UNIT -1

BASICS OF A COMPUTER

Computer is an electronic device that can accept data(input) processes it according to the user
instructions,stores it and produces the results(output).

Characteristics of a computer:
 Speed – A computer can perform millions of instructions per second. Tasks that take
hours for humans can be done in seconds.
 Accuracy – If the input and instructions are correct, a computer gives highly accurate
results. Errors usually occur due to human mistakes in data or programming.
 Automation – Once a program is given, the computer works automatically without
further human intervention until the task is complete.
 Storage – A computer can store a huge amount of data, files, and programs. It also
allows quick access, modification, and retrieval.
 Versatility – It can perform a wide range of tasks (e.g., calculations, text processing,
gaming, graphics, communication).
 Connectivity – Computers can connect to networks (like the Internet), allowing
sharing of information worldwide.
 Multitasking – Modern computers can perform multiple tasks at the same time (e.g.,
playing music while browsing and downloading files).
 Diligence – Unlike humans, a computer does not get tired, bored, or lose
concentration. It can work continuously for long hours.
 Intelligence Limitation – Computers do not think on their own; they only follow given
instructions. They lack decision-making power without human guidance.
 Data Communication – Computers can quickly communicate and transfer data
between devices and networks.

Generations of Computers: The Generation of Computer Evolution is Generally

Divided Into 5 Categories.

The First Generation of Computers- (the 1940s-1950s): The main electronic

component used in the computers of the 1940s to 1950s era were vacuum [Link]
main memory storing units were magnetic tapes and magnetic [Link] machine
language was used as the programming [Link] sizes used to be very large
which could take up entire rooms and the speed was very [Link] only input/output
devices were paper tape and punched [Link] 100 different vacuum tubes were
used in order to produce the computers.

The Second Generation of Computers- (the 1950s-1960s): The main electronic

component used in the computers of the 1950s to 1960s era were transistors. The
main memory storing units were magnetic tape or disk and magnetic core. The
assembly language was used as the programming language. The sizes were smaller as
compared to those of the first generation and they used to consume low power and
generate less heat. There was an improvement in speed. The input/output devices
were magnetic tape and punched cards.

The Third Generation of Computers- (the 1960s-1970s) The main electronic

components used in the computers of the era 1960s to 1970s were integrated circuits
ICs. The memory storing units were the magnetic disk or take and a large magnetic
core. High-level languages such as BASIC, COBOL, Pascal were used as the
programming language. The sizes were smaller and efficient and the computers were
called minicomputers. There was an improvement in reliability and speed as
compared to the second generation of computers. The input/output devices were
keyboards, magnetic tape monitor, printer, etc.

The Fourth Generation of Computers- (1970s-present) The main electronic

components used in the fourth generation of computers are microprocessors and very
large scale integration (VLSI). When thousands of transistors are attached to a single
microchip, it is known as VLSI. Semiconductor memory storage units such as RAM,
ROM, etc were introduced.
RAM (random-access memory)- Temporarily stores the programs and data and the
contents are lost when the computer is shut down.
ROM (read-only memory)- Permanently stores the data and programs and the
contents are retained even after shutting down the computer. High-level languages
such as C#, JAVA, Python, JavaScript are used as programming [Link] sizes
are smaller and the speed has improved. The input/output devices are a monitor,
mouse, keyboard, printer, and so on. Examples are STAR 1000, APPLE II, IBM PC,
and so on.
The Fifth Generation of Computers- (present and the future) The main electronic
components that are used in the present generation of computers is Artificial
Intelligence which uses the parallel processing method and the Ultra-Large Scale
Integration (ULSI). The fifth generation of computers understands the natural human
language. The speeds are really fast and the sizes are also small. The fifth-generation
computers are portable and have a huge storage capacity. The input/output devices are
keyboards, monitors, touchscreen pens, printers, light scanners, and so on. Examples
are laptops, desktops, tablets, smartphones.
Phases of Computer Generations
The evolution of computers is divided into five generations:

Generations of
Computers Time-Period Evolving Hardware

First Generation 1940s - 1950s Vacuum Tube Based

Second Generation 1950s - 1960s Transistor Based

Integrated Circuit
Third Generation 1960s - 1970s
Based

Fourth Generation 1970s - Present Microprocessor Based

Artificial Intelligence
Fifth Generation Present - Future
Based

Classification of computers
Computers can be classified by their size and capability (supercomputers,
mainframes, minicomputers, microcomputers) or by their type of data
processing (digital, analog, and hybrid). Other classifications include purpose,
such as general-purpose and special-purpose.
A supercomputer is a special type of computer that is more powerful and
capable of high-performance computing. It is specifically designed to compute
complex and intensive tasks that regular computers cannot do efficiently.
 Size − Supercomputers can vary in size, from small clusters of computers
to massive installations. A supercomputer may contain 10, 100, 1000, or
more computers that all work together.

Fig: Super Computer

 Example − Some of the popular supercomputers are Fugaku, Google
Sycamore, Baidu's quantum supercomputer, and Sierra.
 Why Supercomputer?
 o A supercomputer's processing speed is exceptional and can perform
billions of calculations per second. Multiple processors work in
parallel mode to execute tasks, which makes processing powerful.
o Supercomputers are specially built using specialised hardware like
GPUs (Graphics Processing Units) or TPUs (Tensor Processing
Units), which are used in graphics rendering or machine learning
tasks.
o Supercomputers represent the pinnacle of computing power, and
these are very expensive and are employed for specialised
applications.
 Uses of the Supercomputer − Supercomputers are most widely used in
scientific research, data analysis, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy
research, electronic design, and the analysis of geological data.
Mainframe computer
The mainframe is very large and is an expensive computer capable of
supporting hundreds or even thousands of users simultaneously. The mainframe
executes many programmes concurrently and supports simultaneous execution
of programmes.

Fig: Mainframe Computer

 Size − Mainframe computers can vary in size; their size generally
depends on their specifications and the specific model being considered.
 Example − Some of the popular mainframe computers are IBM zSeries
mainframes (BM z14 and IBM z15), Unisys ClearPath, Fujitsu GS21
Series, and Hitachi VOS3.
 Why a mainframe computer?
The processing capacity of mainframes is frequently measured in MIPS (million
instructions per second) or other units. This enables them to process a large
volume of transactions and perform extensive data processing.
 Uses of the Mainframe − Mainframe computers are most widely used in
finance, government, healthcare, and more.
Minicomputer
A minicomputer is a type of computer that is smaller in size than large
computers. It possesses all the capabilities of a large computer. Hence, it is a
midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users
simultaneously.

Fig: Mini Computer

 Size − Its size falls between mainframes and microcomputers. It is larger
than mainframe computers and smaller than microcomputers.
 Example − Some of the popular minicomputers are the PDP-11, IBM's
AS/400e, Honeywell 200, and TI-990.
 Why a Mini Computer? Mini computers are also known as mini PCs or
small-form-factor (SFF) computers. These have impressive computing
capabilities, high performance, connectivity options, portability, and
versatility features.
 Uses of Minicomputers − Minicomputers are most widely used in
scientific computations, engineering, business transaction processing, file
handling, and database management.
Micro Computer
Microcomputers, also known as personal computers (PCs), are a type of
computer designed for individual use. They are distinguished by their compact
dimensions, small size, processing power, compatibility, internet connectivity,
portability, low price, and versatility. In the 1970s and 1980s, microcomputers
gained popularity and became more popular in the modern computing era.

Fig: Micro Computer

 Size − Microcomputers are small in size. These are portable.
 Example − Some of the popular microcomputers are laptops and
desktops, standard PCs, mobile phones, and notebooks.
 Why microcomputer ?
Microcomputers have become an important part of modern life. They have had
a big impact on society, companies, education, and related areas.
 Uses of Microcomputers − Microcomputers are most widely used in
education and learning, entertainment and media, innovation and
creativity, research and science, healthcare and medicine, home
automation, remote work, and e-commerce and online shopping.
Computer's classification based on Purpose
As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −
 Special Purpose
 General Purpose
Special Purpose Computer
A computer that is designed and optimised for a specific task or set of tasks is
called a special purpose computer (SPC). SPCs are designed to excel at a single
or limited set of functions, frequently with a high degree of efficiency, speed,
and accuracy.
Fig: Special Purpose Computer
Some of the following popular SPCs are:
 Embedded Systems − These systems are integrated with devices to
control specific functions. For example, a car's engine control unit and
microwave ovens
 Digital Signal Processors − These are commonly used in applications
like audio processing, image compression, and telecommunications.
 Automated Teller Machines − ATMs are special-purpose computers
designed specifically for banking transactions and interactions with
customers.
 Medical Equipment − Machines like MRI and CT scanners are
specialised computers used for capturing and processing medical images.
 Spacecraft Computers − Computers used in spacecraft have to operate
in extreme conditions and are optimised for the demands of space
missions.
General Purpose Computer
A computer that is designed to perform a wide range of tasks and functions is
called A General Purpose Computer (GPC). A GPC is versatile and can be used
for various purposes by running different software and applications.

Fig: General Purpose Computer

Some of the following popular GPCs are as −
  Turing Completeness − A GPC can simulate any algorithm or
computation that can be explored algorithmically.
 Programmability − GPCs can run different applications.
 General-Purpose Operating System − GPCs like Windows, macOS, or
Linux that provide an interactive user interface and manage hardware
resources, enabling the execution of various application programmes.
 Input and Output Capabilities − GPCs have input and output devices
(keyboard, mouse, monitor, etc.) that permit users to interact with the
system and receive feedback.
Computer's classification based on Capacity
As per the capacity, a computer can be broadly classified as follows −
 Analog Computer
 Digital computer
 Hybrid computer
Analog Computer
A computer that uses physical means like mechanical or hydraulic components
to do the computation rather than electronic circuits is called an analogue
computer. These computers work with continuous data and can manage physical
quantities efficiently. They are particularly good at solving differential equations
and simulating dynamic systems.

Fig: Analog computer

In lieu of numbers, an analogue computer performs arithmetic operations based
on measurable quantities, such as mechanical movement or the rotation of
gears. In analogue computers, data is processed as continuous signals for its
operation, whereas in digital computers, data is transmitted as discrete signals
(or discontinuous signals).
Digital Computer
A digital computer is a type of computer that represents and processes data
using discrete, distinct values.

Fig: Digital computer

In digital computers, data is processed using binary numbers 0 and 1. These
computers are designed to perform arithmetic calculations and complex data
processing and manipulation. The main components of a digital computer are
input, processing, and output.
Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computer is a type of computer system that integrates the features and
capabilities of both analogue and digital computers. This integration allows the
hybrid computer to perform various tasks efficiently by leveraging the strengths
of both digital and analogue technologies.

Fig: Hybrid computer

The main components of a hybrid computer are the analogue and digital
components −
 Analog Component − Analogue components in a hybrid computer can
process real-world data like voltage, current, temperature, pressure, etc.
using analogue circuits and components.
  Digital Component − Digital computers work with discrete data and are
based on binary numbers (0s and 1s). Digital components in a hybrid
computer provide the computational power to perform complex
calculations and control the overall operation of the system.
Hardware
The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer.
Computer hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can
use to control computer’s operation, input and output. Examples of hardware are
CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.
Hardware Components Computer hardware is a collection of several
components working together. Some parts are essential and others are added
advantages. Computer hardware is made up of CPU and peripherals as shown in
image below.
Software:
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a
program. Software instructions are programmed in a computer language,
translated into machine language, and executed by computer.
Software can be categorized into two types –
• System software
• Application software
System Software System software operates directly on hardware devices of
computer. It provides a platform to run an application. It provides and supports
user functionality. Examples of system software include operating systems such
as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc. Application Software An application software is
designed for benefit of users to perform one or more tasks.
Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint,
Oracle.
Memory
Computer memory is the electronic storage space where computer keeps data
and instructions for immediate use by the processor.
Memory Hierarchy
Why Does Memory Hierarchy Exist?
The primary reason for the existence of a memory hierarchy is the speed gap
between the processor and memory. While processors execute instructions at
extremely high speeds, accessing data from memory is relatively slow. If the
CPU had to retrieve every piece of data directly from the main memory (RAM)
or, even worse, from a hard disk, it would result in significant delays.
To overcome this, memory hierarchy places smaller, faster, and more
expensive memory closer to the CPU (such as caches and registers) and larger,
slower, and more affordable memory farther such as RAM and [Link]
structure ensures that frequently used data is available quickly, reducing the
time the CPU spends waiting for data.
Relationship Between Speed, Cost, and Storage Capacity
The design of memory hierarchy follows a trade-off between speed, cost, and
capacity:
1. Speed: Faster memory provides quick access to data, reducing delays in
processing. However, speed comes at a cost—faster memory is typically
smaller in size and more expensive to produce.
2. Cost: High-speed memory like cache and registers is costly due to the
advanced technology required for rapid access. On the other hand, slower
memory like hard drives and tapes is much cheaper and can store large
amounts of data.
 3. Storage Capacity: The highest speed memory (registers and cache) has
the smallest capacity because making it larger would be too expensive.
Conversely, secondary storage like hard drives offers vast storage
INPUT DEVICES
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Bar Code Reader, etc
Keyboard: Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which
helps to input data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.
Mouse: Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-
control device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which
senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU
when the mouse buttons are pressed. Generally, it has two buttons called the left
and the right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. A mouse can be
used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.
Joystick: Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor
position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both
lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick
can be moved in all four directions.
Light Pen: Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a
displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
Track Ball: Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or
laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
 Scanner: Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy
machine. It is used when some information is available on paper and it is to be
transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.
Bar Code Readers: Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded
data (data in the form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used
in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a handheld scanner or
may be embedded in a stationary scanner.
Output Devices: Any peripheral that accepts data from a computer and prints,
projects, or reproduces it is known as an output device. The output may be
audio, video, hard copy – printed paper, etc. Output devices convert the
computer data to human understandable form.
The various output devices are:
• Monitor
• Printer
• Plotter
• Projecto
r • Speakers,etc
1. Monitor : A computer’s principal output device is a monitor, often known as
a Visual Display Unit (VDU). It displays the processed data like text, images,
videos, audios, etc. It makes images by arranging microscopic dots in a
rectangular pattern, known as pixels. The sharpness of an image is determined
by the number of pixels. There are two types of monitor viewing screens
2. Printer: Printers are information output devices that allow you to print data
on paper. Or in other words, it is an output device that creates a hard copy of the
processed data or information.
3. Projector : A projector is a device that allows users to project their output
onto a large area, such as a screen or a wall. It can be used to project the output
of a computer and other devices onto a screen. It magnifies texts, photos, and
movies using light and lenses. As a result, it’s an excellent output device for
giving presentations or teaching big groups of people.
4. Speakers : Speakers are connected to computers to allow sound to be output.
For the working of speakers, sound cards are required. From simple two-
speaker output devices to surround-sound multi-channel sets, speakers come in
a variety of shapes and sizes. They take audio input from the computer’s sound
card and output sound waves as audio output.
Software Framework
Frameworks, Packages, IDE’s
• A framework is like a structure that provides a base for the application
development process. With the help of a framework, you can avoid writing
everything from scratch. Frameworks provide a set of tools and elements that
help in the speedy development process. It acts like a template that can be used
and even modified to meet the project requirements.
• Frameworks are based on programming languages. Some popular frameworks
that are most used are Django, Flutter, Angular, Vue, PyTorch, Spring Boot,
React Native, Apache Spark, Ionic, etc. These frameworks allow developers to
create robust and rich functionalities software.
Why is Framework Used?
Writing the code from scratch is a tedious task full of possible risks and errors.
You need to make the code clean, well-tested, bugs and errors free. It will be
difficult for other developers to understand the code and work on it. So, it is
better to work with the frameworks that meet your requirements. They make the
development process easy with fewer errors. It is a general template that can be
used and modified as per the requirement. It will be easy for others to
understand your code as they are also familiar with frameworks.
Frameworks provide many advantages such as:
• Easy to test your code and debug it.
• Clean code is much easy to understand and work with.
• Reduces redundancy of code in the project.
• Reduces the time and cost of the project with the enhanced application.
• Features and functionalities provided by the framework can be modified and
extended.
Types of Frameworks:
[Link] Development Frameworks: Web development refers to developing and
maintaining websites and web applications. It can be a single web page, either a
static or dynamic website or a web application. Web development frameworks
are used in the development of websites and web applications by serving web
resources, web services, and APIs to developers.
What is a good framework?
A good framework is a structured set of guidelines, methodologies, tools, and
best practices designed to facilitate the development, implementation, or
understanding of complex systems, processes, or concepts. Whether it's in
software development, project management, business strategy, or any other
field.
a good framework should possess several key characteristics:
1. Clarity: It should provide clear and concise guidance on how to approach a
problem or task.
2. Flexibility: A good framework should be adaptable to various situations and
contexts without losing its effectiveness.
3. Scalability: It should be scalable to accommodate different project sizes or
organizational scales.
4. Accessibility: The framework should be accessible to all stakeholders
involved, regardless of their level of expertise or background.
5. Practicality: It should offer practical solutions and actionable steps that can be
easily implemented.
6. Robustness: The framework should be resilient to changes and able to
withstand unforeseen challenges or disruptions.
7. Collaboration: It should promote collaboration and communication among
team members or stakeholders.
8. Continuous Improvement: A good framework should be open to feedback and
iteration, allowing for continuous improvement over time.
Examples of popular frameworks include: • Agile • SCRUM • Design Thinking
• Lean Startup • Six Sigma • Kanban
Software Package
A software package can be defined as a bundled collection of computer
programs, files, and other required resources all grouped together for the
process of distribution and installation. software packages are responsible for
encapsulating everything that is required for the proper working of particular
software applications seamlessly on the user’s software some common
examples of software packages are executable binaries, libraries, configuration
files, documentation, and any other assets vital for the software’s operation.
Types of Software Packages
1. Application Suites Application Suites are packages of different computer
programs that work together to help users do any specific tasks the application
suites mainly include multiple programs that are designed to work together
seamlessly and provide users with a range of functionalities in a single
application and these suites make it very easy for user to use multiple tools that
user require for completion of any particular job, all in one package so Instead
of getting each program separately, you can get them all together, which is
convenient and often more cost-effective Example: Microsoft Office (Word,
Excel, PowerPoint)
2. System Software System software is like the nervous system of the computer
so simply system software is the manager of your computer these programs hold
the responsibilities of managing all the essential functions of a computer, like
making sure your keyboard, mouse, and screen work together, managing files,
and keeping your computer safe and stable and also allowing your computer’s
hardware and software to work together smoothly. Example: operating systems
(Windows, macOS, Linux) and device drivers
3. Development Tools Developer tools are toolkits for building software that
include almost everything a programmer requires for creation, testing, and
debugging any software applications in short
Development tools are toolkits for people who create software these tools
include things like compilers, which turn the code developers write into
programs the computer can understand interpreters, which help run code line by
line and debuggers, which help find and fix mistakes in code.

Integrated Development Environment(IDE)

• An IDE is software that combines commonly used developer tools into a
compact GUI application.
• One can directly get on to building their applications without going through
the hardship of manually configuring and integrating the development
environment
. Features: Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) typically offer a range
of features designed to streamline the software development process. While
specific features can vary depending on the IDE, some standard features
include:
1. Code Editor: A primary component of any IDE, the code editor provides a
platform for writing, editing, and formatting code. It often includes features
such as syntax highlighting, code completion, and code folding to enhance
productivity.
2. Compiler/Interpreter Integration: IDEs often integrate compilers or
interpreters for various programming languages, allowing developers to compile
or run their code directly within the IDE environment.
3. Debugger: Debugging tools enable developers to identify and fix errors in
their code. IDEs typically provide features such as breakpoints, variable
inspection, and step-through debugging to aid in the debugging process.
4. Version Control Integration: Many IDEs integrate with version control
systems such as Git, enabling developers to manage code repositories, track
changes, and collaborate with team members more effectively.
5. Project Management: IDEs often include project management tools to help
organize and manage software projects. This may include features such as
project templates, file organization, and build configuration.
6. Code Refactoring: IDEs offer tools for code refactoring, allowing developers
to restructure and optimize their codebase without changing its external
behavior. Common refactoring actions include renaming variables, extracting
methods, and optimizing imports.
7. Code Navigation: IDEs facilitate code navigation by providing features such
as code navigation shortcuts, symbol lookup, and context-aware search
functionality. This helps developers quickly navigate large codebases and locate
specific code elements.