REMOTE SENSING

Remote sensing is the art and science of obtaining information about an object or phenomena
through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object area or
phenomena under investigation.

Eyes act as sensors that respond to the light that is reflected. The data acquired by the eyes
corresponds to the amount of light reflected from the dark to the light areas or the page being read.
The data is analyzed or interpreted in the mental computer to enable recognition.

Using various sensors, data is remotely collected to obtain information about objects, areas or
phenomena being investigated.

The remotely sensed data can be of many forms including variations in force distribution, sound
wave distributions or electromagnetic energy distribution

Electromagnetic energy sensors are currently being operated from airborne or spaceborne
platforms to assist in inventory mapping and monitoring earth resources.

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SENSORS.

Natural Sensors;

This includes; The eyes that sense light energy

The ears that sense sound energy

The Nose that sense smell.

Artificial Sensors;

This include; Camera reflected energy

Thermal Radiometers sense emitted energy

Scanners e.g. Mss

Microwave systems e.g. RADAR, SLAR.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Applications of Remote Sensing

1. Land use/ land cover mapping

2. Land cover change detection

3. Monitoring climatic changes

4. Mineral resources

5. Agriculture

6. Forestry

7. Environmental monitoring and pollution

8. Water resources management etc.

The success of many applications of remote sensing improved by taking a multiple view approach
to data collection. It may involve the following;

• Multispectral sensing; This is where data is collected in several spectral bands.

• Multitemporal sensing; this is where data is collected in more than one occasion i.e. time
series.

• Multistage; this is where data is collected in more than one platform e.g. in low altitude
aircrafts, high altitude aircrafts and satellites.

Radiation Principles and Electromagnetic Spectrum.

Radiation

This is the sensing out of pulses of energy e.g. heat, light.

Electromagnetic spectrum

It’s an array of waves ordered in accordance with the magnitude of wavelength.

Electromagnetic Radiation

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

This is energy propagated through space material.

NB; All energy is inherently similar and radian’s in accordance with the basic wave theory which
states that ‘electromagnetic magnetic energy travels in harmonic sinusoidal at the velocity of light.

Wavelength (λ)

This is the distance between two consecutive wave pits.

Frequency

This is the number of wave pits passing at a fixed point in space per unit time

From basic physics, waves obey the equation;

Velocity= Frequency × wavelength.

C=Vλ

where c = ~3x108m/s

The unit of wavelength is normally given in micrometer.

Assignment;;

Using suitable diagrams, explain the terms;

1. Electromagnetic spectrum

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 2. Wavelength

3. Frequency.

Regions Used in Remote Sensing

Visible(0.4-0.7)

Blue (0.4-0.5)

Green (0.5-0.6)

Red(0.6-0.7)

Infrared region (0.7-14)

Near infrared region (0.7-1.3)

Mid infrared region (1.3-3.0)

Thermal infrared region (3-14.0a)

Microwave region (1mm-1m)

Electromagnetic radiation laws and energy sources

Electromagnetic characteristics are mostly described by the PARTICLE THEORY

The particle theory / Quantum theory states that all matter consist of many, very small particles
which are constantly moving or in a continuous state of motion.

It offers insights on how electromagnetic energy interacts with matter units known as photons or
Quanta.

Energy of a Quantum: Q = hv

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

where:

Q = energy of a quantum in joules (J)

h = Planck’s constant, 6.626 x10-34 J sec

v = frequency, hertz (Hz) = sec-1

Relationship between energy of a quantum and wavelength

Q = hv

C=Vλ

V=C/λ

Q= hc/λ

Energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength . This has an important imploration in remote
sensing such that the naturally emitted long wave radiations i.e. microwave emission from terrain
features is more difficult to sense the radiations of shorter wavelengths i.e. emitted thermal infrared
energy.

Sources of Energy

1. Sun

The sun is the most obvious source of electromagnetic radiation in remote sensing . The energy is
radiated through the atmosphere to the terrain features and reflected back to the sensor for sensing.

2. Terrestrial objects

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

All matter of temperatures above absolute zero( 0ok/ -273k) continuously emit electromagnetic
radiations.

In this case, terrestrial objects are also sources of energy that is radiated through different in
magnitude and spectral composition than that of the sun.

The energy any object radiates is a function of surface temperature of the object. This property is
expressed by STEPHEN BOLTZMANN LAW.

Stefan-Boltzmann law: M = σT4

where:

M = total radiant exitance from the surface of a material (W m-2)

σ= Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.6697x10-8 W m-2 K-4

T = absolute temperature (K) of the emitting material

Example;

The energy emitted by a glacier is at -25oc while energy emitted by sand is at -15oc. How much
more energy is emitted by sand than the glacier. Use Stephen Boltzmann constant as 5.6697x10-8
W m-2 K-4

For glacier; -25oc=273+(-25)

= 248.

M= 5.6697x10-8× (248) 4

=214.47

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

For sand; -15oc= 273 +(-15)

= 258

M= 5.6697x10-8×(258)4

=251.211

251.211-214.47= 36.74.

Example 2;

Calculate the energy given by a granite rock at 30oc.

Solution;

T= 273+30= 303k

M = σT4

=5.6697x10-8×(303)4

=477.89

3. Active Sensors.

Active sensors such as RADAR system(Radio Detection and ranging) supply their own source of
energy to illuminate features of interest.

Passive systems sense naturally available energy. A common example of an active system is a
camera utilizing a flash. The same camera utilizing sunlight becomes a passive sensor.

Energy Distribution Curve.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

For a black body, the wavelength at which maximum spectral radiant exitance occurs is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature.

e.g. When a metal body such as a piece of iron is heated, it becomes hotter, it glows and its color
changes to shorter wavelength from dull rod, orange, yellow then bluish.

The sun emits radiation in the same manner as a black body radiator whose temperature is above
6000ok.

The figure above shows energy distribution curves for black bodies at temperatures from 200ok-
6000ok.

The area under the curve equals to the total radiant exitance (m) and illustrates graphically what
Stephen Boltzmann law exposes mathematically; the higher the temperature of the radiator, the
greater the total amount of radiation.

The curve shows that there is a shift towards shorter wavelength in the peak of a black body
radiation distribution as the temperature increases.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

The dominant wavelength(wavelength at which a blackbody radiation curve reaches a maximum)
is related to wien’s displacement law which states that;

λm = A/T

where:

λm = λ of maximum spectral radiant exitance, μm

A = Wiens constant (2898 μm K)

T = temperature, K

Example 1;

Calculate the wavelength at which the spectra radiant exitance from the earth is maximum and that
the earths ambient temperature is 27oc. Use wiens constant as 2898 μm K

Solution;

λm = A/T

T= 27+273=300K

λm =2898/300

= 9.66 μm.

NB; For objects on the surface of the Earth λm = 9.7μm. Since this radiation correlates to terrestrial
heat, it is referred to as Thermal Infrared energy.

Example 2;

The suns peak energy occurs at 0.5 μm. Calculate the temperature at which this occurs. Use wiens
constant as 2898 μm K

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Solution

λm = A/T

0.5= 2898/T

T= 2898/0.5

T= 5,796K.

Our eyes and photographic films are sensitive to energy of this magnitude and wavelength. This
is why when the sun is present, we can observe earth.

Remote Sensing Process

The steps involved in remote sensing are;

i. Data acquisition

ii. Data analysis

i. Data acquisition

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 • Source of energy is the sun.

• Propagation of energy through the atmosphere.

• Energy interaction with the earths features.

• Retransmission of energy through the atmosphere to the airborne/spaceborne sensors.

• Generation of sensor data in pictorial/digital form.

ii. Data analysis

• Examining the data using various viewing and interpretation devices e.g. stereo plotter,
stereoscopes.

• Reference data such as soil maps, crop statistics and field check data are used to assist in
the analysis.

• The information is compiled in form of hardcopy or tables or computer files that can be
merged with other layers of information

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 • The information is presented to the users.

Component of a Remote Sensing System

i. Energy source(Sun)

This illuminates electromagnetic energy to the target.

ii. Transmission path.

Energy is transmitted through the atmosphere

iii. Target

This is the object/material being studied.

iv. Sensor

Is a remote device that collects and records the electromagnetic radiation. The sensor can measure
energy that is given off (emitted) by the target or reflected from the target or transmitted from the
target.

ENERGY INTERACTION WITH THE ATMOSPHERE

All radiation detected by remote sensors passes through same distance or path length of the
atmosphere.

The path length involves organizations for space photography. Sunlight passes through the full
thickness of the earth’s atmosphere twice; the journey from the source to the terrain features and
then to the sensor.

The thermal airborne detections sense emitted energy directed from objects of the earth, so they
have relatively short atmospheric path involved.

The net effect of the atmosphere varies with the following;

1. The difference in the path length involved.

2. The magnitude of the energy signal being sensed.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 3. The wavelength involved.

4. The atmospheric condition present.

The atmosphere can have profound effect on intensity and spectral composition of radiation
available to any sensing system.

These effects are caused principally through mechanisms of;

A. Atmospheric scattering

B. Atmospheric absorption.

A. Atmospheric scattering

This is the unpredictable diffusion of radiation by particles in the atmosphere.

Types of scattering

i. Rayleigh scattering

ii. Mie scattering

iii. Non selective scattering

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 i. Rayleigh scattering

• It’s also known as selective or molecular scattering.

• Radiation interacts with tiny particles much smaller in diameter than its wavelength. E.g.
air , oxygen and nitrogen.

• Effect of Rayleigh is inversely proportional to λ4 (only short wavelengths affected)

• Makes the sky blue or reddish; Blue sky is a manifestation of Rayleigh scatter. Sunlight
interacts with the earth’s atmosphere. The shorter (blue wavelength) is scattered more than
other visible wavelength(green and red).

At sunrise and evening, the sun rays travel through a longer atmosphere path. The scatter
and absorption of the short wavelength is so complete and we see the less scattered
wavelength and consequently, the sky appear reddish-orangish.

• Rayleigh is the primary cause of haze in the image. Haziness diminishes the contrast of an
image.

• Haze can be minimized using a filter on the camera lens that does not transmit short
wavelengths. E.g. using a yellow filter

Yellow= red +green.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 ii. Mie scattering

• Radiation interacts with particle diameters essentially equal to the wavelength of the energy
being sensed.

• Water vapor and dust/fog are major causes

• Mie scattering influences longer wavelength compared to Rayleigh scatter.

iii. Non selective scattering

• Radiation interacts with particle diameters much larger than the wavelength of the energy
being sensed.

• Water droplets are the main causes. They have a diameter of 5 to 100μm.

• It affects all the visible, near- and mid- Infra-Red equally.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 B. Atmospheric absorption.

Absorption is the process in which incident energy is retained by particles in the atmosphere
at a given wavelength . Unlike scattering, absorption causes loss of energy to atmospheric
constituents at any given wavelengths.

Its mostly caused by water vapor, carbon dioxide and ozone.

This gases tend to absorb electromagnetic energy in specific wavelength.

They strongly influence where we look spectrally at any given remote sensing region.

Atmospheric window is the wavelength at which the atmosphere is particularly transmitted

to energy. i.e ‘The ranges of wavelength that are partially or wholly transmitted through the
atmosphere are known as "atmospheric windows."

Remote sensing data acquisition is limited through these atmospheric windows. The atmospheric
windows and the absorption characteristics are shown below.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Figure (a) shows the energy given by the sun to the earth features.

Figure (b) shows the spectral regions in which the atmosphere block energy(shaded) and transmits
energy. Remote sensing data acquisition is limited to unshaded spectral region(atmospheric
window)

Figure (c) shows that the spectral sensitivity of the human eye (visible) coincides with both
atmospheric windows at the peak levels of energy from the sun.

The 3 figures (a,b,c) above show interdependence between the primary sources of electromagnetic
energy , the atmospheric window through which energy source maybe transmitted to and from the
earth’s surface features and finally the spectral sensitivity of sensors available to detect and record
energy.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

NB;

Thermal Emitted (heat energy from the earth) is sensed through the window 3-5 μm and 8-14 μm
using devices such as thermal scanners.

Multispectral scanners sense simultaneous through multi narrow wavelength ranges located at
various points in the visible through the thermal spectral region.

Radar and passive microwave systems operate through atmospheric window in the region 1mm-
1m.

Factors considered when selecting a sensor

While selecting a sensor the following factors should be considered:

i. The spectral sensitivity of the available sensors

ii. The available atmospheric windows in the spectral range(s) considered. The spectral
range of the sensor is selected by considering the energy interactions with the features
under investigation.
iii. The source, magnitude, and spectral composition of the energy available in the particular
range.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 iv. The energy interaction with features under investigation.
v. Multiple view approach data collection; Multi Spectral Sensors sense simultaneously
through multiple, narrow wavelength ranges that can be located at various points in visible
through the thermal spectral regions

ENERGY INTERACTIONS WITH EARTH TERRAIN FEATURES

Energy incident on the Earth’s surface is absorbed, transmitted or reflected depending on the

wavelength and characteristics of the surface features (such as barren soil, vegetation, water body).

The incident electromagnetic energy may interact with the earth surface features in three
possible ways: Reflection, Absorption and Transmission.

Incident radiation
Reflection

Absorption Transmission

Reflection occurs when radiation is redirected after hitting the target. According to the law of

reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Absorption occurs when radiation is absorbed by the target

Transmission occurs when radiation is allowed to pass through the target

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

The proportion of energy reflected, absorbed and transmitted will vary depending on material, type
and condition.

Wavelength dependency means that even with a given feature type, the properties of energy
reflected, absorbed and transmitted will Vary at different wavelengths thus two features maybe
undistinguishable in one spectral range.

The relationship between reflection, absorption and transmission can be expressed through

the principle of conservation of energy ;

EI (λ) = ER (λ) + EA(λ) + ET (λ) (1)

Where;

EI denotes the incident energy,

ER denotes the reflected energy
EA denotes the absorbed energy
ET denotes the transmitted energy
Since most remote sensing systems use reflected energy, the energy balance relationship can

be better expressed in the form

ER (λ) = EI (λ) - EA(λ) - ET (λ) (2)

The reflected energy is equal to the total energy incident on any given feature reduced by the
energy absorbed or transmitted by that feature.

Interactions of thermal radiation with terrain features;

EI (λ) = ER (λ) + EA(λ) + ET (λ)

By dividing by EI (λ);
EI (λ)/ EI (λ) = ER (λ) + EA(λ) + ET (λ) / EI (λ);

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

1= ER (λ) + EA(λ) + ET (λ) / EI (λ);

ER (λ)/ EI (λ)=Reflectance (ϱλ)

EA(λ)/ EI (λ)= Absorptance(αλ)

ET (λ)/ EI (λ)= transmittance (τλ)

ϱ(λ) + α(λ) + τ(λ)=1 (i)

Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the spectral emissivity of an object is equal to the spectral
absorptance.
The law is based on thermal equilibrium but hold true for most remote sensing conditions. In
remote sensing applications, the object we deal with is assumed to be opaque. i.e. no transmission.
τ(λ)=0
Good emitters are good absorbers;
є(λ)= Emissivity

є(λ)= α(λ)
Substituting for transmission and emissivity in eqn (i)
ϱ(λ) + є (λ) + 0=1
ϱ(λ) + є (λ)=1
є (λ)= 1- ϱ(λ)

The lower the object reflectance, the higher the emissivity. Water has negligible reflectance in the
thermal region and therefore its emissivity is essentially 1.
From Stephen Boltzmann law as applied for a black body radiator, we can extend it to earth’s
surface material by introducing emissivity factor.
M = єσT4

Reflectance properties.
The geometric manner in which object reflects energy is an important consideration.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

i. Specular reflection; occurs when the surfaces is smooth and flat. A mirror-like or

smooth reflection is obtained where complete or nearly complete incident energy is

reflected in one direction. The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.
Reflection from the surface is the maximum along the angle of reflection, whereas in any
other direction it is negligible.

ii. Diffuse (Lambertian): It occurs when the surface is rough. The energy is reflected
uniformly in all directions. Since all the wavelengths are reflected uniformly in all
directions, diffuse reflection contains spectral information on the "color" of the
reflecting surface. Hence, in remote sensing diffuse reflectance properties of terrain
features are measured. Since the reflection is uniform in all direction, sensors located at
any direction record the same reflectance and hence it is easy to differentiate the features.

REFLECTANCE CURVES

A graph of spectral reflectance as a function of wavelength is referred to as spectral reflectance

curve. Spectral reflectance curves give insights of spectral characteristics of objects and influences
the choice of wavelength regions which remote sensing data can be acquired for a particular
application. Spectral reflectance characteristics may vary within the same feature i.e. trees.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Assume that you have been given a task of selecting an airborne sensor in preparing a map of a
forested area in differentiating deciduous versus coniferous trees. Which wavelength region would
you use and why?

In the visible region the two species of trees have the same characteristic and cannot be
distinguished while in the NIR region their reflectance characteristics vary and thus can be
distinguished.

In the near infrared region using black and white film deciduous trees have a higher reflectance
and will appear lighter in tone than coniferous trees and therefore the two can be distinguished.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

. (a) Panchromatic photograph using reflected sunlight over the visible wavelength band
0.4 to 0.7 mm and (b) Black and white infrared photograph using reflected sunlight over 0.7 to
0.9 mm wavelength band (Lillesand et al., 2004)

Earth surface features of interest may be identified, mapped and studied on the basis of spectral
reflectance characteristics.

SPECTAL REFLECTANCE CURVES FOR SOIL, WATER AND VEGETATION

Healthy vegetation

Heathy vegetation manifests a peak and valley configuration. The peaks indicate strong reflection
and the valleys indicate predominant absorption of the energy in the corresponding wavelength
bands. The valley in the visible portion is due to the pigments in the leaves. I.e. chlorophyll absorbs
energy in the blue and red region and therefore we see leaves as green due to high reflectance of
green energy.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

In the region 0.7- 1.3µm there is high reflectance due to the plants internal structure and since the
structure vary between plant species, reflectance in this region permit discrimination of plant
species.

In the region 0.7-1.3 µm, vegetation stress can also be detected because vegetation stress will affect
the pigments in the plants.

Dips(valleys) occur at 1,4,1.9 and 2.7µm due to water in the leaves which absorbs infrared energy
at these wavelengths which are referred to as water absorption bands.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Soil curve

The soil curve shows less peak and valley variations since factors that affect soil reflectance act
over less specific bands.

The factors that affect soil reflectance are;

i. Moisture content

ii. Soil texture

iii. Surface roughness

iv. Presence of iron oxide or organic matter

Some of this factors are interrelated.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

The presence of water in the soil will decrease its reflectance. This is because water absorbs energy
at 1.4,1.9 and 2.7µm .(water absorption bands)

Soil moisture is related to soil texture i.e. coarse sandy soil is usually well drained resulting into
low moisture content and therefore high reflectance. Poorly drained fine textured clay soil has low
reflectance.

N/B

However, in the absence of water, soil itself will exhibit reverse tendency i.e. coarse sandy soil
will appear darker than clay soil.

Surface roughness and presence of iron oxide/organic matter will decrease soil reflectance.

Water curve

Water reflects short wavelength energy and absorbs infrared energy. Thus demarcation of water
bodies can be perfectly done in the infrared region. Spectral reflectance of water varies with its
physical condition. In the solid phase (ice or snow) water give good reflection at all visible
wavelengths. On the other hand, reflection in the visible region is poor in case of water in liquid
stage. This difference in reflectance is due to the difference in the atomic bond in the liquid and
solid states.

The following factors affect the reflectance of water;

i. Materials suspended in the water body

ii. Energy interaction with the bottom of the water body (water depth)

iii. Specular reflection of the water surface.

Points to note about water reflectance are;

1. Clear water absorbs little energy and therefore will have high reflectance

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 2. Turbidity (presence of organic/inorganic matter) change the reflectance of water i.e. water
containing erosion material and erosion components has a higher visible reflectance than
clear water in the same region.

Chlorophyll concentration in the water causes reflectance in the blue and red region to
decrease and more reflectance in the green region.

The changes in water bodies help in estimating the presence or nascence of algae, detection
of pollutants and industrial waste in water bodies via remote sensing data.

For example, Fig. 6 shows a part of the Krishna River Basin in different bands of the Landsat
ETM+ imagery. The water body appears in dark Colour in all bands and displays sharp contrast
in the IR bands.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri
 SPECTRAL PATTERNS

Spectral responses measured by remote sensors over earth’s features permit the assessment
of type and condition of the features. These responses are referred to as spectral
signatures. Many earth features manifest distinct spectral reflectance/emittance
characteristics. The characteristics result into patterns rather than signatures since the
patterns may be distinct but not necessarily unique. It is therefore important to understand
the nature of the ground during analysis.

Temporal effects are factors that change the spectral characteristic of a feature over time
i.e. many species of vegetation change throughout the growing season. Temporal effects
can be applied in change detection.

Spatial effects are factors that cause the same type of feature e.g. corn at a given time to
have different characteristics at different geographical locations. This may be due to
different climatic and cultivation practices.

It is important to do ground truthing during Remote sensing analysis.

GROUND TRUTHING

Reference data during analysis is referred to as ground truth. This term is not meant
literally as many forms of ground truth only approximate the truth of the actual ground
conditions. Examples of ground truth data are soil maps, water quality report, topographical
maps and field checks.

Reference data serve any or some of the following purposes;

i. To aid in the analysis and interpretation

ii. To calibrate the sensor

iii. To verify the information extracted from remote sensing data.

Reference data consist of the following;

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 i. Time critical measurements – This are measurements where the ground
conditions change rapidly i.e. water pollution

ii. Time stable measurements – The measurements do not change rapidly over time
I.e. geological measurements

DATA ACQUISITION OF REFLECTED OR EMMITED ENERGY

Detection of electromagnetic energy can be done either electronically (by satellite sensors) or
photographically (by aerial cameras).

Photography uses chemical reactions on a light sensitive film which detect energy variations within
the scene. Photographic systems are simple, inexpensive and provide a high degree of spatial detail
and geometric integrity.

Electronic sensors generate an electric signal that correspond to energy variations in the signal
scene. A common example of an electronic sensor is the video camera.

Electronic sensors are more complex and expensive than photographic sensors but have a broader
spectral range of sensitivity, have improved calibration potential and can store and transmit data
electronically.

In photographic systems, the film acts as both a detecting and recording medium. Electronic sensor
signals are generally recorded in magnetic medium after detection by detectors. The signal is then
relayed to the ground receiver stations and can be converted to an image using photographic film
recorder.

In remote sensing a photograph is reserved for images that have been detected as well as recorded
on film.

An image is used for any pictorial representation and thus all photographs are images and not all
images are photographs.

An exception is digital photography which uses detectors rather than film to for image detection.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

A digital image is though appearing continuous is composed of an array of discrete picture
elements known as pixels. The intensity of each pixel corresponds to average brightness measured
electronically over the ground of corresponding to each pixel.

PHOTOGRAPHIC SENSORS

Refer to Photogrammetry notes on types of camera and camera classification according to angular
field of view and respective focal lengths

TYPES OF FILMS

i. Black and white panchromatic film

ii. Black and white infrared film
iii. Colored film
iv. Colored infra-red film
i. Black and white Films

Structure of black and white panchromatic and infrared films

Black and white aerial photographs are normally made from either panchromatic film or infrared
film.

Panchromatic film has long been the standard for aerial photographs. Its sensitivity extends from
UV and visible portions of the spectrum.

The sensitivity of black and white infrared film extends from UV, visible and up to near infrared
region.

Uses of black and white infrared film

1. To distinguish between distinguish between different species of vegetation

2. To distinguish between healthy and unhealthy vegetation-Heathy vegetation reflect more
infra- red energy thus appears lighter
3. To distinguish between natural vegetation and artificial turf

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 4. Limits of streams of water, presence of water in the soil can be seen distinctly in black and
white infrared photos than in panchromatic photos. Wet soil will have a much darker tone
in black and white infrared photos.

Though the black and white films are sensitive to UV energy, there is a limit in photography
in the UV portion of the spectrum because,;

i. The atmosphere scatters this energy

ii. The camera lens absorbs these type of energy.

Aerial UV photography is carried for special purposes such as monitoring oil film on water
which cannot be detected by other types of photography.

ii. colored film

Structure of color firm

Many Remote sensing applications involve the use of colored film. The advantage of colored film
is that human eyes can differentiate many shades of color than tones of gray.

Colour mixing

Red + Green = Yellow

Blue +Red = Magenta

Blue + Green = Cyan

colored is based on subtractive color mixing using superimposed yellow, magenta and cyan dyes.

Cyan dye blocks Red ----Cyan is a complementary of Red

Magenta dye blocks Green---------Magenta is a complementary of Green

Yellow dye blocks Blue---------------Yellow is a complementary of Blue

Quiz

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

[Link] the color of light that passes through superimposed magenta and cyan dyes.

2. state the color of light that passes through superimposed yellow and magenta dyes.

3, State the color of light that passes through when magenta, cyan and yellow dyes are
superimposed.

In color photography, various portions of yellow, magenta and cyan dyes are superimposed to
control the amount of blue, green and red lights.

After processing the color film yellow, magenta and cyan dyes are formed from blue, green and
red sensitive layers respectively.

When the positive is developed from the negative the tone will be reversed and we perceive colors
as they were in the original scene of photography.

iii. Colour infra- red film

Structure of color infrared film

The color of any given emulsion layer does not to bear any relationship with its spectral color. Any
desired portion of the electronic spectrum including the near infrared can be recorded on color film
with color assignment.

Colour infrared is manufactured so not to record blue energy. It records green, red and
photographic portion of infra- red energy (0.7-0.9µm), in its three emulsion layers.

G R IR (Energy)

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

B G R (Assignment)

Yellow Magenta Cyan (Negative)

B G R (Positive)

The dyes developed in the negative are yellow magenta and cyan. After the positive is printed the
tone will again reversed to blue green and red. Tis results into a false color image with blue images
results from objects reflecting green energy, green images from objects reflecting red energy and
red images from objects reflecting infra- red energy.

Various combinations of primary colors as well as complementary colors as well as black can be
produced.

An object with high reflectance high reflectance in both green and near infra- red energy will
produce magenta images.

Most of color infra-red films are designed to be used with a yellow filter(Blue absorbing filter)
over the camera lens. Yellow filter blocks passage wavelength below 0.5µm (blue and UV) from
reaching the film. The yellow filter has an advantage of reducing haze penetration because of
Rayleigh scattering.

Uses of color infra -red film

1. Energy emitted from extremely hot flames from burning wood (forest fires or burning
buildings) or lava flow can be on color and color infrared film but it is more clear on color
infra- red film.

2. Distinguishing between natural grass and artificial turf.

3. Distinguishing between tree species.

4. Detecting vegetation stress (unhealthy vegetation).

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

 5. Colour infra-red film was developed during world war II to detect painted targets that were
camouflaged to look like vegetation. Healthy vegetation reflect highly in the infra-red
region and therefore appear in various tones of red. Objects painted green have no infra-
red reflectance and therefore can be discriminated. Colour infrared film is very useful for
military applications.

Exercise

1. Gravel appear brown in normal color film. It has high reflectance in green, red and infra-
red regions of the spectrum. What will be its reflectance in color infra-red photographs?

2. Red roofed buildings have high reflectance in red and near infra-red regions. Determine
their appearance on color infra-red photos.

FILTERS USED IN REMOTE SENSING

Filters are transparent materials that by absorption or reflection reduce the energy reaching the
film on selected portions of the spectrum. Aerial survey filters consist mainly of organic matter
suspended in glass or gelatin. Gelatin is a natural or artificial protein like substance used in binding
silver halide crystals in photographic emulsions. The filters come in a variety of forms with a
variety of spectral transmittance properties.

Types of filters

1. Absorption filters – These are the most commonly used. These filters transmit energy on
selected portions of the spectrum e.g. a yellow filter absorbs blue light and transmit green and red
energy.

Absorption filters are often used in film-filter combinations that permits differentiation with nearly
identical spectral reflectance patterns in major portions of electromagnetic spectrum e.g.
distinguishing natural grass from artificial turf which have the same response pattens in the visible
portion of the spectrum.

Filters which selectively absorb energy below a certain wavelength are referred to as short
wavelength blocking filters or high pass filters.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

When sensing energy in isolated narrow portions of the spectrum, band pass filters are used. These
filters absorb wavelength below and above a specific wavelength range.

Several high pass and band pass filters may be simultaneously used to selectively photograph
various wavelength on separate images. This results in multi band imaging.

[Link] filters – These are used when short wavelength transmittance is required. These
filters reflect rather than absorb unwanted energy. They are used when extremely narrow
wavelength bands are required.

3.`Antivignetting filters – They are used to improve the uniformity of exposure. Illumination
decreases with increasing distance from the center of a photograph. To enable the illumination
fall- off, ant vignetting filters are designed to strongly absorb in the central area and progressively
decrease the absorption towards the edges.

4. Colour compensating filters – Colour films particularly the infra-red are sensitive to aging
causing the color layers to go out of balance. The sensitivity of one layer may decrease with age
in comparison with other layers e.g. the infra – red sensitive layer decrease with age in comparison
with the green and red layers. Colour compensating filters can be used to yield satisfactory results
with these kinds of films.

Multi band imaging

Multi band images are sensed simultaneously from the same geometric view but in different bands
in the electromagnetic spectrum. Different parts of the spectrum are sensed using different film-
filter combinations.

Multiband digital cameras are typically exposed onto a camera detector through different film –
filter combinations.

Multiband digital images are viewed by selecting three of available bands and displaying them in
blue, green and red.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Electronic sensors.

Many electronic remote sensors acquire data using scanner systems which employ sensor with a
narrow field of view that sweeps over the terrain to build up a two dimensional image of the
surface.

The scanner systems can be used on both the aircraft and satellite platforms and essentially the
same operating principles.

A scanning system used to collect data over various different wavelength ranges is called
Multispectral scanner (MSS).

Methods of scanning employed to acquire MSS image data

i. Across track scanning (Whisk broom)

Across-track scanner is also known as whisk-broom scanner. In across track scanner, rotating or
oscillating mirrors are used to scan the terrain in a series of lines, called scan lines, which are at
right angles to the flight line. As the aircraft or the platform moves forward, successive lines are
scanned giving a series of contiguous narrow strips. Schematic representation of the operational
principle of a whisk-broom scanner is shown in below

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

The scanner thus continuously measures the energy from one side to the other side of the
platform and thus a two-dimensional image is generated.
The incoming reflected or emitted radiation is separated into several thermal and non-thermal
wavelength components using a dichroic grating and a prism. An array of electro-optical
detectors, each having peak spectral sensitivity in a specific wavelength band, is used to
measure each wavelength band separately.

ii. Along-track scanning (Push Broom)

Along-track scanner is also known as push-broom scanner.

Along-track scanners also use the forward motion of the platform to record successive scan
lines and build up a two-dimensional image, perpendicular to the flight direction. However, along-
track scanner does not use any scanning mirrors, instead a linear array of detectors is used to
simultaneously record the energy received from multiple ground resolution cells along the
scan line. This linear array typically consists of numerous charged coupled devices (CCDs). A
single array may contain more than 10,000 individual detectors. Each detector element is
dedicated to record the energy in a single column as shown in Fig. 3. Also, for each spectral

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

band, a separate linear array of detectors is used. The arrays of detectors are arranged in the focal
plane of the scanner in such a way that the each scan line is viewed
simultaneously by all the arrays. The array of detectors are pushed along the flight direction
to scan the successive scan lines, and hence the name push-broom scanner. A two-
dimensional image is created by recording successive scan lines as the aircraft moves forward.

The linear array of detectors provides longer dwell time over each ground resolution cell,

which increases the signal strength. This also increases the radiometric resolution. In a push-
broom scanner, size of the ground resolution cell is determined by the IFOV of a single detector.
Thus, finer spatial and spectral resolution can be achieved without impacting
radiometric resolution.
Landsat series
The program started in 1972 and initially it was referred to as Earth Resource Technology Satellite
program (ERTSs) and was later on renamed as Landsat in 1975. The satellite was launched in a
series i.e. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. The recent one in the series Landsat-8, which is also called Landsat
Data Continuity Mission (LDCM) was launched in February, 2013.

Fig. below shows the time line of the Landsat satellite program.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

NB;

Sun synchronous ; designed that they pass equator every morning at the same time but different
place.
Land sat 1-3 9;42am.
Land slat 4,5,7,8 9;45am

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Revisit period;, after some period the satellite will go back to the same position
Period /revolution; the time satellite takes to go round the earth to produce an orbit
Inclination; the way satellite inclined to the normal

NB; Landsat 6 failed upon launch.

All satellite 1,2,3,4,5,7,8, have a swath of [185×185]…………a broad strip/area of something
Land sat 1-5 have been decommissioned (no longer in the sky) only 7 and 8 are operating

Sensors on board
Land sat 1,2,3
1. Return beam videom (RBV)
This was a frame sensor that consisted of three positive like cameras which viewed the 185 by 185
km swath at a resolution of 80m
The bands that were sensed were;
Green – band 1
Red - band 2
Infrared - band 3
The images were exposed on a photosensitive material on each camera but, the cameras did not
use film.
The surfaces raster scanner electronically produced a video signal
Multispectral scanner(MSS) ;This was the main sensor used and the data was directly convicted
into digital format
The MSS had four bands
Green – band 4
Red – band 5
Near infrared – band 6,3,7
Landsat 3 incorporated band 8 but it failed. This band had resolution of 79m

2. Landsat 4 and 5
Multispectral sensor
Sensor on both land sat 4 and 5

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

The mss used in land sat 4 and 5 was similar with only slight modification e.g. a resolution of 52m
of 79m and bands were numbered 1-4

Thematic mapper(TM)
This is a highly advanced mss because it incorporates number of spectral radiometric and
geometric properties not found in the MSS. e.g. 7 spectral bands instead 4 is the mss which includes
the blue in the visible green, red, near infrared and thermal infrared ,at a resolution of 120m(for
thermal infrared)
The TM data is collected using a resolution of 30m

3. Landsat 7
Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM)
The system is designed to collect data using a15m panchromatic band which actually extends to
0.9 µ,m. in the near infrared just outside the visible spectral range. Its normally associated with
panchromatic imagery
The system also collects six bands of data in the visible near infrared and mid-infrared requires at
a resolution of 30m .A 7th band which is a thermal band has a resolution of 60m
The panchromatic band can be merged with the 30m data from band 1-5 and 7 to produce a pan
sharpened image at a resolution of 15m .
Band six is the thermal band.

4. Landsat 8
Operation land imager (Oli)
It has also two additional bands, band 9 and 12
Both sensors provide coverage at a spatial resolution of 30m in the visible and near infrared, they
have a panchromatic band at a resolution of 15m and resolution of thermal band is 100m

SPOT.( Systeme Pour l’Observation de la Terre)

The first satellite of the mission, SPOT-1 was launched in February, 1986. This was the first

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

earth observation satellite that used a linear array of sensors and the push broom scanning
techniques.

Orbital characters

Attitude 822-832km
Swath varies from 60km – 80km
Orbit
Inclination 98.7-the normal
Recurrent period / Re visit period 26 days
Period per revolution 101 minutes
Launch year spot 1 1986, spot 2- 1990, spot 3- 1993, spot
4-1998, spot 5- 2002, spot 6-2012.

Spot 1-5 have been decommissioned, only spot 6 and 7 which are operational.

SPOT 1,2,3
SPOT 1, 2 and 3 carried two identical High Resolution Visible (HRV) imaging systems.
HRV is operational in two modes;
Multispectral scanner MSS mode- 20m resolution
Panchromatic mode – 10m resolution.
HRVs used along-track (push-broom)scanning methods.
HRV was also used for stereoscopic imaging

SPOT 4
SPOT 4 carried the High Resolution Visible and Infrared (HRVIR) sensor and the vegetation
instrument (VI)
HRVIR used across-track.
HRVIR is operational in two modes;
Multispectral scanner MSS mode- 20m resolution
Panchromatic mode – 10m resolution.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

In SPOT 4 sensor, an extra band in mid infrared has been added.
The vegetation instrument (VI) – resolution 1km is used for mereological application and ocean
monitoring.

SPOT 5
SPOT-5 carries two high resolution geometric (HRG) instruments,
i. a single high resolution stereoscopic (HRS) instrument
ii. a vegetation instrument (VI).

HRG used across-track.

HRVIR is operational in two modes;
Multispectral scanner MSS mode- 20m resolution
Panchromatic mode – 2.5m resolution.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (NOAA)

Several generation of NOAA satellites have been launched but in this case we are going to consider
NOAA 6-12.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

The sensor on board the NOAA satellite is the Advance Very High Resolution
Radiometer.(AVHRR).
The NOAA coverage is acquired at a ground resolution of 1.1km at the nadir and this resolution
becomes worse off the nadir. Its mainly used for meteorological purposes.

Orbital characteristics.
NOAA 6.8,10,12,15 7,9,11,14,16
Altitude 833km 870km
Inclination 98.7 the normal 98.9o to the normal
Period/Orbit 102minutes
Resolution at nadir 1.1km 1.1km
swath 2400km 2400km
North bound equator crossing 7.30pm 1:30-2:30pm
South bound 7.30am 1:30-2:30pm

Land Observing Satellites

Examples; Landsat (Whisk broom), SPOT (push broom), mereological- NOAA (Met sat).
Metrological satellites i.e. NOAA Have a bigger swath and coarse spatial resolution but a good
temporal resolution.
Main area of application are;
i. natural resource application where frequent large area mapping is required but not fine
details.
ii. Flood monitoring
iii. Vegetation mapping
iv. Weather forecasting

Thermal Remote sensing.

Many multispectral systems sense radiation in the thermal infrared as well as visible and reflected
infrared portions of the spectrum.
Remote sensing of energy emitted from the surface in the thermal infrared(3-14µm) is different
than sensing the reflected energy.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Thermal sensors use photo detectors sensitive to direct contact of photons on their surface to detect
emitted thermal radiation.
The detectors are pulled to temperature close to absolute zero so that they can emit or reflect their
own thermal emissions.
Thermal imagery is typically of across track scanners that detect emitted energy only in the thermal
portion of the spectrum.
For analysis of thermal image, relative radiant temperature are depicted in three levels with warmer
temperatures shown in lighter tones.
Absorption by atmospheric gases normally restricts thermal imageries to two specific regions (3-
5µm) and (8-14µm).
Because energy decreases as wavelength increases, thermal sensors generally have large field of
view to ensure enough energy reaches the detector in order to make reliable measurements.
The spatial resolution of thermal sensor is usually coarse in comparison to spatial resolution on the
visible and reflected infrared.
Thermal imagery can be acquired during the day and night because the radiation emitted Is not
reflected.
Thermal imagery is used in variety of application such as military reconnaissance, heat and loss
monitory.
Thermal imagery is also referred to as Thermogram.
Examples of thermal scanners; thermal radiometers and thermal scanners.

Thermal Radiometers
Thermal radiometers are non-imaging devices that quantifies, measures and record radiant
temperature of object.
They can either be handheld or mounted in the aircraft.
Thermal radiometers produce temperature profiles.

Components of radiometers.
1. Collecting optics, concentrates radiated energy from the area which measurement is done.
2. Chopper mirror ; its introduced in the optical path to permit the detector to alternatively view
the ground and the calibrated internal reflections.

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

3. Filter; limits the spectral operating range to the radiometer.
4. Detector; used to convert radiations into electric signals.
5. Electronics; amplify the signals from the detector.

Microwave remote sensing

Microwave refers to electromagnetic radiation having wavelength between 1mm-1m.
Therefore microwave involves the use of this energy to acquire information about the earth’s
resources.

Properties of microwave
1. They are capable of penetrating the atmosphere in all weather conditions. We are able to
see through the clouds, snow, haze, smoke and light rains.
2. Microwave reflectance/emittance from the earth surface bears no direct relationship with
the visible energy. Therefore microwave has a completely different view of the earth as
compared to sensitive light/heat energy. E.g. a surface appearing rough in the visible
portion of the spectrum may appear smooth when using the microwave.

Ways of applying microwave remote sensing;

i. Active microwave remote sensing.
This refers to sensors that generate their own energy to illuminate the area to be sensed. The sensors
transmit a train of energy pulses and detect the return echoes and process them to derive
information required.
This means that active systems can be controlled and operated anytime of the day/night hence they
are referred to as all time weather systems.
Examples of active microwave systems; RADAR.

ii. Passive microwave remote sensing

This refers to when a sensor detects microwave radiation naturally emitted by the Earth. Clouds do
not emit much microwave radiation, compared to sea ice.
It allows detection of microwave energy under almost all weather and environmental conditions
so that data can be collected at any time. Passive microwave sensing is similar in concept to thermal

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

remote sensing

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri

Prepared by Lynn Gacheri