000 etc.
To convert engineer‟s scale into fraction scale multiply the whole number of meters by 100.
(Same units)
e.g. Engineer‟s scale is 1 cm = 5m
Fraction scale = 5 in 100 or 1:500

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 Classification of Scales:
1. Plain scale
2. Diagonal scale
3. Scale of chords – protractor
4. Vernier scale
1. Plain scale:
This scale is used to represent two dimensions only such as meters and decimeter, kilometers and
hectameters etc.
Full size 1:1
50 cm to a meter 1:2
20 cm to a meter 1:5
5mm to a meter 1:200
2. Diagonal scale:
On diagonal scale it is possible to measure three dimensions such as meters, decimeter
and centimeters etc.
Short length of plain scale is divided into 10 equal parts.
Using principle of similar triangles
Distance:

1-1= 1/10 of AB
2-2 = 2/20 of AB

…………......
………………..
………………..
9-9 = 9/10 of AB

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Shrunk Scale:
Plan drawn shrinks due to variation of atmospheric conditions
The shrunk scale = shrinkage factor * Original scale
Procedures:
Measure a distance any two well defined points on plan
1 cm = x m = l (let)
Measure same point on ground. Let it will be y cm on plan.
Calculate the shrinkage ratio or shrinkage factor

Chain or Tape correction:
1. Correction for absolute length or standardization
2. Correction for temperature
3. Correction for slope
4. Correction for pull or tension
5. Correction for sag
6. Correction for mean sea level
7. Correction for misalignment
Errors in Taping:
Methods of measuring with a tape have been dealt with, although it must be said that training in
the methods is best undertaken in the field. The quality of the end results, however, can only be
appreciated by an understanding of the errors involved. Of all the methods of measuring, taping
is probably the least automated and therefore most susceptible to personal and natural errors. The
majority of errors affecting taping are systematic, not random, and their effect will therefore
increase with the number of bays measured. The errors arise due to defects in the equipment
used; natural errors due to weather conditions and human errors resulting in tape-reading errors,
etc. They will now be dealt with individually.
Standardization:
Taping cannot be more accurate than the accuracy to which the tape is standardized. It should
therefore be routine practice to have one tape standardized by the appropriate authority. This is
done on payment of a small fee; the tape is returned with a certificate of standardization quoting
the „true‟ length of the tape and standard conditions of temperature and tension. This tape is then
kept purely as a standard with which to compare working tapes.
Alternatively a base line may be established on site and its length obtained by repeated
measurements using, say, an invar tape hired purely for that purpose. The calibration base should
be then checked at regular intervals to confirm its stability.

Accuracies:
If a great deal of taping measurement is to take place, then it is advisable to construct graphs of
all the corrections for slope, temperature, tension and sag, for a variety of different conditions. In
this way the corrections can be obtained rapidly and applied more easily. Such an approach rapidly
produces in the measurer a „feel‟ for the effect of errors in taping. Random errors increase
as the square root of the distance but systematic errors are proportional to distance and reading
errors are independent of distance so it is not easy to produce a precise assessment of taping
accuracies under variable conditions. Considering taping with a standardized tape corrected
only for slope, one could expect an accuracy in the region of 1 in 5000 to 1 in 10 000. With extra
care and correcting for all error sources the accuracy would rise to the region of 1 in
30 000. Precise measurement in catenary may be made with accuracies of 1 in 100 000 and
better. However, the type of catenary measurement carried out on general site work would
probably achieve about 1 in 50 000.
The worked examples should now be carefully studied as they illustrate the methods of applying
these corrections both for measurement and setting out. As previously mentioned, the signs of
the corrections for measurement are reversed when setting out. As shown, measuring with a tape
which is too long produces a smaller measured distance which requires positive correction.
However, a tape that is too long will set out a distance that is too long and will require a negative
correction. This can be expressed as follows:
Horizontal distance (D) = measured distance (M) + the algebraic sum of the corrections (C)

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 i.e. D = M + C
When setting out, the horizontal distance to be set out is known and the engineer needs to know
its equivalent measured distance on sloping ground to the accuracy required. Therefore M = D −
C, which has the effect of automatically reversing the signs of the correction. Therefore, compute
the corrections in the normal way as if for a measured distance and then substitute the algebraic
sum in the above equation.