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MATM111 MIDTERMS
Mathematics in the Modern World (Our Lady of Fatima University)
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Problem Solving
Problem
Statement that is requiring a solution, usually by means of
mathematical operation/geometric construction.
Method
Means the ways or techniques used to get answer which will usually
involve one or more problem solving strategies.
Problem Solving
A process – an ongoing activity in which we take what we know to
discover what we don’t know.
Methods of Problem Solving
Inductive Method
Inductive reasoning
Process of reaching a general conclusion (conjecture) by examining
specific examples.
Uses patterns to arrive at a conclusion.
Specific Statement to General Conclusion
e.g.
- Every quiz has been easy. Therefore, the test will be easy.
- The teacher used PowerPoint in the last few classes. Therefore, the
teacher will use PowerPoint tomorrow.
- Every fall there have been hurricanes in the tropics. Therefore, there will
be hurricanes in the tropics this coming fall.
The conclusion drawn when using inductive reasoning may NOT be true, but
is an intelligent guess, or a hypothesis. (It still has to be proven.)
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Deductive Method
Process of reaching to a conclusion(conjecture) by applying general
assumptions, procedures or principles.
Process of reasoning that is taken from a general facts, rules,
definition to arrive specific conclusion.
General Statement to Specific Conclusion
e.g.
1. All students eat pizza. 2. All athletes work out in the gym.
Claire is a student at CSULB. Barry Bonds is an athlete.
Therefore, Claire eats pizza. Therefore, Barry Bonds works out
in the gym.
Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy
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UPER
- Understand the problem.
- Devise a plan
- Execute the plan
- Review the solution
GEORGE POLYA (1887 – 1985)
- A mathematician who outlined the POLYA’S Problem Solving strategy
during 1940.
- He is considered as the Father of Problem Solving.
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Statistics and Measures of
Central Tendency
Statistics
came from the Latin word “status” meaning state.
branch of mathematics which deals with the collection, organization,
and interpretation of data.
Data
in statistics is always a result of experiment, observation, investigation, and
other means and often appears as a numerical figure and then evaluated to
make into useful knowledge.
Variable
numerical characteristic or attribute associated with the population
being studied.
- Numerical – data that can be measured with numbers.
- Categorical – data that is usually textual and descriptive.
Numerical Variables
o Discrete Variables
- values obtained by counting.
- finite
- limited
- countable
Examples:
- Numbers of girls in a classroom
- Number of green marbles in a bag
- Number of typographical errors on a page
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o Continuous Variables
- values obtained by measuring.
- infinite
- measured data
- lots of possible values
Examples:
- Height of girls in a class
- Weight of a student in class
- Amount of lemonade in a tumble
Categorical Variables
o Nominal - classifies elements into two or more categories or classes, the
numbers indicating that the elements are different but not according to
order or magnitude.
e.g. gender, occupation, civil status, college course
o Ordinal - scale that ranks individual in terms of the degree to which they
possess a characteristic of interest.
e. g.
- Letter grade in class (A, B, C)
- Miss Universe results (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
- Military Rank (1st Lieutenant, 2nd Lieutenant, 3rd Lieutenant)
- Topnotchers (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
Measures of Central
Tendency
measures of center or central location
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describes a whole set of data by a single value which represents the
middle or center of its distribution.
a way to describe the center of a data set.
let us know what is normal or ‘average’ for a set of data.
there are three MTCs: Mean, Median, Mode
Mean
The average or norm.
The sum of all values in the observation or a data set divided by the
total number of observations.
Also known as the arithmetic average.
Denoted by “x̄ ”
∑ of all values∈the observation
Total number of observations
∑x
Formula: x̄ =
N
Median
considered as the physical middle point in a distribution because it is
located in the center position when the values are arranged in
ascending or descending order.
Denoted by “x ~”
- Odd total number of observations – median is the middle
value
- Even total number of observations – median is the mean or
average of the two middle values.
Mode
can be found for both numerical and categorical data.
it is the most common or frequent value in a distribution.
5 types; unimodal, bimodal, trimodal, multimodal, no modal.
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Denoted by “MO”
Measures of Position
used to tell whether a value is about the average, or whether its
unusually high or low.
number that tells where the score stands relative to the others in a
set of data.
score distribution where the scores are divided into different equal
parts.
Three kinds of quantiles; Quartile, Docile, Percentile
Median = Q2, D5, P50
Quartile – measure of position that divides the ordered observation or score
distribution to 4 equal parts (25%).
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- Q1 : Lower Quartile | Q3: Upper Quartile
Decile - measure of position that divides the ordered observation or score
distribution to 10 equal parts (10%).
Percentile - measure of position that divides the ordered observation or score
distribution into 100 equal parts.
Steps in Determining Quartiles
Step 1: Arrange the scores/data in ASCENDING order.
Step 2: Locate the Median (which is the Q2)
Step 3: Then get or compute the midway of the lower 50% data for the
Q1 (lower quartile)
Step 4: Then get or compute the midway of the upper 50% data for the
Q3 (upper quartile)
Decile Formula Where:
= the indicated Decile
k = Decile location (1,2,3,4…..,9)
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n = number of data or observation Where:
= the indicated Percentile
k = Percentile location (1,2,3,
Percentile Formula
…..,98,99)
n = number of data or observation
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Measures of Variation
enables you to know how varied the observations are, whether there are
extremes values in the distribution, or whether the values are very close
to each other.
it is also the measure of degree of scatteredness in a set of data.
if the measure of variation is zero, it means that there is no variation at
all and that the observations are:
- all alike: homogeneous ; not alike heterogenous.
common measures are: range, mean absolute deviation, variance,
standard deviation
Population Vs. Sample
Population
groups of people, animals, places, things or ideas to which any
conclusions based on characteristics of a sample will be applied.
Sample
a subgroup of the population.
Range
the simplest form of measuring the variation of a distribution.
is the distance or difference between highest data and lowest data.
denoted by “R”
The range is useful:
- To evaluate the whole of a data set.
- To show the spread within a data set and to compare the
spread between similar data sets.
Formula:
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R = Highest Observation – Lowest Observation
Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
Average absolute distance between each data/observation and the mean.
Formula:
¿
MAD = ∑∨X − x̄∨ n ¿
Step 1: Compute the mean (x̄ )
Step 2: Compute the summation of absolute difference between EACH data
and the mean.
Step 3: Substitute the value computed in Step 2 and the value of “n” to
compute for the MAD.
Variance
another measure of variation which can be used instead of the range.
it measures the dispersion of a set of data points around their mean.
Formula:
Standard Deviation
(σ) for a population and (s) for a sample
the square root of the value of the variance.
used when we want to measure the spread of values in a single data
set.
the larger the SD, the more variable the data set is.
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Formula:
Population Standard Deviation (σ)
Sample Standard Deviation (s)
σ = √σ2 S = √s2
Coefficient of Vartiation
used to compare the variation of several sets of data without having
the same unit of measures.
used to compare data with different mean.
Denoted by “CV” the larger the CV, the more variable the data set is.
Formula:
Population CV Sample CV
σ s
CV = μ X 100 CV = x̄ X 100
Normal Distribution
A probability function that describes how the values of a variable are
distributed.
Also known as “gaussian distribution”
First discovered by Abraham de Moivre and finalized by Carl Friedrich
Gauss.
Normal Curve - Graphical representation of normal distribution.
Characteristics of a Normal Curve
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A mathematical model represented by a bell- shaped curve which is
symmetric with respect to the mean.
The mean, median, and mode of the normal distribution are equal
and located at the center of the distribution.
The normal curve does NOT intersect or touch the horizontal (X)
axis.
The area under the normal curve is approximately equal to one (1)
or 100%.
The standard normal distribution has a mean of zero (0) and a
standard deviation of one (1).
Kurtosis
a measure of the “tailedness” of a distribution.
Tailedness is how often outliers occur
Has 3 types namely:
- Leptokurtic – mean of -3 and a standard deviation of 0.5
- Mesokurtic – mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1
Platykurtic – mean of 2 and a standard deviation of 3
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Z-score
refers to the data inside the normal curve.
Formula:
x−μ
Z= σ
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