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Chapter 11:
Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• How are metal alloys classified and what are their common
applications?

• What are some of the common fabrication techniques for

metals?

• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the

mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous
alloys?

Materials Selection

There are more than 50,000 commercially available

materials with which an engineer may choose to design

Metals and alloys

Steel, aluminum, etc. How to Choose?
Polymers
Polyethylene, polystyrene,
nylon, epoxies, etc.
Ceramics and glasses
Alumina, silica, silicon
carbide, etc.
Composite materials
Fiberglass, carbon fiber
reinforced polymers, etc.
Natural materials
Wood, leather, silk, bone

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Materials Selection

The Three P’s

Price

Successful
Commercial
Products

Performance Producibility
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Why Metal Alloys are Important?

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Classification of Metal Alloys

Metal Alloys

Ferrous Nonferrous

Steels
Steels Cast Irons
Cast Irons
<1.4 wt% C 3-4.5
<1.4wt%C 3-4.5wt%C
wt% C
T(ºC) microstructure: ferrite,
1600 graphite/cementite
δ
1400 L
γ+L
1200 γ 1148ºC L+Fe3C
austenite Eutectic:
1000 4.30

γ+Fe3C
α800 727ºC Fe 3 C
ferrite Eutectoid: cementite
600 0.76 α+Fe3C
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6.7
(Fe)
Co , wt% C

Refinement of Steel from Ore

BLAST FURNACE

Coke
Iron Ore Limestone

heat generation
gas C +O2 → CO2
refractory
vessel reduction of iron ore to metal
layers of coke CO2 + C → 2CO
and iron ore 3CO + Fe2O3 → 2Fe +3CO2
air purification
slag
Molten iron CaCO3 → CaO+CO2
CaO + SiO2 + Al2O3 → slag

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Ferrous Alloys

Steels
Low Alloy High Alloy
low carbon Med carbon high carbon
<0.25 wt% C 0.25-0.6 wt% C 0.6-1.4 wt% C

heat
Name plain HSLA plain plain tool stainless
treatable
Cr,V Cr, Ni Cr, V,
Additions none none none Cr, Ni, Mo
Ni, Mo Mo Mo, W
Example 1010 4310 1040 43 40 1095 4190 304, 409
Hardenability 0 + + ++ ++ +++ varies
TS - 0 + ++ + ++ varies
EL + + 0 - - -- ++
Uses auto bridges crank pistons wear drills high T
struc. towers shafts gears applic. saws applic.
sheet press. bolts wear dies turbines
vessels hammers applic. furnaces
blades Very corros.
resistant
increasing strength, cost, decreasing ductility

Ferrous Alloys

Low-Carbon Steels

➢ Least expensive to produce

➢ Automobile body components
➢ Sheets that are used in pipelines,
buildings, bridges and tin cans

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Ferrous Alloys

Medium-Carbon Steels

➢ Railway wheels and tracks

➢ Gears
➢ Crankshafts

Ferrous Alloys

High-Carbon Steels

➢ Cutting tools and dies for

forming

➢ Knives

➢ Razors

➢ Hacksaw blades

➢ Springs

➢ High-strength wire

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Ferrous Alloys

Stainless Steels

➢ Milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars,

wire, and tubing

➢ Cookware

➢ Surgical instruments

➢ Automotive and aerospace

➢ Buildings as construction material

➢ Storage tanks and tanker because of its

corrosion resistance and antibacterial
properties

➢ Jewelry and watches The 630-foot-high (190 m), stainless-clad (type

304) Gateway Arch defines St. Louis's skyline

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Ferrous Alloys

Iron-based alloys
• Steels
• Cast Irons

Nomenclature for steels (AISI/SAE)

10xx Plain Carbon Steels
11xx Plain Carbon Steels (resulfurized for machinability)
15xx Mn (1.00 - 1.65%)
40xx Mo (0.20 ~ 0.30%)
43xx Ni (1.65 - 2.00%), Cr (0.40 - 0.90%), Mo (0.20 - 0.30%)
44xx Mo (0.5%)
where xx is wt% C x 100
example: 1060 steel – plain carbon steel with 0.60 wt% C
Stainless Steel >11% Cr

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Ferrous Alloys

Cast Irons
• Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C
– more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt% C
• Low melting – relatively easy to cast
• Generally brittle

• Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C → 3 Fe () + C (graphite)

– generally a slow process

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Ferrous Alloys

Cast Irons
T(ºC)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
 +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200  1153ºC

• slow cooling Austenite 4.2 wt% C

1000
+  + Graphite
800
740ºC
0.65

600
 + Graphite
400
0 1 2 3 4 90 100
(Fe) C, wt% C

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

Gray iron
• oldest and most common form
• graphite flakes
• weak & brittle under tension
• stronger under compression
• excellent vibrational dampening
• wear resistant
• high thermal conductivity and
specific heat capacity

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

Gray iron
• Applications when strength is
not a primary consideration
• Small cylinder blocks, cylinder
Comparison of the relative vibrational damping
heads, pistons, transmission capacities of (a) steel and (b) gray cast iron
cases
• Diesel engine castings
• Cast iron cookware

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

Ductile iron
• add Mg and/or Ce to the gray
iron
• graphite as nodules not flakes
• Different microstructure and
mechanical properties
• matrix often pearlite – stronger
but less ductile

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

Ductile iron
• Pipes
• Valves, pump bodies
• Rollers, slides
• High-strength gears
• Other automotive and machine
components

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

White iron
• < 1 wt% Si so harder but
brittle
• Carbon exists as a cementite
instead of a graphite
• Limited using because of its
extreme hardness and
brittleness

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

White iron
• Limited using because of its
extreme hardness and
brittleness
• Applications which
necessitate a very hard and
wear resistant surface
without a high degree of
ductility
• Rollers and rolling mills

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

Malleable iron
• heat treat white iron at 800-
900ºC
• graphite in rosettes
• reasonably strong and ductile

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

Malleable iron
• Connecting rods, transmission
gears,
• Automotive industry
• Pipe fittings, valve parts for
marine, railroad
• Heavy-duty services

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Ferrous Alloys

Types of Cast Irons

Compacted Graphite Iron

(CGI)
• relatively high thermal
conductivity
• good resistance to thermal
shock
• lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures

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Ferrous Alloys

Production of
Cast Irons

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Non-ferrous Alloys

• Cu Alloys • Al Alloys
Brass: Zn is subst. impurity -low r: 2.7 g/cm3
(costume jewelry, coins, -Cu, Mg, Si, Mn, Zn additions
corrosion resistant) -solid sol. or precip.
Bronze : Sn, Al, Si, Ni are strengthened (struct.
subst. impurities aircraft parts
(bushings, landing & packaging)
gear) NonFerrous • Mg Alloys
Cu-Be : -very low r : 1.7g/cm3
precip. hardened Alloys -ignites easily
for strength -aircraft, missiles
• Ti Alloys
-relatively low r: 4.5 g/cm3 • Refractory metals
-high melting T’s
vs 7.9 for steel • Noble metals -Nb, Mo, W, Ta
-reactive at high T’s -Ag, Au, Pt
-space applic. -oxid./corr. resistant

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Non-ferrous Alloys

Copper

• Relatively high thermal

conductivity
• Good resistance to thermal
shock
• Lower oxidation at elevated
temperatures

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Non-ferrous Alloys

Copper alloys

• Mechanical and corrosion resistant

properties may be improved by
alloying
• Most common copper alloys are Brass die,
brasses where zinc is predominant along with zinc and copper samples
alloying element
• Bronze where tin is used as an
alloying element

Bronze sculpture

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Non-ferrous Alloys

Copper Alloys
• Jet aircraft landing gear bearings
and bushings
• Springs
• Surgical and dental instruments

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Non-ferrous Alloys

Aluminum
• The third most abundant element
after oxygen and silicon
• Relatively low density
• High electrical and thermal
conductivities
• A resistance to corrosion
• Easily formed because of their
ductility
• Low melting point (660 C)

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Non-ferrous Alloys

Aluminum Alloys
• Mechanical strength of
aluminum may be enhanced by
alloying
• Principal alloying elements are
copper, magnesium, silicon,
manganese, and zinc.
• Two classifications: wrought
and cast Al-alloys

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Non-ferrous Alloys

Aluminum Alloys
• Most widely used nonferrous alloys
• Global production of Al in 2005
was 31.9 million tones
• Transportation (automobiles,
aircraft, trucks, railway cars,
marine vessels, bicycles, etc.) as
sheet, tube, castings, etc.
• Packaging (cans, foil)
• Construction (windows, doors,
siding, building wire, etc.
• Electrical transmission lines for
power distribution

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Non-ferrous Alloys

Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys

• Light weight
• Lowest density (1.7 g/cm3) of
all the structural metals.
• At room temperature, it is
difficult to deform Mg.
• Good high temperature
mechanical properties.
• Good to excellent corrosion
resistance.

Magnesium alloys are used to

fabricate a variety of automotive
use

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Metal Fabrication

• How do we fabricate metals?

– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

• Forming Operations
– Rough stock formed to final shape

Hot working vs. Cold working

• Deformation temperature • Deformation below
high enough for recrystallization
recrystallization temperature
• Large deformations • Strain hardening occurs
• Small deformations

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Metal Fabrication

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force
• Drawing • Extrusion
Fig. 11.8,
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
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Metal Fabrication

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- mold is filled with molten metal

– metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying elements
added, then cast in a mold
– common and inexpensive
– gives good production of shapes
– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials

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Metal Fabrication

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g.,
• What material will withstand T >1600ºC
auto engine blocks)
and is inexpensive and easy to mold?
• Answer: sand!!!
Sand Sand
• To create mold, pack sand around form
molten metal (pattern) of desired shape

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Metal Fabrication

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Investment Casting
(low volume, complex shapes
e.g., jewelry, turbine blades)
• Stage I — Mold formed by pouring wax I
plaster of paris around wax pattern.
Plaster allowed to harden.
• Stage II — Wax is melted and then
poured from mold—hollow mold
II
cavity remains.
• Stage III — Molten metal is poured
into mold and allowed to solidify. III

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Metal Fabrication

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Die Casting • Continuous Casting
-- high volume -- simple shapes
-- for alloys having low melting (e.g., rectangular slabs,
temperatures cylinders)

molten
solidified

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Metal Fabrication

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder Metallurgy • Welding
(metals with low ductility) (when fabrication of one large
part is impractical)
pressure
filler metal (melted)
base metal (melted)
fused base metal
heat
heat-affected zone
area unaffected unaffected
contact piece 1 piece 2 Adapted from Fig.
11.9, Callister &
densify Rethwisch 8e.
(Fig. 11.9 from Iron
• Heat-affected zone: Castings Handbook,
point contact densification C.F. Walton and T.J.
by diffusion at
(region in which the Opar (Ed.), 1981.)
at low T
higher T microstructure has been
changed).

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Thermal Processing of Metals

Annealing: Heat to Tanneal, then cool slowly.

• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):
stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- nonuniform cooling below Teutectoid & hold for
- phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
Annealing to get g, then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
• Normalize (steels): Deform
cold working by
steel with large grains. Then heat
(recovery/
treat to allow recrystallization
recrystallization)
and formation of smaller grains.

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Thermal Processing of Metals

Heat Treatment
Temperature-Time
A
Paths
P

a) Full Annealing
b) Quenching B
A
c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite)

b) a)
c)
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Thermal Processing of Metals

Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.

flat ground
specimen
(heated to γ
phase field) Rockwell C
24ºC water hardness tests

• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Distance from quenched end

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Thermal Processing of Metals

Why Hardness Changes with Distance?

• The cooling rate decreases with distance from quenched end.
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Hardness, HRC
40

20 distance from quenched end (in)

0 1 2 3
T(ºC) 0%
600 100%

400

M(start)
200
A® M

0 M(finish)

0.1 1 10 100 1000

Time (s)
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Thermal Processing of Metals

Hardenability vs Alloy Composition

100 10 3 2 Cooling rate (ºC/s)

• Hardenability curves for 60

Hardness, HRC

100

five alloys each with, 4340 80 %M

50
C = 0.4 wt% C 40 4140
8640
5140
20
0 10 20 30 40 50
• "Alloy Steels" Distance from quenched end (mm)
(4140, 4340, 5140, 8640) 800
-- contain Ni, Cr, Mo T(ºC) TE
(0.2 to 2 wt%) 600
A B
-- these elements shift
400
the "nose" to longer times
(from A to B) M(start)
200
-- martensite is easier M(90%)
to form 0 -1
10 10 10 3 10 5 Time (s)
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Thermal Processing of Metals

Influences of Quenching Medium & Specimen Geometry

• Effect of quenching medium:
Medium Severity of Quench Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of specimen geometry:
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases:
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases
-- hardness throughout interior increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

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Thermal Processing of Metals

Precipitation Hardening
• Particles impede dislocation motion.
700
• Ex: Al-Cu system
T(ºC) L CuAl2
• Procedure: 600 +L
-- Pt A: solution heat treat
a +L
A
(get α solid solution) 500 
-- Pt B: quench to room temp. C α+ 
400
(retain α solid solution)
-- Pt C: reheat to nucleate 300
small  particles within 0 B 10 20 30 40 50
(Al) wt% Cu
α phase. composition range
available for precipitation hardening
• Other alloys that precipitation
harden: Temp.
• Cu-Be Pt A (sol’n heat treat)

• Cu-Sn
• Mg-Al Pt C (precipitate )

Time
Pt B

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Thermal Processing of Metals

Influence of Precipitation Heat Treatment on TS, %EL

• 2014 Al Alloy:
• Maxima on TS curves. • Minima on %EL curves.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.

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tensile strength (MPa)

%EL (2 in sample)
400
20
300
149ºC 10
200 204ºC 149ºC
204ºC
100 0
1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr
precipitation heat treat time precipitation heat treat time
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