Syntax
1. Basic notions
Syntax deals with the way words are combined in sentences, that is, the principles and
rules for constructing sentences. The term “syntax” comes from the Greek, meaning “arrange
together.”
Consider this sequence of words, without any morphological inflection:
CHURCH GOTHIC IN LIVE ARTIST
How to make sense of this collection of words? It is necessary to rearrange the words in
a different order. After analyzing the words, we can get the following arrangement:
ARTIST LIVE IN GOTHIC CHURCH
Now, we have the correct word order, but some adaptations in the words are necessary.
Inflection (morphology) is important for the notions of number, time, aspect, and so on.
Therefore, syntax and morphology are usually interdependent: together, they constitute the
study of what we usually know by grammar, or, in linguistic terms, morphosyntax. Some
possibilities required by the grammatical system are:
- THE ARTIST LIVES IN A GOTHIC CHURCH.
- AN ARTIST LIVED IN A GOTHIC CHURCH.
- THE ARTIST WAS LIVING IN A GOTHIC CHURCH.
- ARTISTS LIVE IN GOTHIC CHURCHES.
- ARTISTS HAVE LIVED IN GOTHIC CHURCHES.
2. Word classes or parts of speech
Words belong to different word classes or parts of speech. The class of a word
determines:
a) what other kind of words we can combine with it. Example: we can say a beautiful day, but
not *a beautifully day, because we use adjectives, not adverbs, to qualify nouns;
b) the order in which we combine words. Example: we can say a beautiful day, but not *a day
beautiful, because we put adjectives before the nouns they qualify.
Grammar also determines, for example, which form of words we choose. Example: we
can say two days, but not *two day (plural form).
Many words in English belong to more than one word class. Examples: play (noun or
verb), boring (adjective or verb), considering (preposition or verb).
There are single words and multiword items. Examples of multiword items: give up (=
stop), with regard to (= about).
Sometimes, the grammatical terms and concepts used in course materials differ from
those used in Linguistics. Example: the word gerund in textbooks and theoretical books.
Word classes may be either open or closed:
Open classes Closed classes
They are formed by lexical words: they convey They are formed by grammatical words: they are
information (content) and have a referential function words and indicate grammatical
function. Examples: house, chair, cloud, beauty, relationships. Examples: they, from, but, very, a
beautiful, run, seat. lot of, the, worked, greater, smallest, heavily.
They commonly accept the addition of new New items are very rarely added to these classes.
words.
Words are added through processes like They are part of the core language and are not
compounding, derivation, coining and expected to change (or change takes a long time).
borrowing.
They normally contain large numbers of words They are much smaller in number of words, i.e.,
(about 90% of our personal vocabulary). they are finite in number.
They usually include: They usually include:
- nouns - prepositions
- adjectives - articles
- verbs (except auxiliary verbs) - quantifiers
- some types of adverbs (e.g. adverbs of manner) - conjunctions
- some types of adverb (e.g. frequency adverbs)
- pronouns
- auxiliary verbs
Let’s have a quick look at some word classes:
1. NOUNS
• The nouns are the most numerous word class. They typically refer to:
a) physical phenomena (concrete): curtain, wind, flower, light, amount…
b) states, ideas, events etc. (abstract): tiredness, love, smell, ability, wedding…
• Nouns are the main element (headword) in a noun phrase (NP):
A NOUN PHRASE (NP) is a noun or group of words with a noun as headword that behaves in the
same way as a noun in a sentence. Examples:
Cats kill mice.
Undomesticated cats kill mice.
Those undomesticated cats killed mice.
Those undomesticated grey cats killed mice.
Undomesticated cats kill the most docile mice.
NP 1: Undomesticated cats NP 2: the most docile cats
• If you can put an article in front of a word, it’s likely to be a noun: a car, an umbrella,
the trap etc.
• If you can pluralize a word, it’s a noun: cars, umbrellas, traps etc. But some nouns
(abstract concepts, uncountable nouns…) do not have a plural form: tiredness, bread,
information, advice etc.
• Combining nouns: we can use nouns to modify nouns. Examples: an insect repellent,
a computer virus etc.
2. ADJECTIVES
• Adjectives typically describe a quality or property attributed to a noun or NP. They
help to specify the noun. Examples: a beautiful garden, a prudent man, an old film, an
interesting experience for everyone, a long-legged girl.
• Adjectives generally come before a noun or NP and after the verb to be:
She’s a nice lady. That lady is nice.
• Some adjectives are formed by using participle forms of verbs:
a) Present participle: a boring film.
b) Past participle: a bored boy.
3. VERBS
• Verbs are generally the central element in any sentence. They typically express actions,
processes and states: walk, cook, present, think, exist, be, have, visit, find, receive, do,
make etc.
• Verbs also convey the meanings of tense, aspect and mood.
a) tense: past, present and future
b) aspect: simple, progressive and perfect
c) mood: indicative, subjunctive and imperative
4. ADVERBS
• Adverbs are a complex category: they refer to different kinds of words with quite
different functions:
a) Manner (how?): well, badly, silently;
b) Place (where?): here, there, anywhere;
c) Time (when?): now, then, soon, tomorrow;
d) Duration (how long?): briefly, forever, temporarily;
e) Frequency (how often?): weekly, daily, always;
f) Degree (to what extent?): quite, extremely, very.
5. DETERMINERS
• A determiner is a modifying word that determines the kind of reference a noun or NP
has. Determiners are a subclass that includes several world classes:
a) Articles: the sun, an apple, a high mountain;
b) Demonstrative adjectives: this orange, that house, those toys;
c) Possessive adjectives: my car, your desk, their house;
d) Quantifiers: some bananas, every person, all the world ;
e) Enumerators: one ticket, a hundred reasons, second floor.
6. PRONOUNS
• Pronouns are words that substitute specific nouns or NP. They are divided into:
a) Personal pronouns (subject and object): I, you, he, us, him…
b) Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, hers…
c) Reflexive and emphatic pronouns: itself, herself, ourselves…
d) Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, those (when not before nouns)
e) Indefinite pronouns: something, anywhere, nobody…
f) Relative pronouns: that, which, who, what…
g) Interrogative pronouns: who?, what?, where?, how?...
h) Reciprocal pronouns: each other, each another…
i) Distributive pronouns: each, either, neither, any, none…
7. PREPOSITIONS
• A preposition is a word or group of words used before a noun, pronoun or NP to show
direction, time, place, location, possession etc., or to introduce an object. Examples:
I need a piece of paper.
They walked towards them.
They are walking across the park.
Look at me, please!
8. LINKING WORDS
• Conjunctions and adverbial connectors (or connectives) establish semantic/logical
relationship between two elements or ideas. They can also establish cohesion. They can
have a lot of meanings, including:
a) Addition: and, moreover, also, furthermore…
b) Contrast/opposition: but, however, instead, although…
c) Cause and effect: so, therefore, because, as a result…
d) Time sequence: then, firstly, next, finally…
e) Purpose: in order to, so that, so as to…
f) Comparison: like, equally, in the same way…
g) Emphasis: especially, indeed, in fact, actually…