Chapter 2

Network Models

2.1
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.2
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.3
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

2.4
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.5
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.6
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.7
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.8
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.9
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.10
 The physical layer is also concerned with the following

• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The physical layer defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also
defines the type of transmission medium.

• Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s
or 1s) with no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical
or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0s and I s are changed to
signals).

• Data rate: The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the
physical layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how
long it lasts.

• Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but
also must be synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks
must be synchronized.

2.11
 • Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media. In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated
link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.

• Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to
every other device), a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring
topology (each device is connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every
device is on a common link), or a hybrid topology (this is a combination of two or more
topologies).

• Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can
send; the other can only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the
half-duplex mode, two devices can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-
duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices can send and receive at the same time.

2.12
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.13
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.14
The data link layer is responsible for following

• Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer
into manageable data units called frames.

• Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network,

the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the
frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next one.

• Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

• Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to
recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to
the end of the frame.

• Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.

2.15
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.16
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.17
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.18
The network layer is responsible for following

• Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles
the addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network
layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things,
includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.

• Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks

(network of networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or
switches) route or switch the packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the
network layer is to provide this mechanism.

2.19
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.20
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.21
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.22
The transport layer is responsible for following

Service-point addressing: Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next
but also from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process
(running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of
address called a service-point address (or port address). The network layer gets each packet to
the correct computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on
that computer.

Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.

Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to
the transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the
packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.

2.23
 • Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single
link.

• Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather than
across a single link. The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error
correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

2.24
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.25
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.26
The session layer is responsible for following
• Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows
the communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex (one way
at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a time) mode.

• Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or

synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of
2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that
each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently. In this case, if a crash
happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after
system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent. Figure
illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the transport and presentation layers.

2.27
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.28
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.29
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.30
The presentation layer is responsible for following

• Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be
changed to bit streams before being transmitted. Because different computers use different
encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information
from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the
receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.

• Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.

Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process
to transform the message back to its original form.

• Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such
as text, audio, and video.

2.31
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.32
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.33
The presentation layer is responsible for following

• Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical

terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates
a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The user's computer talks to the
software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa. The remote host
believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.

• File transfer, access, and management: This application allows a user to access files in
a remote host (to make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for
use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.

• Mail services: This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

• Directory services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

2.34
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.35
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.36
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.37
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

Application

Transport

Internet

Network Access

2.38
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which
provides a specific functionality; however, the modules are not necessarily
interdependent.

Whereas the OSI model specifies which functions belong to each of its layers, the
layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite contain relatively independent protocols that can be
mixed and matched depending on the needs of the system. The term hierarchical
means that each upper-level protocol is supported by one or more lower-level
protocols.

At the transport layer, TCP/IP defines three protocols: Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP). At the network layer, the main protocol defined by TCP/IP is the
Internetworking Protocol (IP); there are also some other protocols that support data
movement in this layer.

2.39
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.40
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.41
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.42
 Example 2.1

In Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame

to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes are
connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.

2.43
 Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.44
 Example 2.2

As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks

use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.45
 Example 2.3

Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
letters are used to show the logical addresses and numbers for physical addresses,
but note that both are actually numbers

2.46
 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.47
 Example 2.4

Figure shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

2.48
 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.49
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.50
 Example 2.5

A port address is a 16-bit address represented by one

decimal number as shown. It is 16-bit unsigned integer,
allowing for values ranging from 0 to 65,535.
753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

2.51
 Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.52
 Specific Addresses

Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address.
Examples include the e-mail address (for example, forouzan@[Link]) and the Universal
Resource Locator (URL) (for example, [Link]).

The first defines the recipient of an e-mail, the second is used to find a document on the
World Wide Web. These addresses, however, get changed to the corresponding port and
logical addresses by the sending computer

2.53