MODULE 18: RESEARCH METHODS

CODE: RES 303

Hours:

Credit: 3

Module competency.

This module is design to enable the learner conduct research in community settings

Module Outcomes

By the end of this module the learner should:

1. Demonstrate understanding of the principles of research and its application in community

health
2. Explain research proposal development stages
3. Describe data collection techniques
4. Employ various sampling techniques in collecting data for health research system
5. Demonstrate understanding of importance of dissemination of results and report writing
in research

Module units

Unit Name Hours

Theory practical
1. Concept of health system research
2. Research proposal development
3. Data collection and analysis
4. Ethical consideration in health research
5. Research findings, disseminating and report writing

Module content
Introduction to health research, definitions, concept of research, purpose, importance, types of
research, operational research, clinical research, types of research study design, descriptive, cross
sectional, cohort studies

Research proposal development; component of research, quality of good research proposal,

identification of research problem, purpose of study, research question and objectives or
hypothesis formulation and study justification, conceptual frame work, literature review,
research methodology, design, study area and target population, bias, errors, pilot study and
purpose, sampling methods, sample size determination, simple random sampling stratified
random sampling, cluster sampling, systematic random sampling, multi-stage sampling, quarter
sampling and non-probability sampling.

Data collection and Analysis; types, development of data collection instrument, validation,
questionnaires, interviews; key informant, in depth and exit interviews, observation studies,
literature review, and group discussion.

Ethical consideration in health research; Research ethics, respect of person, beneficence, non-
beneficence, consent, justice and equity. Research findings, disseminating and report writing
frequency distribution, frequency tables, cumulative frequencies, bar chart, pie chart, Lorenz
curve, discreet and continuous distribution, Histograms, frequency polygon distribution and
frequency curve. Dissemination to persons interested in the report, principal investigator and key
staffs. Major potential user of results, representative of target community, discussion, workshops
and seminars, articles in journal and training manuals.
UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION TO HEALTH RESEARCH

Research:-

The word research means “to search again” or to “to examine carefully”.

Research is a diligent, systemic inquiry or study to validate and refine existing knowledge and
develop new knowledge

Research – is a scientific process that validates and refines existing knowledge and generates
new knowledge that directly and indirectly influences community health practice.

Purpose of Research:-

Broad:-

 To improve the practice of its members so that the services provided to clientele will
have the greatest impact.

Specific:-

 Develop scientific, evidence based reasons for community health activities.

 Finding ways of increasing the cost – effectiveness of community health activities.
 Providing the basis for standards setting and quality assurance.
 Providing evidence in support of demands for resources in community health.
 Defending a professional status for community health.
 Focusing on priority problems that affect the community health profession.

Note:-

 The ability to conduct research is becoming an ever important skill

 Clinical practice without research is practice based on tradition without validation
 Research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of community health treatment to
determine the impact of community health care on the health of the patients or the test
out theory
 Community health practice is undergoing tremendous challenges. In order to meet
social challenges and needs, community health practice must be research based
 Research in community health evolved predominantly when community health
education became a part of higher education and was seeking its own body of
knowledge, different from that of medicine. Community health is first researchers
were being prepared in fields other than community health and have brought to
community health the various paradigms from those fields.
 1.1 DEFINITION OF RESEARCH TERMINOLOGIES
1. Research: Is a systematic inquiry or critical examination of a given phenomenon which
is reported in a form that allows the research methods and outcomes to be accessible to
others.
2. Phenomenon: An event or a situation that can be seen to happen or exist.
3. Research: Can also be defined as a process of arriving at effective solution to problems
through systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data
4. Conceptual definition : Refers to definition of terms in terms of dictionary definition
5. Operational definition: Operational definition or variables refers to definition of terms
in a way that the explanation used in the study that helps in defining variables is
measurable and quantifiable terms
6. Population: It’s the entire group of persons or objects that is of interest to the
investigator
7. Sample: Is a subject of the population selected by investigation to participate in a
research study
8. Variable: Is a measurable characteristics that assumes different values among subjects
9. Validity in relation to Research design: There can be two kinds of validity related to
research design, internal and external validity.
a. Internal validity –Refers to whether the independent variable actually made
difference and results are not due to extraneous factors
b. External validity –Refers to the extent to which the results of the study can be
generalized
10. Feasibility: Refers to the ease with which when the particular study can be completed
11. Purpose of the study: It describes why the study has been designed. The purpose reflects
the intern of the investigations and use of the knowledge derived
12. Deductive reasoning: Is a method of thinking that begins with a general statement of
belief and moves to obtain specific observation
a. Reasoning moves from the general to the specific
13. Inductive reasoning: Involves the collection of observations related to a particular event.
From these observations, a theory or general explanation regarding the event can evolve,
reasoning moves from specific to the general
14. Bias: Is a feeling or influence that strongly favours the outcome of a particular finding in
a research project
When the chance of bias is not addressed, the reliability of the scientific findings is
considered to be highly questionable.
15. The problem statement: It presents the topic under study providing a rationale for the
choice of topic, represents a synthesis of fact and theory and directs the selection of the
design
16. Qualitative and quantitative variables:
 a. Quantitative variable is one whose values or categories consists of numbers and
if differences between its categories can be expressed numerically (age, income,
size, etc)
b. The qualitative variable is one which consists of discrete categories rather than
numerical(sex, religion, etc)
Relationship among quantitative variables may be positive or negative
A positive relationship exists if an increase in the value of one variable is accompanied
by an increase in the value of other or decrease in one is accompanied by other.
The negative relationship between variables exists if the decrease in the value of one
variable is accompanied by an increase in the value of others.
17. Scholarly publication: Are the documents that serve to communicate to other
professionals the methods and achievements produced through academic study and
research investigation
Scholarly publications are used to disseminate scholarly work within discipline, which is
crucial for the growth of its members
18. Delimitation and limitation:
a. Delimitations indicate the cut off points beyond which the researcher does not
intend to probe.
It includes those restrictions the researcher placed in the study prior to gathering data
b. Limitations indicate the weakness of the entire study as the researcher perceives
them
Delimitations are set during the planning stage, whereas limitations are experienced
during implementation stage, and these uncontrollable elements are research report.
19. Dependent and independent variables
a. Independent variable is an antecedent to other variables. In an experiment or
quasi-experiment, it’s the variable that is manipulated and its effect on the
dependent variable is observed
b. Dependent variable-Represents the area of interest under investigation reflects
the effect of or the response to the independent variables
20. Data: Pieces of information obtained in the course of the study
21. Hypothesis: Is a statement of the expectations of the researcher concerning the
relationship of the variables under study
22. Abstract: An abbreviated summary of the research problem, methodology, findings and
significance
23. Parameter: Is a measurable characteristics and assumes different values in the
population
24. Statistics: Is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative data
It’s also used to indices which are derived from data through statistical procedures.
Indices include means, standard, deviation e.t.c.
1.2 CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH

1.2. 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

 Is always directed towards the solution of a problem

 Always based on empirical and observational evidence
 Research involves precise observation and accurate description
 It emphasis the development of theories, principles and generalizations
 It is characterized by systematic, objective and logical procedures
 It is marked by patience, courage and unhurried activities
 It requires that the researcher has full experience of the problem being studied
 It is replicable
 It uses systematic method of problem solving
 In research the factors which are not under study are controlled
 It requires full skill of writing report

1.2.2 PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

1.3.1 Exploratory
 To generate many ideas/new knowledge
 To develop tentative theories and conjectures
 To formulate questions
 To refine issues for future research
1.3.2 Description
 Describes a process, mechanism or relationship or a phenomenon
 Involves thorough description e.g in terms of size, age, shape, weight, colour e.t.c.
 Presents basic background information or a content
 Often uses a survey research
1.3.3 Prediction
 Enables prediction i.e. ability to estimate an event or a situation e.g. knowledge
about the relative movement of the moon, earth and sun helps us predict the
accuracy, the occurrence of lunar eclipse.

1.3.4 Analytical (or explanatory)

 Goes beyond simple description. It involves accurate observation and

measurement of a given phenomenon
 Involves theory testing on elaboration of a theory
 Used mostly in basic research

1.3.5 Evaluation
  Characterized by the focus on collecting data to ascertain the efforts of same of
planned change
 Used in applied research to evaluate a policy in initiative or social programme to
determine if its working
 Can be small or large scale e.g. effectiveness of a crime prevention programme in
a local housing estate.

1.3.6 Control

 It enables control i.e. the ability to regulate the phenomenon under study
 Many scientific experiments are designed to achieve this objectives

1.3.7 Theory development

 Involves formulating concepts, law and generalizations about a given

phenomenon

1.2.3 IMPORTANCE/GOALS OF HEALTH RESEARCH

Evidence based practice

 The aim of evidence based practice is to provide the best possible care based on
the best available research care given to patients and communities is based on
accurate and current information

Accountability for medical practice

 To be accountable for medical practice, health care workers must have sound
rationale for their actions based on knowledge that is gained through scientific
research. Health care workers have the responsibility of keeping current their
knowledge base and are of the best sources of current knowledge is the research
literate

Documentation of the cost- effectiveness of health care

 Consumers have become more aware of the cost of health care and are asking for
explanations of services they receive these consumers need to be made aware of the
importance of health care in relation to maintain the health of clients and in
promoting the recovery and rehabilitation of ill clients.
 Health services consume a large percentage of a government’s budget, and if it is
demonstrated to be cost effective, hospitals will be looked to other areas to cut costs.

Providing basis for standard setting and quality assurance

1.2.4 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Previous research

 It is an important source because its objective and involves systematic

process

Experience

 Human beings learn through their experiences in life. However, no two

human beings have the same experience. Two people may have
different interpretations of the same situation

Through tradition

 All human beings inherit culture, the socio-cultural system involves

accepting knowledge of how things are or should be
 This knowledge is required through indoctrination and socialization
transmitted by parents, adults, teachers and the clergy

From authority

 This is from experts in a specialized area giving opinion on a given

issue
 We may be misled when we depend on the authority of persons
speaking outside their team of experience

From intuition : Intuition is the perception or explanation or insight into phenomena by instinct.
i.e. ability to gain new knowledge without conscious reasoning or rational process

 However, throughout history, intuition has remained a mystery.

2.0 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified in different ways. This can be;

1. By purpose of research e.g. basic and applied

2. By method of analysis e.g. descriptive and correlation
3. Types e.g. survey, observational, historical
4. Broad classification i.e. qualitative and quantitative

2.1 BROAD CLASSIFICATION

2.1.1 Qualitative research

  This includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce
discrete numerical data. More often data is in words and usually in
categories
 Data is usually collected by:
a) Direct observation where the required behavior is observed in a particular setting
b) Participant observation where the researcher who is a regular, full time participant
in the activities being observed
c) Interview method: it is a face to face interaction between the researcher and the
subjects. The researcher uses an interview schedule

[Link] Qualitative research has advantages such as;

1. Allows the researcher direct participation to go beyond the statistical results usually
reported in quantitative research
2. Participant observation –where the research who is a regular full time participant in the
activities observed
3. Interview method-it is a face to face interaction between the researcher and the subjects.
The researcher uses an interview schedule.

Advantages of qualitative research

1) Allows the researcher to go beyond the statistical results usually reported in

quantitative research
2) Human behavior is explained best by using qualitative research behavior such as
emotions and attitudes that cannot be studied by direct observation are best studied by
qualitative method

2.1.2 Quantitative Research

 This includes designs, techniques that produce discrete numerical or
quantifiable data
 Random sampling is used to ensure representative of the sample
 Some of the research designs that can be categorized as qualitative
researchers or experimental and co relational research
 Any research that yields quantifiable data is a quantitative study

2.2 CLASSIFICATION BY PURPOSE

2.2.1 Basic Research

 Refers to those studies that are designed to seek knowledge for its own
sale and does not therefore specify an application of the findings
 Basic research is conducted in order to understand the relationship
among phenomena
  Basic research is not aimed toward the solution of problems or the
facilitation of decision making
 Basic researchers are normally motivated by intellectual curiosity
 The research is usually but not always in controlled laboratory
situations and uses animals as subjects e.g. The relationship between
alcohol intake and increase in road traffic accident among matatu
drivers
2.2.2 Applied Research
 Applied research is research that is designed to produce findings that
can be used to remediate or modify a given situation
 The term refers to those that have their purpose an identified practical
use or application
 It provides data to support theory, guide theory revision
 A problem is investigated and some resolution is sought by way of
research findings

2.3 CLASSIFICATION BY METHOD OF ANALYSIS

2.3.1 Descriptive research

 This is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to

answer questions concerning the current status in the study
 It determines and reports things the way they are at a particular time
 It gives accurate profile of the research group
2.3.2 Cause comparative research
 This is used to explore relationships between variables. This is used to
determine the reasons or causes for the current status of a phenomenon
 This is used where experimental research is not possible
 This is different from experimental in that the researcher is not able to
manipulate the variables to determine the effect of one on the other.
E.g. study weight gain among infants breastfed

2.4 CLASSIFICATION BY TYPE OF RESEARCH

2.4.1 Survey research

 A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population

in order to determine the current status of the population with one or
more variables
 It is therefore a self report study which requires the collection of
quantifiable information from the sample.
 Survey study could be descriptive, explanatory e.t.c
  Survey generally ask subjects to report their attitude, opinions,
perceptions or bahaviour
2.4.2 Historical research
 This requires collecting data from the past
 Research instruments are not administered to individuals
 Sources of data/information include;
Eye witness reports, original documents as examples of primary sources
Second hand information i.e. other people’s account (secondary sources)
2.4.3 Retrospective studies
 This begins with a phenomenon of interest (dependable variable) in the
present and examines the relationship to other variables in the past.
E.g. case studies, causes of heart attack and the investigating the
associated factors e.g. contraceptive use, activity, childhood infections,
atherosclerosis
2.4.4 Experimental methods
 This involves manipulation of independent variables to determine their
effect on dependent variable
 It is characterized by 3 properties
a) Manipulation
 A process in which the researcher manages the independent variable in
order to study the effect on dependent variable e.g. relationship
between day of removal of stitches and post operative infection. Day
of removal is manipulated. Some in 5th day and another group day on
7th day and see effect. Be removed in the 5 th day and the other the 7th
day.
b) Randomization
 Ensures every unit in the target in the population has an equal chance
of being chosen to the sample. Then after that each unit in the sample
has an equal
c) Control
 This is where comparison group(s) is used. One has an equal chance of
being in either experimental or control group.

Experimental designs are divided into;

[Link] True or classical

 This is where the researcher has a great deal of control over the
research situation. Examples include
 One group pre-test-post-test design. i.e first measure the dependent
variable give experimental treatment or independent variable then do a
post test 0x0
  Pre-test post test control group this is where there are two groups
one experimental (given Rx) and another control group (no Rx given ).
A pre-test is done to both groups, treatment is given only to
experiment group and then a post test to both groups
One short case study. This is where there is only the experimental group which is
given treatment and then a post-test is done to test the effect of the treatment
[Link] Quasi-experimental design
 This is where full experimental control is not possible randomization
not possible. These involve implementing a specific treatment and
later examining the effects of this treatment
 Is a type of intervention study
Examples
A. Non-equivalent control group design
This is similar to pre-test –post test control group design except that there is no
random assignment of subject to the experimental and comparison group.
B. Time-series design
In this study, the researcher periodically observes or measures the subjects. The
experimental is administered between two of the observations e.g. researcher
assesses the level of pain in patients with low back pain weekly and then gives
treatment after the third week. He then continues weekly assessment for another 3
weeks to see the effect of the treatment.

2.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TIME DIMENTION IN RESEARCH

Research types under this classification include;

2.5.1 Cross-sectional research

 Used when all the information on a specific topic is collected at the
same time
 It is non-recurrent in nature and done at specific point in time
 It concentrates only on here and now
 It is cost effective than longitudinal

2.5.2 Longitudinal research

 Two or more studies are done on a specific topic or phenomenon over
a longer period of time
 The instruments used must be standardized as far as possible. Research
determines if there are changes over a given period of time
 It is predominantly descriptive and explanatory in nature
 It is more complex and more expensive
[Link] Sub types of longitudinal Research

a) Panel study-the same people , group or organization is investigated over various periods
of time
b) Cohort –cohorts is a group of individuals with similar characteristics and are treated as
one for the purposes of research
c) Time series- the research is on what happened to people over a period of time.
Information is collected at a specific point in time.
2.5.3 Case study
 It entails an in depth investigation into various characteristics of a
small number of cases over a specific period of time.
 Data collected is more detailed, comprehensive and varied in nature
 A phenomenon is studied in entirely
 It contains an in depth investigation into interaction among factors
influencing explanations or change which are then analyzed

3.0 RESEARCH PROCESS

1. Identification of
the research problem

10. communicating the [Link] of objectives, question,

research feedback hypothesis
[Link] analysis, interpretation and
presentation
[Link], justification, purpose

8. data collection
[Link] review

7. conducting pre - testing

[Link] method

[Link] of measurement

3.1 Introduction
  A research process starts by formulating of research problem that can
be investigated through research procedures
 The introduction chapter covers:
 Process of identifying a research problem
 Characteristics of a good research problem
 Stating the problem
 Objective or objectives of the research
 Hypotheses/hypotheses of a research study
 Research variables

3.2 Steps in Research Process

1. Identification of the research problem

2. Formulation of research objectives, hypotheses and questions
3. Give a rational/purpose, justification
4. Literature review
5. Research methodology-it is about the design of the research data collection
6. Methods of measurements
-Tools, checklist, questionnaire, observation charts
7. Pilot study/pretest
8. Data collection and presentation
9. Data analysis and interpretation
10. Communicating the research findings/report writing
UNIT TWO: RESEARCH PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT

Proposal – Is a document which details an intended activity e.g. a research

or project

 Once a proposal has been accepted by an institution, or a funding

agency, the writer of the proposal is obliged to follow the steps
outlined in the proposal.
 A proposal demonstrates the researcher’s ability to think clearly about
the intended research or project
 It should be straight forward document, uncluttered with extraneous
and irrelevant information
 It should also be clearly organized, simple and presented in a logical
form
 The researcher proposes to undertake a piece of research on some pertinent
issue
 Research proposals may be academic oriented but are still aimed at
undertaking research to solve a problem. i.e. action oriented research
 Though most components found in an academic research proposal would also
be relevant in one which is not, some section may not be relevant and could
be left out without affecting the quality of the proposal e.g. not all action
oriented research proposals will require hypotheses or theoretical
backgrounds

2.1 Components and sections of a research proposal

FORMAT OF MAIN BODY Each chapter e.g. Chapter One:-INTRODUCTION should start on
a separate page.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

This chapter should include the following;

1.1 Background Information:

 Should show understanding and genesis of the problem.
 Gives specific gaps that are considered to be the root of the problem.
 This should be maximum one and half pages
  Talk about the global perspective followed by the local scenario.
1.2 Statement of the problem:-
 Must indicate exactly what the problem is.
 Indicate why and how it is a problem. Give information to support this e.g.
by use of statistics
 This should be derived from background information to illustrate
connectivity.
 Length- Maximum 2 paragraphs.
1.3 Justification of the study Should illustrate why the researcher is conducting the research
and whom it shall benefit
1.4 Objectives:-
1.4.1 General/Broad Objective - One general objective which should be in line with the title.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
o have to be in line with the variables the candidates hypothesize to
influence the phenomenon being investigated.
o Should be related to the general objective.
o Should be “SMART’
1.5 Research Questions:-
o They should be in line with the specific objectives and equal in number.
o Have to be numbered (1, 2, 3…..) and should be questions and not
statements. . Note:
o Paragraphing should be consistent. Either leave space or indent between
paragraphs.
o Spacing and indenting should not be used together.
o One sentence paragraphs are unacceptable.
o A paragraph should have a minimum of five sentences.
1.6 Hypotheses: Where applicable
1.7 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework (where applicable). Some studies especially
laboratory oriented may not fit into Conceptual/Theoretical frames). Where applicable it
gives conceptualized view of the study problem. If a certain theory fits into the study, it
should be indicated and discussed.

2.0 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW

The student should demonstrate evidence of understanding of current research on
the subject under investigation and show clear gaps in knowledge that will be
discussed. Relevant themes to the study and derived review should be consistent
with the requirements of the title Review the empirical and theoretical literature
relevant to the problem being investigated showing clearly the linkage of
literature review to the research questions.
  Indicate what has been done by other researchers including the
methodologies used and identify gaps.
 Cite 3-5 references per key section in the text.
 Harvard method of citation. Consistency is important in citation.
 Each key variable should be 2-3 pages long.

3.0 CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS

This Chapter highlights methodological details appropriate to the study This
chapter should include:
3.1 Study Site State where the study will be done (location) and why it was
chosen
3.2 Study design- State and justify the chosen design
3.3 Study Variables. Explain the independent and dependent variables
3.4 Study Population – Clearly identify and describe the study population.
Describing specifically who will be part of the study. (Occasionally “target
population” may be mentioned)
3.4.1 Inclusion
3.4.2 Exclusion Criteria
3.5 Sample Size Determination Describe how the sample size will be computed
3.6 Sampling techniques- Provide description of the technique
3.7 Data collections tools (if any) Explain the tool that will be used in the study
and how they will be constructed
3.8 Pre-Testing of data collection tools (if any)
- Describe how data will be collected and how pretesting centres will be
selected). It is here that the following issues will be discussed:
(i)Validity-Explain how validity of the instruments will be established
(ii) Reliability-Show and explain how reliability of the instruments will be
established N.B. If using standardized test, quote test and existing validity and
reliability levels
3.9 Data Collection Explain how field or laboratory data collection will be done
3.10 Data Management and analysis Explain the methods that will be applied in
analyzing the data after field or laboratory work
3.11 Ethical Considerations

REFERENCES
References listed alphabetically in the reference list. For citation within the text
the format of author and year of publication (Harvard of APA format are
recommended) No numbering
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Identifying Research Problems

Steps

i. Identify the broad area of interest

 The area should be relevant to the profession and goals
of the researcher e.g. HIV/AIDS, TB, malaria, FP,
breastfeeding
ii. Identify a specific problem within broad area e.g. in HIV/AIDS
 Prevention of new infections
 Circumcision
 Needle prick injuries to nurses
 Breastfeeding or not of infected
 Management (HAART/ARV Rx)
 Compliance
 HAART in mother to child transmission
 Health workers handling
 Perceptions

3.3.2 What is a Researchable problem?

It should be an important problem i.e.

i. Lead to findings that have wide spread implication to a particular

area
ii. Challenge some commonly held altruism
iii. Reviews the inadequacies of existing laws, policies, theories, views
e.t.c.
iv. Cover a reasonable scope i.e. not too narrow or general

3.3.3 Certain factors determine the scope of a research study

These factors include:

i. The time available to carry it out

ii. The money available to carry out-type print and bind reports
iii. The availability of equipments needed to carry out the research
iv. The availability of subjects or units of study

3.3.4 Ways of identifying a specific research problem

A research problem can be identified by several ways from the broad area
a) Existing literature
 By doing systematic reading of broad area of interest.
This gives a good background of the basic information
and insight into various issues that could be studied
b) Existing theories
 Existing theories in an area contain generalization and
hypotheses and principles which can be scientifically
tested
 This leads to validation or otherwise invalidate of an
existing generalization or principles
c) Discussion with experts
 Discussion with subject authorities in seminars, class,
workshop, conferences e.t.c. are a source of current
problems that could be researched include experienced
researchers
d) Replication
 This involves carrying out a research that has been
done previously
 The problem and methods are identical to the previous
study
e) Previous research studies
 These usually indicate areas of further research or
knowledge gaps in previous studies
 This helps in building up knowledge from previous
researchers
f) Media
 Frequently reported issues in the media can form the
basis of research problem such issues are usually
discussed in a public and hence important to majority
Examples
 Prostitutions-discordant couples, HIV/AIDS orphans, both
injuries related to fuel tanker accidents, husband
battering, drug peddling and abuse e.t.c.

g) Personal experiences
First hand observations and reflection experiences could
be sources of research problems ie. Experiences usually
lead and vivid images, a hunch or an intuition on the part
of a serious researcher e.g
 Post surgical infections, maternal death, and neonatal
death

3.3.5 Stating the problem

The researcher usually starts with a brief introductory

section of the general study area. Then the researcher
narrows down to the specific area of study

3.3.6 Characteristics of a good problem statement

i. It is clearly written that it captures the readers interest

ii. Should be objectively researchable
iii. It indicates the scope of the specific research
iv. The significance of the study is clearly stated i.e. how study will
add new knowledge
v. The problem statement must give the purpose of the research

Stating the purpose/Broad objective

 It conveys the focus of the study in one or two

sentences
 The purpose famishes why the study is being done
 It crystallizes the researchers inquiry into a particular
field
 It accurately expressed, the rest of the research process
will be easy

Criteria for a good purpose statement

i. Be clear, unambiguously and a declarative manner

ii. Should indicate concepts or variables in the study
iii. The relationship between variables should be stated where possible
iv. Should state the target population
v. The variables and the target population in the purpose should be
consistent with the variables and target population operationalized
in the method section of the study
Examples
 The purpose of this study is to investigate breastfeeding
purposes/practices among the professionals in
Mombasa
  The purpose of this is to find out the relationship
between male circumcision and HIV infection
prevalence/incidences in Nyanza province
 The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of
three types of cattle feed on the productivity of milk in
cows
 The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of
alcohol on reaction time of heavy truck drivers in Kenya

NB-The purpose should not be stated in biased or subjective

verbs/sentences

BIASED NEUTRAL

-Show –indicate -Determine -Find out

-Prove -Validate -Compare -Examine

-Confirm –Explain -Explore -Inquire

-Verify –Illustrate -Investigate -Test

-Check -Differentiate -Establish

-Demonstrate

Stating the specific objective

 These are specific issues within the scope of stated

purpose
 These helps the researcher to keep the scope of the
study by defining area of knowledge that the researcher
is focusing on
 Neutral verbs or phrases are applicable also here
Examples
Purpose
 The purpose of this study is to investigate the
breastfeeding practices among professionals in
Mombasa district

Specific objectives
  To identify the social economic status of professionals,
women in Mombasa
 To investigate the factors that influence baby weaning
by professional women in Mombasa
 To explore the attitudes of professional women in
Mombasa towards breastfeeding

3.6 Formulating hypotheses

 This is the researchers prediction concerning the

outcome of the study
 It states possible differences, relationships or caused
between two variables or concepts
 These derived or based on:
 Existing theories
 Personal experiences
 Previous research
 A study can have one or more hypotheses. These
hypotheses are crucial because that is the study put to
empirically test.

3.6.1 Purposes of Hypothesis

1. Hypothesis provides direction. They bridge the gap between the

problem and the evidence needed for its solution
2. Hypothesis ensure collection of the evidence necessary to answer the
question posed in the statement
3. Hypothesis enable the investigator to assess the information he/she
has collected in terms of relevance and organization
4. Hypothesis permit the researcher to understand the problem with
greater clarity and use the data collected to find solutions to problems
5. Hypothesis from the frame work for the ultimate conclusions as
solutions. Researchers usually base their conclusions on the results of
the tests of their hypothesis

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

a) They must state clearly and briefly the expected relationship of

variables
b) They must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory,
previous research or professional experience
 c) They should be consistent with common sense or generally accepted
truths
d) They must be testable i.e. data can be collected to support or fail to
support hypothesis
e) They must be testable within a reasonable time
f) They must be related to empirical phenomena-words to “ought”,
“should”, “bad” should be avoided
g) Variable stated in the hypothesis must be consistent with the purpose
statement, objectives and the operationalisation of variables in the
method section
h) They should be concise and simple

Examples

i. High alcohol content in the blood influences reaction time among

drivers in Kenya
ii. There is a relationship between level of education and income
among civil servants in Kenya
iii. The amount of rainfall and the type of fertilizer used influences
the yield of wheat per area in the Riftvalley province in Kenya
3.6.2 Types of Hypotheses

[Link] Null hypothesis

 Also called statistical hypotheses

 These always states that no relationship of differences
exists. Any relationship between two variables or
differences between groups is merely due to chance or
errors
e.g. High alcohol content in the blood affects reaction time among
truck drivers in Kenya
 There is a relationship between bhang trafficking and
intelligence among traffickers

[Link] Alternative directional hypotheses

 This specifies the relationship or differences between
variables. The relationship may be stated as either
being higher than or lower than e.t.c. e.g. Male
circumcision reduces the prospection of contracting HIV
infection among males in Nyanza province.

LITERATURE REVIEW
This involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of
documents containing information related to the research problem being
investigated

It should be extensive and thorough:

PURPOSE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

i. The main purpose is to determine what has been done on the problem
being studied
ii. This avoids unnecessary and unintentional duplications
iii. Demonstrates one’s familiating with existing body of knowledge gives
the reader confidence
iv. Identify consistently unproductive or unreliable approaches
v. Reveals information gaps and unanswered questions
vi. Reveals strategies procedures and measuring instruments useful in the
investigations of the research problem. This helps one to avoid
mistakes that have been made by other researchers and also helps
one to benefit from other researchers experience.
vii. Literature review will suggest other procedures, approaches, and other
recommendations which one can try
viii. Makes the researcher familiar with previous studies thus facilitates
interpretation of the study results. Results can be discussed in terms of
whether they support or contrast previous findings. If contradicting
literature review may provide rationale for the discrepancy.
ix. Literature review helps the researcher to narrow or limit the research
problem and to define it better. The literature will give the researcher
the knowledge needed to convert a tentative research problem into a
detailed and concise plan of work
x. It helps determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The
researcher may also be alerted to research possibilities which have
been overlooked into the past.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN DOING LITERATURE

i. Assess the strengths and weakness of past management

ii. Report any inconsistent findings
iii. Identify gaps in the knowledge
iv. Determine the contribution of proposed study
v. Consider the possibility of unintentional duplication

SCOPE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Questions arising from the scope include:

 How wide or narrow should it be?

 What is the relevance to my topic?

These are applicable questions and they get answered with experience.
There is no formula for arriving at a decision. However these hints are useful
towards determining scope

i. In widely researched area, cover a narrow topic in depth e.g. HIV

ii. In a little or new researched areas, where little depth available, the
researcher would require to review any relevant material in order to
develop a logical framework for the study and appropriate
hypotheses for the study
iii. Avoid the temptation to include all available materials. Excessive
material does not mean great research information
iv. At the point of saturation reencountering already reviewed
literature , abandon literature review.

TIPS ON GOOD LITERATURE REVIEW

a) Avoid hurried review, you may overlook important studies

b) Avoid relying too much on secondary sources
c) Concentrate on the methodology and measurements used and not only
findings
d) Copy references correctly and constantly acknowledge sources

STEPS OF LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Be familiar with the library-before beginning the literature review

2. Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your search e.g. female
condoms, abortions, community health, episiotomy
3. Go to the source of the literature
4. Summarize the references on cards for easy organization of the
literature
5. Analyze, organize and report the collected data in orderly manner. This
is usually the hardest part
6. Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation.
Decide on the number of headlines and sub headlines required
depending on how detailed the review is
7. Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish
where it will be most relevant
 8. Studies contrary to the received wisdom should not be ignored, such
studies should be analyzed and possible explanation for the differences
given
9. Literature should be organized in such a way that more general issues
covered first before the researcher narrows down to that which is more
specific to the research problem
10. Some researchers prefer to have a brief summary of the
literature and its implications. However this is optional.

SOURCES OF LITERATURE

Primary sources: These are accounts of those who actually observed or

witnessed the occurrence of the phenomena

It also includes accounts of primary researchers (original documents)

These should be used as much as possible because secondary sources may

be attended by writers

Secondary sources: These include publication of authors who were not

direct observers or participants of the events described. Examples of sources
of literature/information;

Scholarly journals: Are crucial research documents. Are found in the

libraries. They can also be found in the internet

These and dissertations: These are research projects written by masters

and PHD students. They are valuable sources of information.

Government documents: These include policy papers and research reports

owned government [Link] demographic and Health survey, vision 2030

Papers presented at conferences: Papers during conferences and

symposium good and are primary sources e.g. literature

Books: These are available in most libraries seek assistance of librarian to

assist in library searching

Abstracts: Abstracts give a list of journal articles with summaries e.g.

nutritional abstracts

Computer search: Can use key words in search for relevant literature
This is used where all information materials are computerized

Internet One can browse the web and get literature from the latest articles,
conference papers and policy documents from various organizations

Others Includes periodicals, grey literature (unpublished literature) Africa

etc

Referencing within text

African psychological Association (APAD) system

Method 1:
Authors last name(s) and the year of document publication comes
after or before paraphrased statements
a) e.g. Before (one author)
- John(2009) asserted that female condoms are only used by 2% of
female students in the faculty of health sciences.
Before (2 Authors)
John and Alice (2009) Asserted that female condoms are only used
by 2% of female students in the facility of health sciences in
subsequent citation,
John , et al (2009) Asserted that….
b) After (one Author)
- It has been documented that only 2% of female students in the
faculty of health sciences use female condoms( John,2009)
After (two authors)
3 It has been documented that only 2% of female students in the F.H.S
use female condoms(John and Alice (2009) )
4 After (three authors)
5 It has been documented that…(John, Alice and Kennedy, 2009) or John,
et al, 2009

Method 2: Numerical Referencing

6 Here numbers are used instead of authors name year of publication e.g.
It has been documented that only 2% of female students in the
faculty of Health sciences use female condoms(1,2012) or the
number can be put after the statement but no brackets

Foot notes
7 These are references which appear at the bottom of a journal paper or
a book rather than at the end of the text.
8 These serve two purposes
i. To provide additional information with no disruption
ii. To indicate the source of an idea. Are helpful to a reader
who wish to refer to the sources of facts or opinions
presented hence accurate and complete information is
essential
9 Foot notes can be indicated through;
a) Numbering footnotes consecutively throughout the chapter and
then put the references on each page
b) Footnotes can be numbered and then put at the end of the
chapter.

QUOTATIONS

Quotations may be used for several reasons;

i. For accuracy
ii. For presentation of statements that are unusually clear and well put
iii. To add strength to ones study especially when the quotation marks
before and after the quote, then italiaze. E.g there is significant
relationship between the alcohol intake and academic performance.
The higher the alcohol intake, the lower the performance in
academics. ( Njenga, 2005)
iv. Direct quotation must be exactly the way it is (No corrections)
10 When using incomplete statements, use quotations marks before and
after then quote, then italiaze, use 3 dots/periods to represent the
missing text either before or after. E.g.
“…The higher the alcohol intake, the lower the performance in
academics,”(Njenga,2005,P.5)

Cited references and Bibliography

Cited reference- Is the list of materials actually read and cited in the
text by the researcher
Bibliography- Refers to the list of materials that were read whether
in the text or not

Examples how to reference different sources of information

1. Journal article (one author)

Smones, K.(1998), consumer issues and the elderly. Journal of

consumer affairs, 24 235-244
 2. Journal article 9two authors)
John, M. and Rose, N.(1976) effects of alcohol on reaction among truck
drivers. Journal of gerontology,38.100-105
3. Newspaper article
Watoro Kamau (Aug 9th ,1999) New campaign on child labour . the
daily Nation PP.17
4. A book
Harris, H. I(1986) why family estate planning? San Franscisco, CA
Bankroft-Whitney company
5. Journal Article from the web
Herz, J.C.(1995,April) Surfing from the internet: A nethead’s adventures
online.(online senal)
Urban desires, 1.3,

METHODOLOGY
 Has to go about the particular design to use
 This describes the procedures that have been followed in
conducting the study
 It deals with
i) Identifying research design
ii) Sampling procedures
iii) Measurement methods

RESEARCH DESIGN

Includes; common ones

a) Experimental- Classical or true quasi

b) Survey-A comparative study or correlation study
c) Descriptive research design
d) Case study design

SAMPLE AND SAMPLING METHODS

 Is a subset or a small group that represents the total population of a

study subscale, selected group, part at a whole
 Population-Entire group of persons/ a set of objectives and events the
research has to study

5.2.1 Sampling frame

  Is a comprehensive list of the sample element in the target
population e.g. a list of all nurses in a district hospital

5.2.2 Sampling bias

 Occurs when the researcher has not carefully selected, the
sample that’s expected to represent the target population

5.2.3 Sampling error

 Is the difference between the sample characteristics and
population characteristics (population invalidity)

5.2.4 Sample size

 If time allows, a researcher should take a large sample which is
better for generalization
 It depends on factors such as;
o Number of variables, type of research, design, method of
data analysis, the size at the accessible population
 It has been suggested that for coming up a sample size on
estimation can be used.
E.g. for correlation studies 30 or more are required for descriptive
signs and symptoms of accessible are enough for experimental at
least 30 cases are required per group
NB: However there’s a statistical formula for calculating a sample
size

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

There are two basic sampling

a) Probability/random sampling
b) Non-probability sampling

Probability or Random Sampling

 The goal of probability sampling is to select a responsible number

of subject, objects or cases that present to get population
 In random sampling, each unit of the sample here have equal
chance of being selected. This allows generation of results in a
higher population
[Link] Simple random sampling
  It involves giving a number to every subject or a member of the
accessible population placing the number in a container then
picking any number at random
 Alternatively one can use a table of random number or can be
generated by computers

[Link] Systematic random sampling

 In every kth case is selected in a population frame for inclusion in

the sample
 The list of all members in the sampling frame, must be
randomized to get a true random sample
 Once the sampling frame has been randomized, the researcher
then decides the sampling interval
 Interval is the distance between the cases that are selected for
the sample. i.e. divide the total population over sample size
e.g. population of 400 Kth=400/100=4 subject/case is used.
Sample size at 60
 Every 4th case is picked, this process continues and sampling case
is completed
[Link] Stratified random sampling
 This ensures representation from various subgroup in the
population
 The population is subdivided into subgroups or statistics and the
sample selected from each subgroup

Steps
a) Identify the population
b) Define the criteria for stratification e.g. sex, age, colour, gender,
income level, cadres of nurses
c) Stratify the population into two or more groups using a given
criteria have a list of population in each strata
d) Determine the required sample size and appropriate
representation (can be proportionate or equal)
e) Select the respondent using simple random an appropriate
number of subjects for each stratum
[Link] Cluster sampling
 Used where sampling frame is not possible e.g. Where population
is too large or if its scattered

Steps
 a) Identify the population e.g. Malaria patients in Kenya
b) Define the clusters forming the population e.g. Malaria patients
in district hospitals. Other clusters include ; schools, estate,
ministries, department
c) Determine the required sample size e.g. Loss of malaria patients
d) List all the clusters in a random order e.g. Mombasa, Msambweni
e.t.c
e) Using the table of random number select the required number of
clusters according to size of cluster required e.g. Select 2-3
district hospital with loss of patients
f) All members in the selected cluster are included in the unit
observed.

5.3.2 Non probability sampling

 Used when a researcher is not interested in selecting a sample

that is representative of a population
 Is common in quantitative research because the focus is on depth
information and not making references or generalizations
[Link] Purposive sampling
 In this technique the researcher uses/selects cases that have
the required information with one’s object to the study
 The cases are handpicked simply because they have the
required information
N/B
The researcher specifies the criteria e.g. certain age, range, region,
education level, specified group etc
Disadvantages include:
 Sampling bias
 Non-representative hence no generalization
 After the criteria has been set, random sampling is then
applied

[Link] Snow balling sampling

 In this method, initially the researcher identifies few subjects
with desired characteristics using purposive method
 This few respondent direct the researcher to other subject with
similar characteristics
 This continues until the researcher gets the number of
cases/subjects he requires e.g. Research dealing with drug
addicts and sex workers, social deviates
  This method is useful where the population that possesses the
required characteristics is small or hard to find

[Link] Quota sampling

 Is similar to stratified random sampling and the objective is to

include various groups or quota of the population in the study
based on some criteria
 Researcher purposely chooses the subject to fit the quota

Steps

a) Identify the population of interest

b) Determine size of sample
c) Stratify population into quota, depending on criteria
d) Cases are purposely selected to fill the quotas
[Link] Convenient/ Accidental sampling
 Involves selecting cases or units of observation as they become
available to the researcher, also called “volunteer sampling”
e.g. if one wants to assess the BP on female on depo provera,
once above 40 years, one will check the BP of any client on the
age bracket of >40 years who are attending FP clinic despite
the parity, not everyone is given a chance

5.8 CONDUCTING A PRETEST/PILOT STUDY

 Before you carry out the full scale data collection process, it is important to conduct a
trial to see whether the instruments planned for collecting data are actually appropriate
for the study and whether are collecting the information you need.
 To achieve this, you have to carry out a pilot study/pretest
 Pretest or pilot study is defined as;
 A small version of a proposed study conducted to refine the methodology or
 Is the process of carrying out preliminary study going through the entire research
procedure with a small sample. Or
 Pretest refers to a small scale trial of a particular research component
 In a pilot study, respondents chosen have characteristics to those to be used during the
actual research
 The settings should be almost similar

5.8.1 PURPOSES OF A PRE-TEST/PILOT STUDY

A pilot study is done to;

 i. To ensure that items in the data collection instruments are stated clearly and have the
same meaning to all research respondents(Refine where necessary)
ii. To determine whether the proposed study is feasible
iii. To identify any problems with the research design
iv. To assess the time taken to administer the research instruments
v. To determine whether the sample is representative of the population
vi. To determine the effectiveness of the sampling technique used
vii. To give the researcher the real experience in the field(with the respondents, environment,
methodology and instruments)
viii. Determine the human and financial resources requirement for the study
ix. Determine the effectiveness of the training given to research assistants where necessary
x. Evaluate the procedure for data process and analysis

5.8.2 APPROPRIATE TIME TO CONDUCT A PILOT STUDY

 It should be conducted before the actual full-scale study.

 The advantages of conducting the pre-test before finalizing the proposal is that one can
draft the work plan and budget based on realistic estimates
 Also one can revise the data collection tools he/she submits the proposal for approval
 Can be done before or after training research assistants or immediately after
 If it is not possible to do it in the above circumstances, e.g. the proposal being drafted far
from the field or no similar research settings available close to the drafting site, the
pretest can be done after finishing the proposal. However it should be done long before
the actual field work to allow for a thorough revision of data collection tools.

5.8.3 USING FINDINGS OF THE PRE-TEST/PILOT STUDY

 Identify any sensitive or annoying items in the instrument and rectify them
 Any question that interviewers had to repeat and explain several times to respondents
need to be rectified
 Analyze the results of this pre-test and develop dummy tables
UNIT THREE: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

5.4 MEASUREMENT LEVELS AND TOOLS USED IN DATA COLLECTION

5.4.1 Measurement level scales

 It’s the process of assigning number to variables

 Measurement as used in research implies quantification of information ie
assigning some type of number to the data
 These applies in quantitative research
 Mathematical calculations that can be made with data obtained depend on the
level/scale of measurement
 There are 4 levels/scales of measurement
a) Nominal scale
b) Ordinal scale
c) Interval scale
d) Ratio scale

[Link] Nominal scale

 Considered as the lowest level of measurement/scale of all variables
 This level/scale merely groups subjects/cases from the sample into categories with a
common set of characteristics
 Variables that can only be measured at nominal level include:
 Sex e.g. male and female
 Marital status e.g. single, married, separated, divorced
 Religion e.g. Christian, Islam, Hinduism, ATR e.g. variable marital status may
be included in a research. The researcher then can operationalise this variable
as married, single, divorced, separated
The researcher would then number the subjects that fall in (3) separated (4)
these numbers are for identification e.g. married (40) single (10) divorced(5)
separated(1) in a frequency.
 Numbers are often assigned to various categories for the purpose of identification. We
could have assigned 1-married, 2- single, 3-divorced, 4- separated
 These numbers do not represent quantities or order, addition, subtraction, division,
multiplication of this numbers would yield meaningless values.
 Variables that can take two categories are referred to as “Dichotomous” e.g. sex can take
either male and female
[Link] Ordinal scale
 The scale groups subjects into categories and also ranks them into same order either
ascending, descending (highest to lowest) or (lowest to highest)
 Numerical represent relative position or order among the values of the variables
E.g. community health cadres (KECN, KRN, KRCHN, BSN, MSN, PHD)
Social economic class (low, mild, upper class)
Severity of anaemia (mild, moderate, severe)

[Link] Interval scale

 In this class, numbers assigned in each measure are ranked in order and interval between
numbers are equal
 Numerical used represent quantities in mathematical operations (+ve, -ve) on
numerical would yield meaningful values but this mathematical operations are limited to
addition and subtraction (multiplication and divisions are not applicable)
 In this scale, there’s no true 0 point i.e. It can take-ve values e.g. interval scale measures
include;
Temp. in test score or in foren height e.g. 990c-980c-98.20c order and interval of 0.40c.
[Link] Ratio scale
 Is the highest level of measurement, it’s the most precise method of measuring a variable
 It has all characteristics of other scales (nominal, internal, ordinal)
 It has a true 0 point and all mathematical operations can be applied to yield meaningful
values
 Most physical objects can be measured at the ratio scale e.g. Weight, height, age, area,
BP, distance e.t.c. e.g. a field 1000m long is as twice as long as one which is 50m long.
Therefore 0m long means no length as weight

NB

 When considering interval and ratio scale, there are 2 types of variables
i. Discrete variable: these can take only exact numbers (whole numbers)
ii. Continuous variable: these measures can theoretically occur at any point in a
continuous e.g. Height 5.2m, 5.65m, age 24.3years 34.8months

5.5 INSTRUMENTS IN RESEARCH

 An ideal instrument is one which results in measurements that are relevant,

accurate, objective, sensitive and efficient
 An instrument is a device used to measure the concept of interest in a research
project
  Instruments can be;
i. Observation scales, forms or checklist
ii. Questionnaires
iii. Interview schedules
iv. Standardized tests
5.5.1 QUESTIONNAIRES
 It’s the commonly used tool
 Each item in the questionnaire is used to address a specific objective research question or
hypothesis of the study
 The researcher must know how each item in the questionnaire is to be analyzed
 A questionnaire must be well thought or it will;
Cause a confusion to the respondent on the information required
Discourage the respondents to an extent of discarding it
It may leave important information

[Link] CATEGORIES OF QUESTIONS USED IN A QUESTIONNAIRE

a) Structural or close ended

These are accompanied with possible alternatives from where respondents selects
the answer that will best describe the situation
Always has the other(specify) option to cater for any category that might have been
left out eg. What do you crave for in pregnancy apart from food?
-clay –charcoal –others(specify)

Disadvantages of structured questions

1. They are more difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out
2. Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer according to
research choices

Advantages of structured questions

1. Are easy to analyze

2. Easy to administer because each items followed by alternative answers
3. Are economical in time and costs

b) Unstructured /open question

They give the respondent freedom of response
They have no present alternatives
E.g. how do you handle cases of
malpractice? ..............................................................

Advantages of open ended questions

 i. They yield in depth responses
ii. They are simpler to formulate because the researcher does not need to labour
to come up with appropriate categories
iii. Responses give insight to the feelings, attitudes, interest, decisions, hidden
motivations and background
iv. They stimulate persons to think about his feelings or motives and to express
what he considers to be most important

Disadvantages

i. Answers given might be irrelevant to the research objectives

ii. They are hard to categorize and analyze
iii. They are time consuming for respondents and may put them off.

c) Contingency questions

Are applicable to certain respondents only and not all

These are follow up questions and are required to get further information from
relevant subgroup also called ‘filter’ questions
They are used to probe for more information and save the respondent from
answering questions which are irrelevant to them

Examples

1. Have you ever been pricked by a needle?

Yes……………..
No……………...
If yes how many times
Once…………..
2-4 times……….
Over 4 times……….
[Link] you ever used any contraceptives
Yes………………
No……………….
The questions can be structured or unstructured
c) Matrix questions
These are questions that share same set of response categories
Are common whenever scales are used
Examples how are you satisfied with you job?
a) Financial 12345
b) Quality of life 12345
c) Level of assets 12345
 d) Ability to save 12345
Key
1- Extremely dissatisfied
2- Dissatisfied
3- Neutral
4- Satisfied
5- Extremely satisfied

Advantages of matrix questions

a) They are easy to complete and unlikely to put off respondents

b) Space is used efficiently
c) It is easy to compare responses given to different items. The researcher can easily
detect a trend just by glancing at the responses
d) They are easy to analyze

Disadvantages of matrix questions

a) Because they are easy to construct and analyze they can be misused
b) Some respondents may form a pattern of agreeing or disagreeing with all items

[Link] RULES FOR CONSTRUCTING A QUESTIONNAIRE AND ITS ITEMS

1. Start by listing the specific objectives that you want the questionnaire to accomplish
2. Determine how each item is to be analyzed
3. Ensure clarity avoid terms like ‘most’ or several
4. If a concept has several meanings, then the intended meaning must be defined
5. Short questions are preferred to long ones
6. Items should be stated positively as much as possible. Negative words are easily
overlooked by respondents
7. Questions with two separate items should be avoided
8. Leading or biased questions should be avoided
9. Very personal and sensitive questions should be avoided
10. Use simple words that are easy to understand
11. Avoid psychologically threatening questions eg. Are you worried of the consequences of
divorce?
12. Avoid questions that assume facts without evidence
13. Make complete meaningful statements

[Link] PRETESTING A QUESTIONNAIRE

6 This is trying out the questionnaire in the field

7 It should be tried to sample which is similar to the actual selected sample. Subject in the
actual sample should not be used in the pretest
8 The pretest sample should be 1%-10% of the sample size

Reasons for pretest

i. Vague questions will be revealed as the respondents will interpret them differently
ii. Other deficiencies will be revealed e.g. unclear instructions, limited space, wrong
numbering
iii. Comments and suggestions from the respondents during pretest will improve the
questionnaire if incorporated
iv. Because few questions are analyzed, the method of analysis appropriateness is tested

[Link] WAYS OF ADMINISTERING A QUESTIONNAIRE

a) Self administered questionnaire

Respondents fill questionnaires themselves which can be sent to them by mail or
by hand delivery

b) Researcher administered by questionnaire

The researcher interviews the respondents using a questionnaire
This is applicable when the respondents may not have the ability to interpret the
questions because of their educational levels
Questions are read out to the respondents and their options/choices are written
down

c) Using internet
Sampling and collection of data is done through the internet and responses are
given via e-mail or website.

5.5.2 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

 This is a set of questions that the interview asks when interviewing

 It is used to orally obtain data from the respondent
 Cooperation is key to good results. Good rapport is a must
 Questions in the interview schedule can be structured or unstructured

Advantages of Interview

i. In depth data is obtained which cannot be obtained with questionnaires

ii. It is precise in attaining specific objectives
iii. There is no confusion as the interviewer can clarify the questions
iv. It is more flexible than questionnaires
 v. Can capture very sensitive and personal information by honest and
personal interaction between the researcher and respondents
vi. You can get more information by probing
vii. Can also expose negative responses through interaction and genuine
conversation
viii. There is high response rate because it is not easy to refuse to answer
questions or completely ignore the researcher.

Disadvantages

i. Interview are expensive as time, travelling to meet respondents is costly.

ii. It calls for high level communication and interpersonal skills. Which some researcher
may lack
iii. There could be interviews bias hence need training to avoid bias
iv. The interview may be subjective in that the subjects may be too eager to please the
researcher. Again the researcher may ask questions to support his perceived notions
v. Because it is time consuming, the researcher may be forced to use a small sample
vi. Respondents may have bias/prejudice. E.g. affluent researcher going to a poor
community may influence the respondent’s reaction

[Link] DATA COLLECTION DURING INTERVIEW

Data can be collected by;

i. Note taking- where the researcher takes notes as the subjects answer questions asked.
Should be done carefully not to upset the respondent. Responses should be recorded
the way they are expressed
ii. Tape recording- responses are recorded in a video or a tape recorder. One should be
careful when recording.

5.5.3 STANDADIZED TESTS

 A standardized test is one that has consistency and uniform procedures for administering
scoring and interpreting the behavior of the subjects. E.g. 1Q intelligence tests
 Graduate record examination (GRE) usually by students wishing to pursue further
studies abroad
5.5.4 OBSERVATION FORMS SCHEDULES OR CHECKLISTS
 These are used to record what the researcher observes during data collection
 The behaviours to be observed must be defined. The observer checks off each observed
behavior as they occur
 Sometimes rating scales are used, responses are recorded and evaluated
 Can be used by;
 Non participant observer or
  Participant observer

7.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

7.1 QUALITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

 Data presentation and analysis of qualitative research is quite different

from data collected when using quantitative methods
 This is because qualitative research uses words while quantitative uses
numbers
 The following steps could be used when presenting and analyzing
qualitative data:-

1.1.1 Organizing the data

 The data collected is usually large, therefore the researcher will
need to put all this information in a simple format. This is called
“clearing” the data
1.1.2 Creating categories; themes and patterns
 The disorganized and fragmented data needs to be put into
categories, themes and patterns. One can use research questions or
discussion topics
1.1.3 Analyzing and interpreting the data
 Once themes, categories and patterns have been identified, the
researcher then evaluates the data to determine its usefulness and
accuracy. Computer programmes can be used to generate themes
and categories
1.1.4 Writing the report
 Unlike in quantitative research where the report writing is done
after analyzing the data, in quantitative research techniques, the
report writing and the analysis go hand in hand
1.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

7.2.1 Descriptive statistics

 This is the process of organizing, summarizing and visualizing

quantitative data
 The purpose of descriptive statistics is to help the researcher to
visualize and identify the patterns that may emerge from the data
collected. This in turn assists the researcher in making meaningful
conclusions from the results of the study.
  Type of statistics or indices used depend on type of variable and
scale of measurement (Nominal, ordinal, interval, or rational)

Main types of descriptive statistics

[Link] Measures of central tendency
 Measures of central tendency (mean, mode, median) are statistics that
describe the average, typical or most common value for a group of
data
 A measure of central tendency summarizes a frequency distribution by
the use of a single number
 There are 3 main types of commonly used measures of central
tendency

a. The mode
 Def: This is the most commonly occurring value or category among a
sample of subjects
 This is the only measure of central tendency appropriate for norminal
data. Mode may also be reported for ordinal, interval or ratio
 A set of data with one value that occurs most frequently is unimodal.
Two is biomodal and if more than two values occurring more frequently
it is multimodal. It is possible to have no mode. 358991011
9=mode

b. The median
 This is the score that divides ranked scores into two equal parts, such
that half of the scores are larger than the median and the other half
are smaller
 Median is appropriate for ordinal, interval and ratio data influenced by
extreme values. Media is frequently used in reporting average income
because extreme values do not affect the median.

c. Mean
 This means the average of a set of scores or measurements
 It is most frequently used measure of central tendency,
 Is arrived at by adding all values and dividing by the total number of
values
 The mean is appropriate for interval and ratio data
  It is the most stable measure of central tendency for these levels of
data if the distribution is normal
 If the distribution is not normal and extreme values are present, the
mean will not represent an accurate picture of the distribution.
[Link] Measures of variability (measures dispersion)
 Measures of variability described how spreads out values are a
distribution of values. Variability is the distribution of scores around a
particular central score or value(usually the mean)
 Although measures of central tendency are important, sometimes it
may be interesting to know how spreads out the values are in the
distribution.
For example
The following are pulse rates of subjects 2 groups(A and B)
Group A-80,79,78,78,75 mean 390/5=78
Group B- 100,90,80,70,50 mean 390/5=78
For this example, the pulse rates for both is 78. However the pulse
of group A seems homogeneous, or alike, while group B are
heterogeneous, or dissimilar. This information is very important
because the arithmetic mean is not appropriate to use in describing
group B or to use in comparing the two groups of pulse rates
The most common measures of variability are range, standard
deviation, variance, percentile and 2-5 scores

Types of measures of variability

i. Range
 This is the difference between the highest and the lowest value in the
group of values or scores in a distribution
 This is determined by subtracting the lowest value from the highest
score. E.g scores 78,79,80,81,82,85. The range is 85-78
 A small range signifies that scores are not spread out and vice versa
 Range is used to gain a quick picture of the dispersion of data. Range
has limited usefulness because one extreme score can change the
range drastically
ii. Standard deviation and the variance
 Standard deviation is defined as the extent to which scores I a
distribution deviate from their mean average
 The standard deviation therefore involves subtracting the mean from
each score to obtain the deviation
[Link] Frequency distribution
 This is one of the simplest ways to present data
 Frequencies are obtained by simply counting the occurrences of values
or scores represented in the data
 Frequency distribution are appropriate for reporting all level of
data(nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
 In a frequency distribution, all values or scores are listed and the
number of times each appears is recorded
 Values may be listed from the highest to the lowest or vice versa
 Use slash method(////) and if range is small, say less than 20, each
score may be listed individually
 Groups of scores must be exhaustive (include all possible values) and
mutually exclusive(no overlapping of categories) e.g.
pulse rate tally frequency
60-65 /// 3
66-70 //// 5
71-75 //// // 7/15
 Frequency distributions may be described according to their shape
 They can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical
 Symmetrical distributions are those in which both values of the
distribution are the same
 Non-symmetrical distribution also called skewed are those in which
distribution has an off-centre peak
 Skewness- is a measure of horizontal departure from normal
distribution. it can be positive skew or negative skew
 Positive skew-is where the tail of the measures of a particular
variable are low with very few high measures
 Negative skew- is where the tail of the distribution points to the
left i.e. the majority of the scores/measures of s variable are very
high and very few low measures
 A variable that tends to be positively skewed is personal income while
few earn large income. An example of a negatively skewed distribution
would be age of people who have chronic illnesses. (a few young and
middle aged men and women have chronic illnesses, but many elderly
people have chronic conditions.
 A part from skewness, another deviation from the standard normal
curve is kurtosis-is the vertical departure from the normal
 This is the peakedness or the flatness of a curve
 A curve that is peaked is called leptokurtic
 A relatively flat curve is said to be platykurtic. The kurtosis of the
standard curve lies between the two extreme and is called mesokurtic.
[Link] Characteristics of a Normal curve

1. It is well shaped with symmetrical distribution and the maximum

height being the mean
2. The mean, median, and mode are the same
3. Most values cluster around the mean
4. T
5. The tails of the curve never touch the base because the distribution is
theoretical, rather than empirical
N/B : normal distribution is frequently found in many happenings in
nature. Height and weight are normally distributed in the population

7.2.3 GRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

 A graph enables the reader to see the trend of the distribution easily
than is possible by simply looking at numbers in a frequency
distribution
 A graph should be labeled on both the vertical and horizontal axes. It
should also have a title
 Graphs commonly used to present data in research reports include:
histograms, frequency polygons, and bar charts.

[Link] Histograms
 Histograms consists of a series of adjacent bars whose x-axis represent
the number of subjects obtaining a particular score, number of
respondents belonging to a particular category. X-axis usually has the
scores
 Exact limits are commonly used to construct a histogram hence the
bars are continuous with no space in between
Example below is a distribution scores from a test..
 Score limits exact limits frequency (f)
91-100 90.5-100.5 1
81-90 80.5-90.5 3
71-80 70.5-80.5 6
61-70 60.5-70.5 10
51-60 50.5-60.5 14
__________
N=34

Figure 1. Histogram derived from the score above

[Link] Frequency polygons

 A polygon is a many sided figure. To plot a frequency polygon, one
must establish the midpoint of the class interval
 The midpoint is established by summing up the lower and upper class
limits of each interval then divide by 2. The midpoint are then plotted
against the frequencies and the points are joined using straight lines
 A frequency polygon is a closed figure and so the ends meet the
horizontal line one limit after the highest and score and one unit from
the lowest score
Example
Table 2: Distribution of scores from

Scores Midpoints Frequency

10-20 15 3
20-30 25 2
30-40 35 3
40-50 45 5

Figure 2: Frequency polygon constructed from data in table

2

[Link] Bar charts

 Bar charts are preferred when data is discrete or categorized or when
the scale is nominal.
 This is because the categories in a nominal scale do not imply any
order
  Bar chart is very similar to the histogram except that spaces are left
between the bars to signify a lack of continuity or flow between the
categories

Example

Table 3: Department enrolment

Subject category frequency(f) %frequency

Biology 5 10

Maths 20 40

Geography 20 40

History 5 10

------- ----------

N=50 100

Fig.3: Bar chart based on data presented in table 9

[Link] Choosing a graph

 For discrete variables a bar chart is better

  Frequency polygons have an advantage that several polygons can be
superimposed with less crossing of lines
 This allows for comparisons among various distributions
 Histograms are easier to understand especially when only one
distribution is being represented
 However, histograms give the impression that subjects fitting within
each interval are evenly distributed over the interval which is not
always the case

[Link] Percentages
 A percentage is defined as the proportion of a subgroup to the total
group or sample and range from 0% to 100%
 The size of the total group on which percentages is useful or valid
should be big. A minimum number should be at least 20
UNIT FOUR: ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

 Issues of ethical behavior are central to health professions

 In conducting clinical trials and research projects, ethical issues should
be taken into consideration
 It is unethical for an investigator not to give patients the best possible
treatment
 Other way, it is unethical not to discover whether a new treatment is an
improvement, since this would deny future patients the possibility of a
cure.
 It is also unethical to perform bad trials that give misleading results
and there by encourage others not to use a treatment that is beneficial
or to use a treatment that is not beneficial, or may indeed have harmful
effects
 Two important areas of ethical consideration are
 rights of human subjects and
 freedom from harm
 Three factors are important regarding the rights of the participants
 Confidentiality
 Anonymity
 Voluntary participation
 It can be ensured through an informed consent which clearly explains
the study objectives and states participation right to accept or refuse to
participate

2.6.1 Research participants at Risk

 Research participants at risk are individuals who may be harmed

physically emotionally , spiritually, socially or legally through
participation in a research study
 A basic responsibility of the researcher and those assisting in carrying
out the project, is to protect all research participants from harm and
 while they are participating in an investigation or as a result of the
study.

2.6.2 Informed consent

 Informed consent is the process of providing an individual with

sufficient understandable information regarding his or her participation
in a research project
 It includes providing potential participants with information about
their rights and responsibilities within the project and documenting the
nature of the agreement
 All consent forms need to assure potential participants of their right to
withdraw from a research study at any time. Informed consent is the
researchers conscious and deliberate attempt to clearly and fully
provide the potential participant with information about the study
 It is a fundamental responsibility of the investigator in human research
to ensure research participants understand the nature of the project and
the implications of participation and the individual is able to decide
freely whether to participate in a project, without fear of reprisal.
When the researcher fails to adequately inform potential research
participants about full nature of the research, thereby preventing them
from making an informed decision on their participation is called
deception

2.6.3 Confidentiality and Anonymity

 The researcher’s responsibility to protect all data gathered within the

scope of the project from being divulged to others-confidentiality
 Anonymity Refers to the act of keeping individuals nameless in
relation to their participation in a research project

2.6.4 Regulatory Bodies

 The researcher may need to take permission from regulatory bodies for
conducting research investigations, mainly when subjects are human
beings
 These are regulatory bodies in most of the countries which grant
permission after considering ethical issues of study
 National council for science and technology deals with approval and
authorization of research being done in Kenya.

2.6.5 Misuse of privileges

  Researchers have power over their subjects to their training, legal
authority to undertake research, and their perceived ability to provide
help. Subjects therefore participate in research based on this trust.
 It is therefore unethical for researchers to abuse this trust by using their
powers negatively e.g
 Using obtained data to stigmatize or indict the same subjects
 Doing research in pretext of providing help

2.6.6 Use of vulnerable and /special groups

 Consent should be obtained in case of disadvantaged from their

guardians
 These groups include:
 Mentally challenged sick people, children
 Prisoners, street children e.t.c.

2.6.7 Financial issues and sponsored research

 A sponsor may demand compromise on quality to save on costs and

time
 Some sponsors may demand the findings to be reported in a distorted
manner for their own selfish reasons
 Some researchers may divert research funds for their own use
 All these are unacceptable. A researcher should maintain his/her
integrity

2.6.8 Dissemination of Findings

 It is unethical to conceal research findings for some reasons. Even if

results are contrary or against the sponsor’s wishes or expectations,
they should be disseminated and not concealed.

2.6.9 Intellectual property Rights

 Joint researchers should not be published as personal by one

individual.

2.6.10 Plagiarism and Fraud

Plagiarism;

 Is a situation where a researcher refers to another persons work as

his/her without acknowledging the author this is punishable by law
Fraud:

 Is where a researcher takes data that has not actually been collected
and also false presentation of research methodology and results.
 This is also punishable in law

UNIT FIVE: RESEARCH FINDINGS, DISSEMINATION AND REPORT WRITING

8.0 COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

 The significance of conducting research is to communicate and share

the research findings.
 There are several ways of communicating research findings.
 These are:-
i. A written report for academic purposes e.g. thesis or
desertion which are requirements for obtaining a certain
academic level
ii. A written report prepared for some managers and policy
implementers-present a clear and detailed report with no
academic jargons
iii. A written report sent as an article for publication in
referred/non-referred journals
iv. Presentation of the research findings in workshops, seminars
and conferences

8.1 PRESENTING RESEARCH RESULTS AT PROFESSIONAL

CONFERENCES

 Because publication in journals which is referred takes long (up to 3

years), presentation of research findings is more rapid in distribution of
study results
 Presentation should be in community health conferences as well as
interdisciplinary conferences
 Research results can be presented at professional conferences in two
ways
a) Oral presentation
b) Poster presentation- has become more popular
 Potential participants are contacted through “call for abstracts”
  The call for abstracts is a request for a summary for a study that the
researcher wishes to present at a conference
 These requests are published in professional journals and distributed
to educational institutions, health care agencies and potential
participants from professional organizations notices of research
 Conferences are generally distributed 6-12 months before the event.
 Each conference or seminar provide guidelines for presenters and for
submission of abstracts
 Abstract length varies from 50-1000 words, but many have 200-300
word limitations
 It contains the purpose, research question(s), hypothesis, design,
methodology, major findings and conclusions
 Generally, those selected to participate receive no pay and are
required to cover their own travel expenses
 In some cases conference registration fee is waived or reduced for
participants

8.2 PRESENTING A RESEARCH PAPER

 An oral presentation of a research report is usually referred to as paper

presentation. Paper because it has been written on paper and is read
by the investigator.
 If principal investigator is unable to attend the conference, a co-
investigator or another person familiar with the study presents the
paper.
 Presenting research results at a conference has advantages
i. The researcher presents findings that are current/recent
unlike publication that lags behind for up to 3 years
ii. The researcher has an opportunity to interact with those
people who are interested in the study and will be able to
locate other researchers who are studying the same or similar
phenomena
 The presenter is usually given 10-15 minutes. Sometimes additional
time is allocated for questions or during break, other questions are
dealt with.
 Format for oral presentation is the same as that of the journal but
condensation of material is done to fit the time given.

12.0 WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS

The research report contains:

  Title
 Dedication(optional)
 Abstract
 Table of contents
 List of tables
 List of figures
 List of abbreviation and acronyms
 Executive summary (optional)
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Methodology
 Results and discussion
 Summary, conclusions and recommendations
 References
 Acknowledgement
 Appendices

12.1 TITLE
Should be short and simple-12-15 words maximum
Should contain key words that others will use when searching
the topic
It gives the reader some initial information about the area of
research the report has covered
It should give the major variables of the research, the target
population and possibly the geographical location e.g. the
research
It is the selling point as it will determine whether someone will
read your article
The authorship must be only
 Someone who contributed to the design, data collection,
analysis or interpretation of the findings
 Contributed to the writing or editing of the final
manuscript
 Agrees with the findings and is willing to stand up in
public and defend the work

12.2 Dedication (optional)

Some researchers dedicate their work to persons whom they see
as special to their lives
 May be spouse, children, parents or very dear friends
Some researchers give reasons for their dedication

12.3 Abstract

Is a reflection of the salient findings of the research study(it is an

overview)
It contains purpose of the study, the population studied, major
results and conclusion of the study
Should not be more than half a page

12.4 Table of contents

A table of contents is like a map that guides reader in locating

various sections of the research report
It contains the chapter teaching, main headings and subheadings
and corresponding page of each in the body of the document
It is necessary for location of desired section quickly

12.5 List of tables

This list of tables has a format like that of the table of contents.
The number and title of each table appearing in the body of report
is listed together with corresponding page number
Used for easy tracing of tables

12.6 List of figures

Figures such as graphs, charts, diagrams and photographs may be
used in research
Their list as they appear in the body of the report
The list should clearly give the number and title of the figure and
its number
12.7 List of abbreviations and acronyms
These abbreviations are used especially where a ward or a group
of words is used repeatedly
The abbreviations and acronyms should be listed and explained in
full
They should be used only when necessary
Refer on guidelines on use of abbreviations
12.8 Executive summary(Advisable to include)
Is short version or a summary of the research report provides a
picture of the entire document
 A good executive summary begins with a clear and brief
statement of the problem
Details from the body of the report are then presented in brief and
the summary ends with conclusions and recommendations
Use of bulletins and bolded subheading helps to make summary
reader-friendly
Avoid technical terms in the executive summary

12.9 Introduction

This has several components that include:

 The background of the study
 The problem statement
 Objectives
 Hypotheses
 Research questions
 Limitations of the study

12.10 Literature Review

This provides the needed support to the researcher rationale for
undertaking research in a certain area
The critique of findings from other studies done in related areas
Literature review assists the researcher in making a strong care
for the study’s objectives, research questions or hypotheses
Literature review should be relevant to the topic

12.11 Methodology
It gives regarding the procedures used in conducting the study.
Issues discussed under methodology include the population,
sample, sampling techniques, the research design, instruments
or tools used in data collection, measurement of variables and
techniques to be used in such tests
Give enough details regarding the procedures used in conducting
the study should be precise enough to enable other researchers
to replicate your study

12.12 Results and Discussion

Main purpose of the results and discussion is to present the

results of the data analysis in a systematic way
 The data analysis is done figures and tables are usually used
Computers and statistical packages has made data analysis
easier and faster
In this section, it is advisable to start with a short introduction
that describes the general procedure followed in analyzing the
data
State the objectives or hypothesis of the study
Key pointers on writing the results and discussion are
 Present descriptive results of analysis first. They include
frequencies, percentages, means, modes, median, and
standard deviation e.t.c.
 Then present the results of hypotheses tests if any. These
tests inform whether results can be generalized to the target
population
 It may not be possible to present every result of the analysis.
Select the most important findings for reporting. Be guided by
objectives and hypotheses
 Not every result or table generated is presented in the report
objectives and hypotheses of the study should guide you to
select the most important ones
 Graphs, charts and other usual presentations of the data
should be included in the results and discussion section of the
report if they add value to the content
 It is very important for the researcher to point out whether
findings are supported by other studies discussed in the
literature review section. If findings contradict other studies,
point out giving possible reasons for such outcome
The discussion section therefore conveys the meaning of the
findings to the reader and provides an important linkage to other
sections or components of the report such as objectives,
hypotheses, research questions or theoretical/framework and
existing literature

12.13 Summary, conclusions and recommendations

 Summary reminds and informs the reader about the purpose of
study, process used to collect and analyze data and the major
findings of the study
A summary must reflect as accurately as possible the body of
ones report.
Conclusion answers the questions that sparked the collection
and analysis of data
In including the report, it is necessary to discuss the practical
application and implications of the findings….
Implications are usually targeted to stakeholders e.g. health
policy makers
The summary and conclusions should lead logically to your
recommendations must be consistent with the purpose of the
study, its objectives, the evidence presented by the data and
interpretations given
Recommendations should be practical and achievable
Common recommendations that researchers often make include;
 Areas of further research, with the question in that study
that remain unanswered, hence ought to be explored
further
 Methodology issues, that could be addressed and refined
to improve future research in that area of the study
 Actions that should be taken to address the problem based
on the research findings e.g. interventions/projects

12.14 References
The researcher should give credit to authors of any work or
materials quoted from or rejected to by listing them
Generally, a reference gives the name of the author, year of
publication of the document, the title of the book or journal
paper and the publisher

12.15 Acknowledgement
 Research process takes a lot of time, money and energy. A
researcher may seek help from professional colleagues,
respondents, research assistants etc.
One can also seek materials from institutions or organizations
The researcher should acknowledge individuals and
organizations that provide assistance
But because they can be many, the researcher should maintain
only a few by names to keep the acknowledgement section as
short as possible.
12.16 Appendices
The appendix section of the report contains information that the
researcher does not seem necessary to include in the body of
the report
The appendix contents include:-
 Instruments of data collection
 Statistical tables from data analysis
 Correspondence related to the study e.g. letters of consent to
participate in the study
 Letters of approval to conduct the research
 Research persists and terms of reference if any.

REFFERENCES
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Qualitative approaches revised label graphics services Nairobi.

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DGIGPWinningProposal-PSIGPPropositionGagnante [Link]

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[Link]

iv. Byrne DW. Publishing your medical research paper. Baltimore, Williams
& Wilkins, 1998:

v. Farquhar CM. Evidence-based medicine and getting research into

practice. In: O’Brien PMS, Pipkin FB, eds. Introduction to research
methodology for specialists and trainees.

vi. London, Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists Press,

1999: 84–93.

vii. Friedland DJ, ed. Evidence-based medicine: A framework for clinical

practice. Stamford,
Appleton & Lange, 1998.

viii. McAlister FA, Straus SE, Guyatt GH, Haynes RB, for the Evidence-based
Medicine
Working Group. Users’ guides to the medical literature XX.

ix. Integrating research evidence with the care of the individual patient.
Journal of the American Medical Association, 2000,283: 2829–2836.

x. Sackett DL, Straus SE, Richardson WS, Rosenberg W, Haynes RB.

Evidence-based
medicine: how to practice and teach EBM, 2nd edition. Edinburgh, New
York, Churchill Livingstone, 2000.

xi. World Health Organization Department of Reproductive Health and

Research, 2002. The
WHO Reproductive Health Library, No. 5 [CD-ROM]. Geneva
(WHO/RHR/02.1).