Class 8 Science — Chapter 2

The Invisible Living World: Beyond Our Naked Eye

Introduction: The Microscopic World

• Naked eyes cannot see very tiny objects.

• Curved glass shaped like a lentil seed made small things look bigger → called a lens.

• Lenses improved into magnifying glasses & microscopes.

• Microscopes revealed a hidden world of tiny organisms.

• Living beings vary in shape, size, colour; all are organisms.

• Smallest visible organisms: ants, dust mites.

• Reading glasses help see small letters; magnifying glasses enlarge details.

Activity: Exploring Tiny Worlds

• Water filled flask on a book enlarges letters.

• Because the flask acts like a magnifying glass.

• Real magnifying glass shows details of small organisms like ants.

Discovery of the Microscopic World

• Robert Hooke (1665): Published Micrographic; microscope (200–300x) revealed honeycomb

spaces in cork, named them cells.

• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1660s): Built better microscopes; first to clearly see bacteria and
blood cells; known as the Father of Microbiology.

Summary Table

Topic Key Idea Eg/Observation Importance

Tiny organisms & cell Useful for

Microscopic Seen with
structures exist beyond naked improving life on
World microscope.
eye. Earth.

Cell membrane, cytoplasm, Onion peel & cheek Essential for life
Basic Cell Parts
nucleus. cells. processes.

Plant vs Plant: wall, plastids, large Shows structural

Onion vs cheek cell.
Animal Cells vacuole adaptation.
 Topic Key Idea Eg/Observation Importance

Animal: small/no vacuoles, no

wall.

Protection, regulation,
Observed in cell Maintain life &
Cell Functions support, carrying out life
structures. growth.
processes.

Vital for
Microbes Present in air, water, soil & Amoeba, bacteria,
ecosystems &
Everywhere inside living beings. algae.
health.

Useful Aid in curd, fermentation, Lactobacillus,

Support daily life.
Microbes decomposition. yeast, fungi.

What Is a Cell?

• All living beings are made of cells.

Activity: Onion Peel Cells

1. Peel a thin, transparent layer from onion.

2. Stain with safranin for 30 seconds, rinse in water.

3. Place on a glass slide with a drop of glycerin.

4. Cover with a coverslip, avoiding air bubbles.

5. Wipe extra glycerin with blotting paper.

6. Observe under microscope → rectangular, closely packed cells.

7. Try peels from other plants → all plants are made of cells.

(Diagram Labels: Cell membrane, Cell wall, Nucleus, Cytoplasm)

Activity: Cheek Cells

1. Rinse mouth with clean water.

2. Scrape inside of cheek with blunt toothpick.

3. Place material in water drop on slide, spread evenly.

4. Add methylene blue stain → improves visibility.

5. After one minute, add glycerin → prevents drying.

 6. Place coverslip carefully, remove excess glycerin.

7. Observe under microscope → polygon shaped cheek cells which forms mouth lining.

(Diagram Labels: Cell membrane, Cytoplasm, Nucleus)

Comparing Cell Structures

• Cell membrane: Outer layer enclosing cytoplasm & nucleus; separates cells; porous for entry of
nutrients / exit of wastes.

• Cytoplasm: Space between cell membrane and nucleus; contains other cell components and
compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, mineral salts; most life processes occur here.

• Nucleus: Central round structure with thin covering; regulates cell activities & controls growth.

• Cell wall (plants only): Extra outer layer outside cell membrane gives rigidity & strength.

Importance of These Structures

• Perform vital functions (protection, regulation, support, life processes) to sustain life.

Variation in Animal Cells

• Animal cells differ in shape & structure.

• Shape & structure relate to specific function they perform.

Cell Parts: Plastids and Vacuoles

• Plant cells have plastids: plastids like chloroplasts (with chlorophyll) is for photosynthesis; non
green plastids store food.

• Large empty-looking space (vacuole): stores materials, removes waste, maintains shape, and
supports the plant.

• Animal cells may or may not have vacuoles: usually small & store dissolved substances.

Variation in Shape and Structure of Cells

• Muscle cells: spindle shaped.

• Nerve cells (neurons): Elongated, branched shape helps neurons reach body parts and transmit
messages quickly.

• Cheek cells: thin, flat; form protective lining inside cheek.

• Muscle cells in food pipe: Thin, flexible, spindle-shaped; contract and relax to push food to
stomach.

• Stomach cells: muscle cells churn food; lining cells secrete juices & acid to digest food.

• Plant cells: rectangular, oval, elongated, long tubes (to carry water).

→ Shape & structure relate to its function.

Levels of Organisation in the Body of a Living Organism

Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

 • Cell = basic unit, like a brick in a wall.

• Similar cells form a tissue.

• Different tissues form an organ.

• Organs working together form an organ system.

• All organ systems together make complete organism (plant/animal).

Multicellular Organisms

• Made of many cells – includes plants, animals, humans.

• Life starts from one cell (egg) that divides repeatedly to form the whole organism.

• Ostrich egg yolk is the largest single cell (130–170 mm), with the shell for protection and
albumen for nourishment.

What Are Microorganisms?

• Organisms made of one or few cells → microorganisms (microbes).

• Unicellular microbes (bacteria, amoeba).

• Multicellular microbes (fungi, algae).

• Found everywhere: water, soil, air, inside body.

• Seen only with microscopes (100–400x).

• Paper microscopes are low cost tools to explore microbes.

Activity: Pond Water

1. Drop of pond water on slide shows tiny organisms.

Activity: Soil Suspension

1. Mix moist garden soil with water in a beaker, stir, and let settle.

2. Collect a drop from the clear top layer and place on a slide.

3. Microscope shows microbes in soil suspension similar to pond water.

Activity: Study of Microorganisms

Organisms in Pond Water:

1. Amoeba (Protozoa) → single cell, moving, irregular shape.

2. Paramecium (Protozoa) → single cell, moves with specialised structures.

3. Algae → single cell, green pigment, moves with specialised structures.

Organisms in Soil Suspension:

1. Bread mould (Fungi) → branched filament, no chlorophyll, sac like structure.

2. Mould (Fungi) → branched filament, no chlorophyll, brush like structure.

 3. Algae → spherical, has chlorophyll.

4. Bacteria → spherical, rod, spiral, with hair like projections.

How Are We Connected to Microbes?

• Microbes found everywhere: water, soil, air, food items, plants.

• Cause powdery/cotton-like growth on rotting lemon, tomato, orange.

• Live in extreme places (hot springs, snow).

• Live inside our body; gut bacteria aid digestion.

• Show great diversity like plants & animals.

• Vary in shape: spherical, rod-shaped, or irregular.

Role in Daily Life & Cleaning Environment

• Aid digestion in our gut.

• Cause food spoilage.

• Decompose waste and clean environment.

• Recycle nutrients for plants.

Key Players in Cleaning the Environment

• Activity (Experiment): Fill container halfway with garden soil → Add fruit/vegetable peels, cover
with soil → Keep aside for 2–3 weeks → Observe: peels turn into dark manure.

• How Manure is Formed: Microorganisms (fungi, bacteria) in soil break down waste →
decomposition. Decomposition produces nutrient rich manure. Composting leaves/plant waste
produces manure. Manure formation needs optimal temperature & moisture.

• Importance of Decomposition: Increases soil fertility → better plant growth. Breaks down dead
plants/animals. Recycles nutrients back into nature. Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) are vital
environment cleaners.

Microbes in Technology and Food

Microbes as a Source of Biogas

• In oxygen-free conditions, bacteria & fungi decompose organic waste.

• This produces biogas (mainly CO2 and methane), used as fuel for cooking, heating, electricity,
and vehicles.

Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty developed a patented bacterium in 1971 to break down oil spills and solve
environmental pollution.

Microorganisms and Food

• Activity (Yeast and Dough):

o Flour + yeast + sugar + warm water:

 ▪ Yeast (fungus) grows in warmth, feeds on sugar.

▪ Produces CO2 → bubbles make dough fluffy.

▪ Produces alcohol → has different smell.

o Used in making of bread, cakes.

o Bacteria like Lactobacillus ferment batter for idli, dosa.

• Activity (Curd Formation):

o Warm milk + spoon of curd:

▪ Lactobacillus in curd feed on sugar in milk (lactose).

▪ Multiply in warmth, produce lactic acid.

▪ Ferments the milk & forms thick, sour curd.

o Cold milk slows bacterial growth → doesn't form proper curd; remains liquid with slight
sourness.

Types of Microorganisms

Types include: Protozoa, Fungi, Bacteria, and some Algae.

Rhizobium and Nitrogen Fixation

• Rhizobium bacteria live in swollen root nodules of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).

• Function: Trap nitrogen from air → convert to usable form for plants.

• Benefits: Helps plant growth without chemical fertilizers.

• Practice: Farmers use crop rotation with legumes to enrich soil.

Amazing Microalgae: Tiny Helpers in Water

• Microscopic, plant-like organisms, found in water, soil, air, trees.

• Make their own food using sunlight, releases oxygen.

• Produce over half of Earth's oxygen supply.

• Rich in nutrients, food for aquatic animals.

• Types: Spirulina, Chlorella, Diatoms.

• Uses: supplements, medicines, water cleaning, biofuel.

• Threats: Affected by pollution, climate change, habitat loss. Must be conserved for oxygen
balance and ecosystem health.

• Spirulina → protein-rich microalga with vitamin B12 (superfood).

Why Is Cell the Basic Unit of Life?

• All organisms are made of cells.

 • Single cell has many components that perform various functions.

• Unicellular: one cell does all functions (bacteria, protozoa).

• Multicellular: many specialised cells working together (humans, plants).

• Algae and fungi may have one or more cells:

o Yeast → unicellular fungus

o Mould → multicellular fungus

Cell Structure in Microorganisms

• Cells are also surrounded by a cell membrane.

• Fungi → cell wall, no chloroplasts, no photosynthesis.

• Bacteria → nucleoid, no defined nucleus, no nuclear membrane.

Observing Cells

• Electron microscope magnifies up to 10,00,000x → shows subcellular components.

Key Points Summary

• All living organisms are made of one or more cells.

• Cells vary in size, shape, structure.

• Plant and animal cells differ.

• Studying cells explains organism functions.

• Some microbes are beneficial, others cause disease.

• Diagram

Simple Diagram (Original)

Plant cell
Animal cell