IGCSE Computer Science

Chapter 3: Hardware — Exam Revision Notes

3.1 The Role of the CPU

• CPU (central processing unit): component that processes data and instructions; carries out all data/instructions
a computer needs to function.
• Microprocessor: integrated circuit that performs many CPU functions (in PCs/laptops it's usually separate; in
small devices like washing machines it's a single small component).
• Embedded system: a computer system built into a device to perform a specific dedicated function (e.g. traffic
light, washing machine, digital alarm clock).
• Fetch-decode-execute cycle: the method used to process an instruction.
• Architecture: the design of a computer system, incl. components it contains (e.g. Von Neumann architecture).

3.2 The Fetch Stage

• Data/instructions entered via input devices; stored in RAM when a file is opened; brought from hard drive to
RAM.
• Program counter (PC): stores the address of the next instruction to be processed.
• Address stored in PC sent to Memory Address Register (MAR) via the address bus.
• MAR sends address to RAM to find/retrieve the instruction at that location.
• Instruction retrieved from RAM sent to Memory Data Register (MDR) via the data bus.

Key Words
• RAM: holds data/programs currently in use.
• Hard drive: stores data permanently until deleted.
• Address bus: wires for transmission of addresses between components.
• Data bus: wires for transmission of data/instructions between components.
• Control bus: wires for transmission of control signals between components.

3.3 The Decode Stage

• Begins when instruction received by the CU (Control Unit).
• CU decodes instruction using the instruction set — the set of all commands understood/processable by the CPU
(in machine code).
• Once decoded, instruction can be executed.

3.4 The Execute Stage

• Actions required for the instruction are carried out — often mathematical/logical calculations.
• Calculation data sent to ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) — performs all mathematical/logical operations.
• Accumulator (ACC): special register in ALU that stores interim/result values during calculations.
• Once calculations complete, action for instruction performed (e.g. file opened/displayed).
• CU acts as "conductor" — sends signals via control bus to tell components when to perform their roles.

Key Words
• CIR (Current Instruction Register): holds the current instruction being processed.

3.5 Factors Affecting CPU Performance

Three main factors: number of cores, clock speed, cache size.

Cores
• Each core can perform fetch-decode-execute cycles.
• 1 core = single core; 2 = dual core; 4 = quad core.
• More cores → can perform multiple cycles simultaneously → faster task completion + multitasking.

Clock speed
• Measured in hertz (Hz); number of fetch-decode-execute cycles per second.
• 1 Hz = 1 instruction/second.
• Modern CPUs measured in gigahertz (GHz); 2 GHz = 2 billion instructions/second.
• 2 cores at 2 GHz each = 2 billion instructions/second EACH.

Cache
• Fast storage built into CPU for most frequently used data/instructions.
• CPU fetches from cache instead of RAM → quicker.
• Larger cache = more storage for frequently used instructions = less need to access RAM = better
performance.
• NOTE: Performance not always increased by more cores (research reason independently).

3.6 Input and Output Devices

• Input device: allows data to be entered into a computer system.
• Output device: allows result of data processing to be seen/heard.

Input examples
Barcode scanner, digital camera, keyboard, microphone, optical mouse, QR code scanner, scanner (2D/3D), touch
screen (resistive, capacitive, infra-red).

Output examples
Actuator, DLP projector, inkjet printer, laser printer, LED screen, LCD projector, LCD screen, speaker, 3D printer.
• Sensor: input device that captures data from its immediate environment, used in automated systems (systems
designed to operate without human intervention).
• Sensors set to capture data constantly, at given time intervals, or at specific times/dates.

Types of Sensors (with example uses)

Sensor Measures Example Use

Acoustic Level of sound Security systems, detecting broken windows

Accelerometer Acceleration forces (static/dynamic) Auto screen rotation, crash detection (airbags),
car vibration sensing

Flow Amount of liquid/gas/steam flowing Nuclear power plants, checking pipes for leaks

Gas Presence/concentration of a gas Home carbon monoxide detectors

Humidity Moisture level Farming/greenhouses, art galleries

Infra-red Infra-red radiation Security systems (detects intruders via

emission or reflection)

Level Whether a substance is at a certain level Cars (checking oil/fuel levels)

Light Ambient light level Automatic streetlights

Magnetic field Presence of magnetic field Security/anti-theft systems

Moisture Amount of water in a substance (e.g. soil) Agriculture

pH Acidity/alkalinity level Environmental agencies (soil/water testing)

Pressure Force applied to sensor Automatic doors, intruder detection

Proximity How close an object is Robotics in manufacturing

Temperature Temperature of object/substance Air conditioning systems

3.7 Data Storage
Two main categories: primary storage and secondary storage.
• Primary storage: directly accessed by CPU; data sent between CPU and primary storage during processing.
Two types: RAM and ROM (Read Only Memory).

RAM vs ROM
RAM ROM

Volatile — needs power; contents lost when powered off Non-volatile — contents retained without power

Stores data/programs currently in use Stores data permanently (e.g. bootstrap, BIOS)

Contents constantly changed as data processed Contents fixed; hard to change (reprogramming is complex,
rarely done)

Amount can be increased by adding RAM components Not easy to alter amount of ROM

• Secondary storage: not directly accessed by CPU; non-volatile; data sent to primary storage when needed.
Three types: magnetic, optical, solid-state.

Key Words
• Magnetic storage: secondary storage using magnetism to store data.
• Optical storage: secondary storage using lasers to store data.
• Solid-state storage: secondary storage using transistors to store data.

Magnetic Storage
• Storage device has circular plates (platters) that spin.
• Read/write head moves across platters to read/write data using tracks and sectors.
• Electromagnet magnetises dots on platter to store data: 1 dot = 1 or 0.
• Example: hard disk drive.
• Older types: magnetic tape, floppy disks.

Optical Storage
• Uses a laser to read/write data to/from a circular disc.
• To write: laser burns pits into disc surface; to read, laser bounces off surface.
• Disc surface arranged in spiral track; area between two pits = land.
• Examples: CD, DVD, Blu-ray (CD/DVD read with red laser; Blu-ray with blue laser).
• Still used today but mainly for archiving/cheap distribution — no longer replaces hard drives as originally
hoped.
• Disadvantage vs hard disks: more vulnerable to wear, tear, and damage if dropped.

Solid-State Storage
• No moving parts; data created/read/written via electronic chips ("flashed" onto them) — also called
semiconductor chips/flash memory.
• Contains cells and transistors laid out in a grid, wired together in two ways: NOR flash structure (cells wired in
parallel) and NAND flash structure (rows/columns of cells wired in series).
• Each cell = intersection of a row and column of transistors.
• One transistor = control gate; one = floating gate.
• Control gate + floating gate set to binary value 1 → electric current reaches control gate → all transistors set
to binary value 1.
• When data stored, current flows through floating gate to be stored.
• If capacity is enough to store data, value = binary 0.
• Example: USB flash memory drive (also known as memory stick/thumb drive).

Key Words
• Semiconductor chips: electronic circuit with transistors set on a semiconductor material (e.g. silicon).
• Cell: intersection of rows/columns of transistors in solid-state storage.
• Transistor: device that acts as a switch/gate for electrical signals.
• Control gate / floating gate: transistor components controlling/storing electrical charge.

3.8 Virtual Memory

• Virtual memory: type of memory created within a hard drive; acts as extra RAM. Different from physical storage
— can't be seen/touched.
• Difference between temporary and permanent storage isn't just physical location — RAM = temporary (data
deleted when task done); ROM = permanent, unchanging.
• When RAM becomes full, computer can send data it needs later to the hard drive as virtual memory, freeing
RAM for immediate tasks. This structure = page.
• Pages sent back to RAM when needed again for processing.
• If RAM full and computer can't transfer pages to virtual memory → system could crash (can't complete current
task).

Key Words
• Page: a unit of data.
• Virtual memory: type of memory used as an extension of RAM.

3.9 Cloud Storage

• Cloud storage: data storage owned by a third party, accessed via the internet (NOT literally "in the clouds").
• Server: component that acts as central storage resource, providing storage/applications/services.
• Started as simple way to offload storage responsibility; developed to help businesses store/access very large
amounts of data without owning hardware.
• Businesses save costs: no need to buy/maintain expensive servers or hire staff to maintain them.
• Companies (cloud storage providers) run large buildings of servers 24/7, ensuring security and maintenance,
and charge companies to use them.
• Individuals also increasingly use cloud storage (keeps portable devices' storage small); e.g. Microsoft Office 365
— access software via cloud without downloading it.

Cloud vs Local Storage

Storing Data in Cloud Storing Data Locally

No hardware cost / no responsibility for hardware security Must purchase hardware; can be expensive

Access data from anywhere with internet Data available at all times (no internet needed)

Can increase/decrease storage easily Must maintain hardware; check for security issues

If internet fails, may not access data / slow internet = slow Amount of storage limited by hardware paid for
access

Concerns: risk of trusting a third party with data security.

3.10 Network Hardware

• Network: computers/devices joined together via cables or wireless technology.
• Basic hardware needed to connect to a network: router and transmission media (cables or wireless).
• NIC (Network Interface Card): hardware component that allows a device to connect to a network — either wired
or wireless (WNIC).
• Each NIC given a MAC (Media Access Control) address — unique identifier for a device on a network,
assigned by manufacturer, never normally changed.
• Made of two parts: manufacturer's ID code + serial ID code of device.
• Represented in hexadecimal, 6 pairs of numbers separated by dash or colon, e.g. 34:4D:EA:89:75:B2.
• When device sends data across network, it's sent with the device's MAC address so origin can be traced.
• Router: network component that examines a data packet to find its destination address, then forwards it to that
address.
• Reads MAC address (and other data packet info) to determine destination.
• Data packet: unit of data used to transmit data across a network.

IP Addressing
• IP address: unique address assigned to a device connected to a network/internet (unlike MAC address, which
identifies device on a local network, IP address identifies device across the internet).
• Two structures: IPv4 and IPv6.
• IPv4: created in 1983; older structure; format: 32-bit, e.g. [Link].
• Still widely used but running out of unique addresses due to growing number of connected devices.
• IPv6: created to solve IPv4 shortage; 128-bit structure allowing far more unique addresses, e.g.
2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0042:7879.
• IP addresses separated by full stops (IPv4) or colons (IPv6).
• IP addresses can be static or dynamic.

Key Words
• Static IP address: an IP address that stays fixed and does not change each time device connects to network.
• Dynamic IP address: an IP address that can change each time a device connects to network.

End of Chapter 3 notes — Cambridge IGCSE Computer Science Coursebook