Unit: 2

D.C. Generator
2.1 Working principles, Construction & Types of dc generator.

Working Principle of a DC Generator

DC generators generate electricity using the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction. When a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an electromotive force
gets induced within the conductor. This induced e.m.f magnitude is measured using the
equation of the electromotive force of a generator.
The EMF induced in the armature winding of a DC generator is alternating one and is
converted into direct voltage using a commutator mounted on the shaft of the generator.
The armature winding of DC Generator is placed on the rotor whereas the field winding is
placed on the stator.

Working of a DC Generator

Consider a single loop DC generator (as shown in the figure), in this a single turn loop ‘ABCD’
is rotating clockwise in a uniform magnetic field with a constant speed. When the loop
rotates, the magnetic flux linking the coil sides ‘AB’ and ‘CD’ changes continuously. This
change in flux linkage induces an EMF in coil sides and the induced EMF in one coil side adds
the induced EMF in the other.

The EMF induced in a DC generator can be explained as follows

• When the loop is in position-1, the generated EMF is zero because, the movement of
coil sides is parallel to the magnetic flux.
• When the loop is in position-2, the coil sides are moving at an angle to the magnetic
flux and hence, a small EMF is generated.
• When the loop is in position-3, the coil sides are moving at right angle to the
magnetic flux, therefore the generated EMF is maximum.
• When the loop is in position-4, the coil sides are cutting the magnetic flux at an
angle, thus a reduced EMF is generated in the coil sides.
• When the loop is in position-5, no flux linkage with the coil side and are moving
parallel to the magnetic flux. Therefore, no EMF is generated in the coil.
• At the position-6, the coil sides move under a pole of opposite polarity and hence
the polarity of generated EMF is reversed. The maximum EMF will generate in this direction
at position-7 and zero when at position-1. This cycle repeats with revolution of the coil.

Now to convert AC to DC ,we use commutator .The process is as follows-

We can see that in the first half of the revolution current always flows along ABLMCD, i.e.,
brush no 1 in contact with segment a.
In the next half revolution, in the figure, the direction of the induced current in the coil is
reversed. But at the same time the position of segments a and b are also reversed which
results that brush no 1 comes in touch with segment b.
Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The waveform of the
current through the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.
The above content is the basic working principle of the DC generator, explained by the
single loop generator model.
The positions of the brushes of the DC generator are so that the change over of the
segments a and b from one brush to another takes place when the plane of the rotating coil
is at a right angle to the plane of the lines of force. It is to become in that position, the
induced EMF in the coil is zero.
Construction of a DC Generator
Here is the schematic diagram of a DC Generator .A DC generator consists of six main parts,
which are as follows

Yoke
The outer frame of a DC generator is a hollow cylinder made up of cast steel or rolled steel
is known as yoke. The yoke serves following two purposes:
 It supports the field pole core and acts as a protecting cover to the machine.
 It provides a path for the magnetic flux produced by the field winding.

Magnetic Field System

The magnetic field system of a DC generator is the stationary part of the machine. It
produces the main magnetic flux in the generator. It consists of an even number of pole
cores bolted to the yoke and field winding wound around the pole core. The field system of
DC generator has salient poles i.e. the poles project inwards and each pole core has a pole
shoe having a curved surface. The pole shoe serves two purposes
 It provides support to the field coils.
 It reduces the reluctance of magnetic circuit by increasing the cross-sectional area of
it.
The pole cores are made of thin laminations of sheet steel which are insulated from each
other to reduce the eddy current loss. The field coils are connected in series with one
another such that when the current flows through the coils, alternate north and south poles
are produced in the direction of rotation.

Armature Core
The armature core of DC generator is mounted on the shaft and rotates between the field
poles. It has slots on its outer surface and the armature conductors are put in these slots.
The armature core is a made up of soft iron laminations which are insulated from each other
and tightly clamped together. In small machines, the laminations are keyed directly to the
shaft, whereas in large machines, they are mounted on a spider. The laminated armature
core is used to reduce the eddy current loss.

Armature Winding
The insulated conductors are put into the slots of the armature core. The conductors are
suitably connected. This connected arrangement of conductors is known as armature
winding. There are two types of armature windings are used – wave winding and lap
winding.
Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating emf generated in the
armature winding into the direct voltage across the load terminals. The commutator is made
of wedge-shaped copper segments insulated from each other and from the shaft by mica
sheets.
Each segment of commutator is connected to the ends of the armature coils.
Brushes
The brushes are mounted on the commutator and are used to collect the current from the
armature winding. The brushes are made of carbon and is supported by a metal box called
brush holder. The pressure exerted by the brushes on the commutator is adjusted and
maintained at constant value by means of springs. The current flows from the armature
winding to the external circuit through the commutator and carbon brushes.

Bearing
The Ball and roller bearing are frequently employed for smooth rotation of armature.
 They are filled with hard oil for quieter operation and to reduced bearing wear.
 When sleeve bearing are used these are lubricated by ring oiler fed from an oil
reservoir in bearing bracket.

End Plate
 The bearing are housed in these end plates, and they are fixed to the yoke.
 They help the armature for frictionless rotation and to position the armature in
the air gap of the field poles.
Types of DC Generator:
The DC Generators are classified according to the way their field windings are connected
and excited.
(A) Separately excited Generator
(B) Self excited Generator : There are three types of self excited generator
 Shunt Generator
 Series Generator
 Compound Generator – (a) Long shunt compound Generator. (b) Short shunt
compound Generator and (1) Differential compound Generator (2) Cumulatively
compound Generator
(A) Separately Excited Generator : It is generator in which the field winding is energized by
external DC current.

(B) Self Excited Generator : It is generator in which the field winding is energized by current
produced by generator itself. The field winding is in series / parallel / combination of series
and parallel with the armature winding.

[Link] Generator :The field winding is connected in parallel with the armature winding in
this type of DC generator. The terminal voltage is less than the induced emf due to voltage
drop in armature winding.

IL = V / RL and Ish = V / Rsh

Ia = IL + Ise
And V = E – IaRa

[Link] Generator: i. The field winding is connected is in series with the armature winding
in the series generator.
ii. The resistance of the series field winding must be low as the current passes through it.
iii. The field winding is made of thick wire and it consists of few turns in order to keep low
resistance. As the field winding and load resistance is in series Ise = IL .
iv. The terminal voltage of the series generator is reduced by voltage drop in the armature
and field winding.

V = E – Ia ( Ra + Rse )

[Link] Generator : The field poles in the compound generator are excited by both
series field winding and shunt field winding.
(i) Cumulative Compound Generator: The series field winding is connected such that the flux
produces due to series field aids shunt field flux therefore the net flux increases as load
current increases in the cumulative compound generator.
F = Fsh +Fse

(ii) Differential Compound generator: The series field winding is connected such that flux
produced due to series field opposes shunt field flux in the differential compound generator
therefore the net flux slightly decreases as load current increases.
F = Fsh – Fse
(a) Long Shunt Generator: The series combination of armature and series field winding is
connected with shunt field winding in the long shunt generator.

Ish = V / Rsh
IL = V / RL
Ia = Ise = Ish + IL and
Induced emf E = V + Ia ( Ra + Rse ) + Brush drop

(b) Short shunt generator: The parallel combination of armature and field winding is
connected in series with the series field winding in the short shunt generator.
Ish = Va / Rsh
V = E – IaRak ,,.’
Ia = Ish + IL+-
Induced emf E = V + IaRa + IseRse + Brush drop

When the armature of a DC generator rotates in magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
armature winding, this induced emf is known as generated emf. It is denoted by E g.
2.2 Armature winding types – Concept of Lap & Wave winding.
Terms used in the armature winding

The following terms are used in connection with the armature winding.
Conductor
The conductor is an individual wire lying in the magnetic field. By relative motion of the
conductor, the field induces an emf in it. It may have one or two or more parallel strands. In
the following figure, AB and CD are the conductors.
Turn
A turn has two conductors in series lying in the magnetic field. In other words, a conductor
in one slot is connected to a conductor in another slot, it forms a turn.
Coil
The above said two conductors AB and CD along with their end connections constitute a coil
or winding. It may be a single turn coil or multi-turn coil. Single turn coils have only two
conductors. Whereas the multi-turn coil will have many conductors. The figure below (b)
shows 3 turn coil, which has 3 conductors on each coil side.
Coil Side
Each coil, either single turn or multi-turn, has two sides called the coil sides. A conductor can
also be called a coil side. AB and CD are said to be the two coil side of the coil. A coil group
may have one or more single coils. The number of coils are arranged in coil groups called the
winding.

Pole Pitch

Pole pitch is nothing but the peripheral distance between two adjacent poles. It is measured
in terms of armature slots or armature conductors. It can also be defined as the number of
armature slots(or armature conductors) per pole. Let there be 48 conductors and 4 poles in
a dc generator, then the pole pitch is 48/4 = 12.

Coil Pitch or Coil span

It is the angular distance between two sides of a coil, measured in terms of armature slots.
For example, if there are 36 slots and 4 poles, then the coil pitch is 36/4 = 9 slots.

If the coil pitch is equal to the pole pitch, then it is called a full pitch coil. For a full pitch coil,
each coil side lies under the opposite pole as shown in the figure below. It means the coil
span is 180 electrical degrees. If the coil pitch is less than the pole pitch, it is said to be short
pitch coil or fractional pitch coil.
Back Pitch
It can be defined as the distance between the first and the last conductors of a coil. It is the
same as coil span and is shown in the below figure(a) and (b). It is denoted by Yb.
Front Pitch
It is the distance between the second conductor of one coil and the first conductor of the
next coil. Both the coils should be connected to the same commutator segments on the
front, as shown in the figure (a) and (b) below. It is denoted by Yf.

Resultant Pitch
It is the distance between the beginning of one coil and the beginning of the next coil to
which it is connected. It is illustrated in the above figure (a) and (b), denoted by Yr.
Commutator Pitch
It is the distance between the Commutator segments to which the two ends of a coil are
connected. From the figure, you can observe, for lap winding, Commutator pitch (Yc) is the
difference of back pitch(Yb) and front pitch(Yf). For wave winding, it is the sum of the back
pitch and front pitch.
The armature winding is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the lap winding and the wave
winding. One of the major differences between them is that in a lap winding the end of each
coil are connected to the adjacent segment whereas in the wave winding the end of
armature coil connected to commutator segment at a distance apart.

Types of Armature Winding

Generally, the armature winding in dc machine is wound by using two techniques and these
are also known as types of an armature winding such as Lap Winding and Wave Winding.

a). Lap Winding

In lap winding, the consecutive coils overlap each other. The first end of the winding is
connected to the one segment of the commutator, and the starting end of the other coil is
placed under the same magnet (different pole) and join with the same segment of the
commutator.

The conductors are connected in such a way that the number of parallel paths equals to the
number of poles. Consider the machine has P poles and Z armature conductors, then there
will be P parallel paths, and each path will have Z/P conductors in series. The number of
brushes is equivalent to the number of parallel paths. The half of the brush is positive, and
the remaining is negative.

b) Wave Winding
The one end of the coil is connected to the starting end of the other coil which has the same
polarity as that of the first coil. The coils are connected in the wave shape and hence it is
called the wave winding. The conductor of the wave winding are split into two parallel
paths, and each path had Z/2 conductors in series. The number of brushes is equal to 2, i.e.,
the number of parallel paths.
Comparison between Lap winding and Wave winding

2.3 E.m.f equation

When the armature of a DC generator rotates in magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
armature winding, this induced emf is known as generated emf. It is denoted by Eg.
Derivation of EMF Equation of DC Generator

Let
φ=Magnetic flux per pole in Wb
Z=Total number of armature conductors
P=Number of poles in the machine
A=Number of parallel paths
Where, A=P…for LAP Winding =2…for Wave Winding
N=Speed of armature in RPM
Eg=Generated EMF=EMF per parallel path
Therefore, the magnetic flux cut by one conductor in one revolution of the armature being,

φ=Magnetic flux per pole in Wb dφ = P × φ Wb

Time taken in completing one revolution is given by,
dt =60/N seconds
Hence, according to law of electromagnetic induction, the emf generated per conductor is,

Eg/ Per conductor= dφ/dt = Pφ/(60/N)=PφN/60

Since, the number of conductors in series per parallel path is,
No. of Conductors / Parallel Path = Z/A
Therefore,
Total Generated EMF, Eg = EMF Per Parallel Path
⇒ Eg = (Eg/ Per conductor )×(No. of Conductors / Parallel Path)
⇒Eg = (PφN /60)((Z/A)

Hence, the EMF equation of a DC generator is,

Eg = (φNZ/60)(P/A)…(1)

It is clear from eqn. (1), that for any dc generator Z, P and A are constant so that Eg ∝ Nϕ.
Therefore, for a given DC generator, the induced EMF in the armature is directly
proportional to the flux per pole and speed of rotation.

Case 1 – For Lap winding, number of parallel paths A = P. Thus,

Eg = φNZ/60…(2)

Case 2 – For Wave winding, number of parallel paths A = 2. Thus,

Eg = PφNZ/120…(3)
2.4 Generator characteristics: Open circuit characteristics; External
Characteristics (Concept only); Methods of building up of e.m.f, Significance
of Critical resistance and Critical speed (Numerical).

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation
characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no load (E 0)
and the field current (If) at a given fixed speed. The O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization
curve and it is practically similar for all type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is
obtained by operating the generator at no load and keeping a constant speed. Field current
is gradually increased and the corresponding terminal voltage is recorded. The connection
arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in the figure below. For shunt or series
excited generators, the field winding is disconnected from the machine and connected
across an external supply.
Now, from the emf equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated
emf should be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the
field current). However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf is
generated (represented by OA in the figure below). This initially induced emf is due to the
fact that there exists some residual magnetism in the field poles. Due to the residual
magnetism, a small initial emf is induced in the armature. This initially induced emf aids the
existing residual flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux. This consequently
increases the induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line. However, as the flux density
increases, the poles get saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus, even we
increase the If further, ɸ remains constant and hence, Eg also remains constant. Hence, the
O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.

2. Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)

An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg)
and the armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to
the armature reaction. Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing
effect of armature reaction from no-load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve
lies below the O.C.C. curve.
3. External Characteristic (V/IL)
An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the
load current (IL). Terminal voltage V is less than the generated emf Eg due to voltage drop in
the armature circuit. Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal
characteristic curve. External characteristics are very important to determine the suitability
of a generator for a given purpose. Therefore, this type of characteristic is sometimes also
called as performance characteristic or load characteristic.
Characteristics of separately excited DC Generator:

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant
for any load current. Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load
voltage vs. load current IL. Due to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-
load generated emf is less than the no-load voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load
generated emf Eg vs. load current IL i.e. internal characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately
excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due to ohmic drop occurring in the
armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load current i.e.
external characteristic.
The voltage regulation of a generator is defined as the change in the voltage drop from no
load to full load to full load voltage. Voltage regulation = (no-load voltage - full load voltage)
/ full load voltage

Critical Field Resistance of DC Shunt Generator:

The critical field resistance (RC) of a DC shunt generator is defined as the maximum field
circuit resistance with which the shunt generator would just excite.
Significance
The voltage build-up in a shunt generator depends upon field circuit resistance. If the field
circuit resistance is R1, then the generator will build-up a voltage V0 (see the E0 versus If
curve). If the field circuit resistance is increased to R2, then the generator will build-up a
voltage V0 slightly less than V0. As the resistance of the field circuit is increased, the slope of
the field resistance line also increases.
When the field resistance line becomes tangent (line OC) to magnetisation characteristics,
the generator would just excite. Now, if the field circuit resistance is increased beyond this
point (as line OD), then the generator will fail to excite. Therefore, the field circuit resistance
represented by the line OC, which is tangent to the magnetisation curve is known as critical
field resistance (RC) of a shunt generator.
Therefore, a shunt generator will build up voltage only if the field circuit resistance is less
than the critical field resistance.
Critical External Resistance of a DC Shunt Generator:
The minimum value of load resistance across the terminals of a shunt generator, which is
required to excite the generator, is known as critical external resistance.

If the load resistance across the terminals of a shunt generator is decreased, then the load
current increases. Although, there is a limit to the increase in the load current with the
reduction of the load resistance.
Any reduction in the load resistance beyond this point, instead of increasing the current,
results in the reduced load current. This is because on reducing load resistance, the load
current momentarily increases and results in decrease of the terminal voltage due to
armature reaction and IR drop. As a result of this, the external characteristics of the shunt
generator turns back.
The tangent (line OA) to the curve represents the minimum value of external resistance for
which the shunt generator excites on load and is known as critical external resistance.
If the external resistance is less than the critical external resistance, the machine will
prohibit to excite or de-excite if already running.
Critical Speed: It is that speed for which the given shunt field resistance becomes the
critical field resistance.
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the
machine is allowed to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up
voltage of a shunt generator, the generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover.
Initial voltage is induced due to residual magnetism in the field poles. The generator builds
up its voltage as explained by the O.C.C. curve. When the generator has built up the voltage,
it is gradually loaded with resistive load and readings are taken at suitable intervals.
Connection arrangement is as shown in the figure below.

Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence,
the internal characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct
value of If from Ia.

During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current
increases. But, as we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So,
load resistance can be decreased up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage
drastically decreases due to excessive armature reaction at very high armature current and
increased I2R losses. Hence, beyond this limit any further decrease in load resistance results
in decreasing load current. Consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as
shown by dotted line in the above figure.

Condition for Voltage build up in shunt Generator:

1. There must be some residual magnetism in the generator poles.
[Link] field resistance should be below the field critical resistance value.
[Link] generator should run at rated speed (Above critical speed).
4. For a given direction of rotation, the polarity of induced voltage must be such a direction
as to produced the field current to assist the residual magnetism.
5. If excited on load then load resistance should be more than a certain minimum value of
resistance is given by internal characteristic.

Solution

Solution:
Problem

Solution:

2.5 Concept of flux distribution in DC machine.

Fig. 1 below shows the two main poles of a d.c. generator and the distribution of the
magnetic flux which crosses the airgap and enters the armature. This is the flux distribution
existing when the generator is on no load and it is seen to be symmetrically distributed with
respect to the poles. The poles carry concentrated coils and the rectangular m.m.f.
distribution set up when these coils carry current produce a rectangular flux distribution
because the m.m.f. is acting on a uniform airgap and so the flux is proportional to the m.m.f.
at any point.

Fig1
The convention that has been used when drawing the diagram is that when the direction of
the flux from the poles is downward, the waveform is drawn below the reference OX and
when the flux is in an upwards direction, the waveform of flux distribution is drawn above
this line.
So far, the flux distribution due to the main poles only has been considered. The flux
distribution that would exist if only the armature windings carried current will now be
discussed.
It is assumed in the diagram, Fig. 2, that the conductors are moving from right to left and
hence by Fleming's right-hand rule, the direction of the e.m.f. induced in the conductors is
as shown. If it is also assumed that the brushes are so placed on the commutator that they
are always connected to coils lying in the middle of the interpolar gap, that is, to coils lying
in the G.N.P., the ⊕ and ⊙ also represent the direction of the current in the armature
conductors. Note that all the conductors lying between adjacent G.N.P.s carry current in the
same direction.

Fig 2

Fig3
The effective m.m.f. of any winding is the resultant of the m.m.f. set up by each coil carrying
a current. A single armature coil may be represented as shown in Fig. 3 (a), the coil sides
being numbered in this case by 1, 1′. Progressing round the armature from coil side 1, we
come to coil side 1′ and then back to coil side 1 again. This coil is represented in a different
way in Fig. 3 (b). From 1 to 1′ below the coil, Fig. (a), the flux enters the rotor from the stator
and from 1′ to 1 above the coil, the flux leaves the rotor and enters the stator.
The m.m.f. setting up this flux is represented by the rectangular waveform shown in Fig. 3
(b) and the convention used in this book is that if the flux due to the currents is acting
downwards, the rectangular m.m.f. waveform is also drawn in that direction and vice versa.
This is an alternative method of stating the convention given in the previous section.
If two coils are carrying equal currents as shown in Fig. 3 (c), the resultant m.m.f. is found by
adding the separate m.m.f.s. An easy way of finding the resultant m.m.f. is to draw a line
vertically downwards by a distance representing the current each time a conductor marked
⊕ is reached and vertically upwards by the same amount every time a conductor marked ⊙
is reached. This has been done, in Fig. 3 (d) for the conductor arrangement shown in Fig. 3.
As the windings and currents are symmetrical, the centre axis, shown by a chain line in Fig. 3
(d), is inserted by inspection so that the waveform is symmetrical about this axis.
The armature m.m.f. waveform found by this method in Fig. 3 (d) approximates to the
triangular wave form shown. It will be seen that the maximum value of the armature m.m.f.
is acting along the G.N.P. when the brushes are connected to coils lying in this plane. This
m.m.f. sets up a magnetic flux and the effect of this flux on that set up by the main poles is
called armature reaction.
The armature m.m.f. is acting on a relatively small airgap under the main poles and on a
long air path of high reluctance between the poles. Under the poles, the flux set up by the
armature m.m.f. will be proportional to the m.m.f. but between the poles, the flux set up
will be quite small even though the m.m.f. is greatest in this region. Neglecting magnetic
saturation, the resultant flux distribution is found by adding the two separate fluxes. The
resultant is also shown in Fig. 4 and it will be seen that the position of the M.N.P., that is,
where the resultant flux curve crosses the axis, has moved for the generator in the direction
of rotation of the conductors. This means that the brushes are no longer connected to coils
in which no e.m.f. is being generated and consequently, as the brushes are shorting a coil in
which a current is flowing because of this e.m.f., sparking may result at the brushes.

If the armature currents were greater because of increased load, the armature m.m.f. and
the flux would also be greater and the effect would be that the M.N.P. would move still
further in the direction of the armature rotation and so increase the likelihood of sparking
occurring at the brushes
Fig. 4 also shows that an effect of armature reaction is to strengthen the flux under one of
the pole tips and to weaken it under the other. Magnetic saturation under the leading pole
tip is likely to occur and this means that the resultant magnetic flux will not be able to reach
the value shown by the solid line but only reach that shown by removal of the shaded area.
The total flux per pole is reduced due to the effect of armature reaction to a value less than
existed when the machine was on no load and this reduction of flux becomes greater as the
load on the generator increases. Thus one effect of armature reaction is that the generated
e.m.f. falls slightly as the generator is loaded.

Fig4
2.6 Armature reaction in DC machine and remedial measures. (Concept only).

In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present; 'armature flux' and 'main field
flux'. The effect of armature flux on the main field flux is called as armature reaction.

MNA And GNA

EMF is induced in the armature conductors when they cut the magnetic field lines. There is
an axis (or, you may say, a plane) along which armature conductors move parallel to the flux
lines and, hence, they do not cut the flux lines while on that plane. MNA (Magnetic Neutral
Axis) may be defined as the axis along which no emf is generated in the armature
conductors as they move parallel to the flux lines. Brushes are always placed along the MNA
because reversal of current in the armature conductors takes place along this axis.
GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the
stator field axis.
Armature Reaction
The effect of armature reaction is well illustrated in the figure below.
Consider, no current is flowing in the armature conductors and only the field winding is
energized (as shown in the first figure of the above image). In this case, magnetic flux lines
of the field poles are uniform and symmetrical to the polar axis. The 'Magnetic Neutral Axis'
(M.N.A.) coincides with the 'Geometric Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.).
The second figure in the above image shows armature flux lines due to the armature
current. Field poles are de-energised.
Now, when a DC machine is running, both the fluxes (flux due to the armature conductors
and flux due to the field winding) will be present at a time. The armature flux superimposes
with the main field flux and, hence, disturbs the main field flux (as shown in third figure the
of above image). This effect is called as armature reaction in DC machines.
The Adverse Effects Of Armature Reaction:
Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case of a dc generator, weakening of the main
flux reduces the generated voltage.
Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the position of M.N.A. gets shifted (M.N.A.
is perpendicular to the flux lines of main field flux). Brushes should be placed on the M.N.A.,
otherwise, it will lead to sparking at the surface of brushes. So, due to armature reaction, it
is hard to determine the exact position of the MNA
For a loaded dc generator, MNA will be shifted in the direction of the rotation. On the other
hand, for a loaded dc motor, MNA will be shifted in the direction opposite to that of the
rotation.
How To Reduce Armature Reaction?
Usually, no special efforts are taken for small machines (up to few kilowatts) to reduce the
armature reaction. But for large DC machines, compensating winding and interpoles are
used to get rid of the ill effects of armature reaction.

Compensating winding: Now we know that the armature reaction is due to the presence of
armature flux. Armature flux is produced due to the current flowing in armature conductors.
Now, if we place another winding in close proximity of the armature winding and if it carries
the same current but in the opposite direction as that of the armature current, then this will
nullify the armature field. Such an additional winding is called as compensating winding and
it is placed on the pole faces. Compensating winding is connected in series with the
armature winding in such a way that it carries the current in opposite direction.

Interpoles: Interpoles are the small auxiliary poles placed between the main field poles.
Winding on the interpoles is connected in series with the armature. Each interpole is wound
in such a way that its magnetic polarity is same as that of the main pole ahead of it.
Interpoles nullify the quadrature axis armature flux.
2.7 Commutation method, Concept of reactance voltage.

Reactance Voltage

In a DC machine, reactance voltage is the voltage that is induced in a coil when the direction
of current changes within the coil during commutation. The equation for reactance voltage
is:
Reactance voltage = L( 2I/Tc )
In this equation, L is the coil's self-inductance, I is the current, and Tc is the commutation
time.
Reactance voltage is the voltage rise in the short circuit coil due to the coil's inductive
property, which opposes the current reversal in it during the commutation period.
Reactance voltage can cause sparking at the brushes. To achieve spark less commutation,
the brushes of a DC generator are rocked ahead so as to bring them just ahead of the
magnetic neutral axis.

Commutation Methods
In DC machines, there are mainly three methods to obtain good commutation. They are
 Resistance Commutation
 Voltage Commutation
 Compensating Windings
Resistance Commutation
In the resistance commutation method of improving commutation, the high resistance
carbon brushes are used. This increases the resistance between the contact of commutator
segments and brushes. This high contact resistance has the tendency to force the current in
the short-circuited coils to reverse according to commutation requirements and then
increase in the reverse direction.
Voltage Commutation
In voltage commutation method, the arrangements are made to induce a voltage in the coil
undergoing commutation, which will neutralise the reactance voltage. This induced voltage
is in opposite direction to the reactance voltage. If the value of induced voltage becomes
equal to the reactance voltage, then the quick reversal of current in the short circuited coil
will take place and there will be sparkless commutation.
There are two methods of inducing voltage opposite to the reactance voltage
 Brush Shift
 Interpoles or Commutating Poles
Brush Shift
The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is shifted in the direction of rotation (for the generator)
and against the direction of rotation (for the motor) due to the effect of armature reaction.
The armature reaction creates a flux in the neutral zone and due to this flux, a small voltage
is induced in the commutating coil. Therefore, by shifting the brushes to the new MNA, the
sparkless commutation can be obtained.
Interpoles or Commutating Poles
Some small field poles are also attached to the yoke of the machine and placed midway
between the main field poles, are known as interpoles or commutating poles. The windings
of the interpoles are connected in series with the armature, because the interpoles must
produce fluxes that are directly proportional to the armature current.
The MMF produced by the armature and interpoles being acted simultaneously by the same
armature current. Due to this, the armature flux in the neutral zone which tends to shift the
MNA, is neutralised by the interpole flux. Therefore, the neutral axis is adjusted in position
regardless of the load.

In DC machines, the following rules are used for deciding the polarity of the interpoles
 For a Generator, the polarity of interpole must be the same as that of the next main
field pole in the direction of rotation.
 For a Motor, the polarity of interpole must be opposite to that of the next main field
pole in the direction of rotation.
The interpoles only provide the flux which is sufficient to assure good commutation. They do
not overcome the distortion due to the cross-magnetisation effect.
Compensating Windings
To improve the commutation in DC machines, the commutating windings are used, which
eliminates the effect of armature reaction and flashover by balancing the armature flux.
Commutating windings are the auxiliary windings placed in the slots provided in the pole
faces parallel to the armature conductors and are connected in series with the armature.
The direction of current in the compensating winding is opposite to the armature winding,
hence the commutating windings produce a flux which is opposite to the armature flux.
Therefore, they neutralise the armature flux and the flux per pole being undisturbed by the
armature flux regardless of the load conditions.
2.8 Applications of different types of D.C. generator.
Here are some uses of different types of DC generators:

 Separately excited DC generator

Used for power and lighting
 Series DC generator
Used for voltage boosting, supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives, and series
arc lightening
 Shunt DC generator
Used for battery charging, lighting, power supply, and excitation to alternators
 Compound DC generator
Used for supplying loads through long transmission lines, supplying power to DC motors,
lighting, power supply, and heavy power services .

2.9 Parallel operation of dc generator.

In modern power system, power is usually supplied by many synchronous generators

connected in parallel which helps to maintain continuity of plant operations. Now a day’s,
isolated one large generator is outdated. When we connect two generators in parallel, they
have a tendency to remain in step. By doing some changes in their armature current and by
connecting generators properly to the existing bus bar, this problem could be solved.
Connection of Parallel DC Generators
 1. The generators in a power plant, connected by heavy thick copper bars, called bus-
bars which act as positive and negative terminals. To connect the generators in
parallel, Positive terminal of the generators are connected to the positive terminal of
the bus-bars and negative terminals of generators are connected to negative
terminal of the bus-bars, as shown in the figure.
2. To connect the 2 generators with the 1 existing working generators, first we have to
bring the speed of the prime mover of the 2nd generator to the rated speed. At this
point switch S4 is closed.
3. The circuit breaker V2 (voltmeter) connected across the open switch S2 is closed to
complete the circuit. The excitation of the generator 2 is increased with the help of
field rheostat till it generates voltage equal to the voltage of bus-bars.
4. The main switch S2 is then closed and the generator 2 is ready to be paralleled with
existing generator. But at this point of time generator 2 is not taking any load as its
induced e.m.f. is equal to bus-bar voltage. The present condition is called floating,
that means ready for supply but not supplying current to the load.
5. In order to deliver current from generator 2, it is necessary that its induced e.m.f. E
should be greater than the bus-bars voltage V. By strengthening the field current,
the induced e.m.f. of generator 2 could be improved and the current supply will get
started. To maintain bus-bar voltage, the field of generator 1 is weakened so that
value remains constant.

Load Sharing of Parallel Connected DC Generators

The load gets shifted to another generator by adjusting induced e.m.f., but in modern power
plant, everything has been done by “sychroscope” which gives instruction to governor of the
prime mover. Let us suppose that two generator having different load voltage. Then the
load sharing between these generators will be

The value of current output depends upon the values of E1 and E3 which could be managed
by field rheostats to keep the bus-bars voltage constant.

Advantages of Parallel Operation of DC Generators

Cost Effectiveness:- Electric power cost reduces when generator produce electricity
according to their capacity and easily manage demand and supply requirement. If there is
less requirement of power, one or more units can be taken on hold or startup visa versa.
Smooth Supply of Power:- In case of breakdown of generator, the supply of power will not
get disrupted. If something goes wrong in one generator, the continuity of power can be
continued by other healthy units.

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