POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

Consolidated Study Notes

Transcribed and compiled from handwritten notebook pages

Explanatory notes (shaded boxes) have been added throughout to clarify key concepts

Contents overview
1. Instrument Transformers & Protection Fundamentals
2. Relay Technology & Communication
3. Overcurrent Protection
4. Distance (Impedance) Protection
5. Relay Coordination / Discrimination
6. Differential & Unit Protection
7. Apparatus Protection (Lines, Transformers, Busbars)
8. Building & Lightning Protection
9. Electric Shock & Low-Voltage Installation Protection
10. Motor Protection
1. Instrument Transformers & Protection Fundamentals

1.1 Errors in Voltage Transformers (VTs)

Phase error
The angle between the actual and expected secondary voltage.

Voltage factor
An upper limit of operating voltage, expressed in per-unit of rated voltage.
• It is important for correct relay operation.
• The VT must continue to operate accurately under unbalanced fault conditions, in unearthed or impedance-earthed
systems.

💡 Explanation
A VT (voltage transformer) steps a high system voltage down to a safe, standard secondary value (e.g. 110 V) so relays
and meters can read it. 'Voltage factor' tells you how much higher than normal voltage the VT must still measure
accurately during a fault — e.g. an earth fault on an unearthed system can push healthy-phase voltage up toward line
voltage, so the VT needs headroom above its rated voltage or its readings (and therefore relay operation) become
unreliable exactly when correct operation matters most.

1.2 Protection of VTs

1. Fuses or MCBs (Miniature Circuit Breakers) are incorporated in the secondary circuit — they also must not get
damaged on open circuit.
2. Secondary side of the transformer shall be earthed. This is done to reduce over-voltage at the secondary side.
◦ Earthing should be done at only one point of the secondary circuit so that there is no possibility of earth
current circulating.

💡 Explanation
Earthing at a single point only is a general rule in protection wiring: if you earth a circuit at two points, a small
difference in earth potential between those points can drive a circulating current through the wiring, which corrupts
relay measurements. This is often called a 'ground loop'.

1.3 CT (Current Transformer) Selection — Key Considerations

Question: Indicate the key points that must be noted in the use of CTs for metering and protection applications.
1. Should not open-circuit the secondary.
2. Use thermally saturable CTs for metering, and non-saturable CTs for protection CTs.
3. Select from the appropriate accuracy class.

💡 Explanation
Never open-circuit a live CT secondary: unlike a VT, a CT is a current source. With the secondary open, all the primary
current tries to force itself through the magnetising branch, driving the core into deep saturation and producing
dangerously high peaky voltages across the open terminals — a shock and insulation-failure hazard.
Metering CTs are designed to saturate at moderate overloads, protecting the (comparatively delicate) metering
instruments from the huge currents seen during a fault. Protection CTs must do the opposite — stay accurate (non-
saturable) up to many times rated current, because the relay needs a true picture of the fault current to operate correctly.
'Accuracy class' (e.g. 5P10, 10P20 for protection CTs) specifies the permitted error and the fault-current multiple up to
which that error is guaranteed — choosing too low a class risks the CT saturating before the relay can see the real fault
magnitude.
2. Relay Technology & Communication

2.1 Relay Technology — Overview

Relays monitor the power system's key parameters (such as voltage levels, current levels, and frequency) and activate
breakers to open circuits under faulty conditions.

2.2 Types — Numerical Relay

• Analogue → digital conversion.
• Components: specialised microprocessor and software (tools).
• Power supply: DC [battery banks are used to energise the relays].

Merits of numerical relays

• Size: uses less space.
• Consumes less power.
• Wide range of functions.

Demerits
• Failure of the relay leads to loss of several functions.

💡 Explanation
This is a real trade-off in modern substations: a single numerical (microprocessor-based) relay can replace many single-
function electromechanical relays, saving panel space and power — but because so many protection functions now live
in one device, a fault or failure in that one relay can knock out several protection functions simultaneously, unlike the
old scheme where each function had its own dedicated, independent relay.

2.3 Signalling and Intertripping

• Protection signalling: communication used to achieve unit protection (isolation of a component/unit at both ends).
• Intertripping: communication required when remote operation of a circuit breaker is required as a result of a local
fault or condition.

2.4 Communication Links

Types
• Private post-office (PO) wires installed by the power authority.
• NB: PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) channels require repeater stations to boost the signal, and where
several are strung together the signal can become distorted.
• Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC).
• Radio channels at very high or ultra-high frequencies.
• Optical fibres.
• PLCC — rare (line carrier channels).

Power Line Carrier Communication (PLCC) — detail

• They make use of capacitors as filters (a key component).
• Line trap / wave trap: this is a filter (a low-pass filter) used in the communication path.

💡 Explanation
 PLCC sends a high-frequency signal (tens to hundreds of kHz) along the power line itself, alongside the 50/60 Hz
power. The 'wave trap' (a large inductor) is placed in series with the line at the substation to block that high-frequency
carrier signal from spreading into the substation busbar, while still letting the power-frequency current flow freely — it
is effectively a low-pass filter for the power system and a high-impedance block for the carrier signal.

Factors considered when selecting a communication link

• The availability of an appropriate communication network.
• Distance between the protected relaying points: as the distance increases, the cost-effectiveness of pilot wire
reduces because of signal attenuation — hence the need for installation of pilot (repeater) channels.
• The terrain over which the power network is constructed — in mountainous areas, radio links cannot always be
used.
• Cost involved.
3. Overcurrent Protection

3.1 Overload vs. Overcurrent

There is a difference between overload and overcurrent:
• Overload describes abnormal loading — i.e. excessive loading. It is not a fault.
• Overcurrent is a fault.
• Operating principle: a fault presents a current higher than the full-load rated current.

💡 Explanation
This distinction matters because the two conditions need different protection philosophies. Overload is a slow, thermal
problem (e.g. a motor mechanically working too hard) and is best cleared with an inverse time-delay so brief, harmless
overloads are ridden through. Overcurrent from an actual short-circuit fault is dangerous immediately and must be
cleared fast, regardless of thermal considerations.

3.2 Data Requirements for Relay Setting

• A one-line diagram of the power system involved.
• Impedances of plants and lines.
• Fault analysis to determine the maximum and minimum values of expected fault currents.
• Maximum load current and starting current requirements of motors, and the starting/stalling times of induction
motors.
• The maximum current associated with transformer inrush that the system must withstand and not misinterpret as
damage.
• Decrement curves of the generator (sub-transient, transient, and beyond is the steady/synchronous state).

💡 Explanation
A generator's fault current is not constant after a fault occurs — it starts very high (sub-transient), decays to a lower
transient value, then settles to the lowest steady-state value as the machine's internal flux redistributes. 'Decrement
curves' plot this decay so that protection engineers know both the maximum current the switchgear must withstand
initially and the current the relay will still see if the fault persists.

3.3 Terms
Pick-up current
The minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate.

Current setting
The pick-up current at a given time.

Plug setting multiplier

The ratio of fault current in the relay coil to the pick-up current.

Time setting multiplier (TMS)

An adjustment to the relay's operating time. The time-setting dial (cursor plug) is calibrated from 0–1 in steps of 0.05.
TMS = I_fault / I_pickup (fault current ÷ pick-up current)

3.4 Selection of Overcurrent Relay — Characteristics

• Choice of characteristic curve.
 • Relay current setting.
• Grading margin (time).

3.5 Drawbacks of Overcurrent Protection

A relay may under-reach or over-reach depending on the type of fault.
• Under-reach means a fault occurs within its zone, but the relay fails to open its breaker — another relay then
clears that fault, which means it has effectively 'over-reached' into the first relay's zone.
• Source impedance variations affect the reach of overcurrent relays.

3.6 Advantages
The scheme does not depend on the amount of power flowing through the network at any given time, i.e. protection is
independent of source impedance variation.
4. Distance (Impedance) Protection

4.1 Principle of Operation

• Distance relays make use of impedance and line length.
• NB: When there is no fault on the line, the impedance is high; but with a fault, it lowers.
• i.e. when there is a computed impedance lower than the normal/reference impedance, it indicates that there is a
fault on the line.
• Method: division of voltage by current to obtain impedance; the calculated impedance is compared with the reach-
point impedance (a lower value than reach means there is a fault).
• Tripping is instructed if the calculated impedance is less than the reach-point impedance.

💡 Explanation
A distance relay essentially performs Ohm's Law (Z = V/I) continuously using the voltage and current it measures at its
own location. In healthy operation, the apparent impedance looks like the large impedance of the load far downstream.
The moment a fault occurs, the voltage collapses and current rises, so the measured impedance drops sharply — and if
that computed value falls short of (is less than) the impedance corresponding to the relay's 'reach point' (its protection
zone boundary), the relay concludes the fault is within its zone and trips.

4.2 Advantages
The scheme does not depend on the amount of power flowing through the network at any given time, i.e. protection is
independent of source impedance variation.

4.3 Comparative Merits

1. Comparatively simple to apply.
2. Fast in operation.
3. Can provide both primary and remote back-up protection.
4. Can be easily adapted for pilot protection, i.e. when a unit protects both ends of either the line or a transformer.

Worked example (concept)

Example: say a relay at substation C — relay C has 3 impedance zones, and each impedance setting has a
correspondingly time setting. Same as that of relays A and B. For overcurrent relay, each relay has one setting, e.g. at
substations A, B and C, an overcurrent relay would have only one setting.
Each distance-relay setting is put in a zone, namely Zone 1, Zone 2 and Zone 3 (forward-looking).

4.4 Zones of Protection (Distance Relay)

Each relay has 3 different settings — Zone 1 to Zone 3 (forward).

Zone 1
• Set to 80–85% of the protected line impedance.
• Numerically: uses 85% of the line impedance (AC); 80% for electromechanical relays.
• In terms of operating time, it is instantaneous.

Why is the relay not set to operate at 100% (Zone 1)? Because 100% would give full line protection — so why
not 100%?
1. Avoiding nuisance tripping: the voltage and current received are never exactly 100% accurate, hence the
computed impedance is not 100% accurate either. This means what it calculates could appear to be a fault
(impedance less than the 100% mark) when there actually is no fault.
 2. Algorithms/computational estimates are not 100% accurate, hence a 15–20% margin is used to prevent over-reach
and under-reach due to measurement/estimation errors.

💡 Explanation
This is the single most important idea in distance protection grading. CT/VT measurement errors, and small errors in
the relay's own impedance calculation, mean the relay can never be perfectly certain exactly where the fault is on the
line — especially near the far end. If Zone 1 were set to 100% of the line, small errors could make the relay either fail to
see a fault that is actually just inside its own line (under-reach) or, worse, trip for a fault that is actually on the
neighbouring line beyond the substation (over-reach), tripping the wrong breaker and disconnecting a healthy line.
Stopping Zone 1 at 80–85% leaves a safety margin so the relay only trips instantaneously when it is certain the fault is
within its own line.

Zone 2 setting
1. Ensure full cover of the protected line.
2. There is some time delay for zoning.
Why wait? This is because the fault that the relay covers to be in Zone 2 might actually be on the adjacent line AB (not
the primary line).
◦ Zone 2 = 120% of the line impedance of the primary line.
◦ Zone 2 = 100% + 50% of the adjacent line.

Zone 3
• In Zone 3, use 100% (protected line + longest adjacent line).
• Time delay is not reduced (NB).

💡 Explanation
The reason for the layered zones is coordination with neighbouring relays. Zone 1 (instant trip) only covers the near
~85% of the line, so it can never accidentally trip for a fault on the next line. Zone 2 (small time delay) extends past the
end of the line to guarantee the remaining ~15–20% is still covered quickly, as backup, in case Zone 1 of the next relay
doesn't clear it. Zone 3 (longer time delay) reaches even further as remote back-up protection for the whole of the
adjacent line, only operating if the primary and Zone-2 backup both fail.

4.5 Worked Numerical Example

A three-substation line is arranged as: A —80 Ω— B —70 Ω— C —50 Ω—, with relays located at A and B. A fault
point 20 Ω beyond B (i.e. on line BC) is considered.

Relay setting for relay A

Zone 1 = 85% × 80 = 68 Ω
Zone 2 = 100% × 80 + 50%(20) = 80 + 10 = 90 Ω (100% of line AB + 50% of the shortest adjacent line, here taken as
20 Ω)
Zone 3 = 100%(80 + 70) = 180 Ω
Now, a fault occurs on line AB, say 60 Ω from A. Since 60 < 68 Ω, it will be seen as a Zone 1 fault by relay A. If the
fault were, say, 40 Ω: 40 < 50 Ω also seen as Zone 2 fault, and 40 < 180 Ω also seen as a Zone 3 fault — but Zone 1
acts instantaneously, hence Zone 1 will trip to protect the line, and the other zones will reset.

Relay B (checking the fault on line BC, 20 Ω from B)

Z1 = 0.85 × 70 = 59.5 Ω
Z2 = 70 + 0.5 × 50 = 95 Ω
Z3 = 120%(70 + 50) = 144 Ω
Assuming a fault occurs on line BC (20 Ω from B): since 20 Ω < Z1, Z2, Z3, it will be seen as a fault by relay B.
For relay A: it will see the fault at 80 + 20 = 100 Ω. Since 100 Ω > Z1 and Z2 but < Z3, if relay B is not able to clear
the fault, relay A will wait for its Zone-3 delay time and then trip as back-up.

💡 Explanation
This worked example demonstrates time-graded backup in practice. Relay B, being closest to the fault, should clear it
almost instantly (Zone 1). Relay A sees the same fault but at a larger apparent impedance (100 Ω), which falls into its
Zone 3 — the longest, most delayed zone. This delay is deliberate: it gives relay B every chance to clear the fault first.
Only if B fails does A's Zone-3 timer expire and A trips as the 'last resort' back-up, disconnecting a larger section of
network than strictly necessary, but ensuring the fault is eventually cleared.

4.6 Performance of Relay

1. Reach accuracy: based on the ability to use the right impedance value to arrive at a fault-condition factor, Z = V/I.
2. Level of voltage presented.
3. Impedance-measuring technique.

4.7 Operating Time

1. Fault current: how fast a relay operates based on the magnitude of the fault current.
2. Fault position.
3. Fault point on wave.

4.8 Operating Characteristics of Distance Relay

1. Measurement of the absolute fault impedance.
2. Comparison of fault voltage with a replica voltage derived from the fault current.
3. Comparison of either the relative amplitude or phase of two input quantities.
4. Operating characteristic may be a straight line, circular, or quadrilateral.

4.9 Impedance Characteristics

With plain impedance characteristics, the relays are non-directional. But we set the relays to work in a certain
direction, hence the need for a directional element (positive phase sequence).

Mho characteristic
Combines impedance and direction in one unit.
5. Relay Coordination / Discrimination

5.1 Basics
• Performance curves of the current transformer.
• Working together of relays is called relay coordination.

5.2 Basic Rules

• Relays in series must have the same operating characteristics, e.g. definite time, extremely inverse, etc.
• The relay farthest from the source must have a current setting equal to or less than the relays before it [the farthest
relays have the highest pick-up, and high impedance means less current].
• Relay time settings — shortest operating time for maximum fault levels, and satisfactory (coordinated) operation
at minimum fault levels. [Hence the need to know the thermal characteristics of the transformer. Also, the
maximum fault poses the most danger and hence needs the shortest operating time.]

5.3 Discrimination by Current

• All the relays are given the same time setting, but discriminate their response via current.

Problems associated
• Does not provide a back-up via the breakers — they do not back up each other.
• There is real difficulty in getting the current setting correct, since the magnitude of the fault current depends on
the loading of the system.

5.4 Discrimination by Time

Discrimination by time: all the relays are given the same current setting, but discriminate their response using time.

5.5 Discrimination by Both Time and Current

Time of operation is a function of the current.
TMS = I_fault / I_pickup
Standard IDMT (Inverse Definite Minimum Time) overcurrent relays:
• Standard inverse
• Very inverse
• Extremely inverse
• Definite time

💡 Explanation
IDMT curves plot operating time against fault current: the higher the fault current, the faster the relay trips (an 'inverse'
relationship), down to a defined minimum time. 'Standard', 'very', and 'extremely' inverse describe how steeply the time
drops as current rises — extremely inverse curves are especially useful for coordinating with fuses, since fuse
characteristics are themselves very steep.

Q. Find the cases where one decides to use these.

5.6 Electromechanical Relays

Has two key features: fixed and variable (moving) contacts.
1. Control of the moving contact is achieved using a free chart (calibration chart).
6. Differential & Unit Protection

6.1 Differential Relay

Typically used to protect transformers and generators. Can also be used to protect motors and busbars.
• Uses: it is used for protecting electrical equipment (e.g. lines), but not general or remote/inferred faults.
A differential relay requires a current transformer at both the primary and secondary sides to compute the difference.

Types
1. Balanced circulating current / Merz-Price scheme.
2. Balanced voltage.

💡 Explanation
The Merz-Price / circulating-current principle compares the current entering a protected zone (e.g. a transformer
winding) with the current leaving it, using a CT at each end. In healthy operation these currents are equal (what goes in
must come out), so no current flows in the relay branch connecting them. An internal fault breaks this balance —
current 'appears from nowhere' inside the zone — and the resulting imbalance current operates the relay. Because this
only responds to faults inside its own protected zone, it is extremely fast and selective, and is a form of 'unit protection'.

NB: Relays that have threshold values that must be exceeded during faults are called Biased / Percentage differential
relays.
Also note that transformers are 3-phase; therefore for numerical relays, each phase is connected to the relay, but for
electromechanical relays, each phase has its own relay — therefore it has a restraint coil (RC) and an operating coil.

6.2 Operating Principle

1. Comprises the circuits entering and leaving the protected zone.
2. Operates when the differential between the captured currents exceeds a predetermined value/threshold.

6.3 Voltage Differential

If it is used for protecting electrical equipment, it is used to protect lines but not general/inferred faults.

6.4 Autoreclosing
Automatic reclosing of a circuit breaker following a trip, typically used where a fault is likely to be transient (e.g.
many overhead line faults) so supply can be restored automatically without operator intervention.
7. Apparatus Protection

7.1 Transmission Lines

Lightning protection
When lightning strikes, negative charges are deposited on the line and the voltage rises.
• NB: The conductors will not be destroyed, but the insulators (ionised air) will cause the insulator to crack.
• Info: earth / sky / shield wires.

Protection against flashovers

• Use of arcing horns (surge protection).

💡 Explanation
Arcing horns are two metal rods mounted a small gap apart across an insulator string. If lightning drives the voltage
high enough to threaten a flashover across the insulator itself (which would damage it), the horns provide a deliberately
weaker point where the arc jumps instead — sacrificing an easily-replaced air gap to protect the expensive
porcelain/composite insulator.

7.2 Busbars
Causes of busbar faults
1. Hardening of insulators because of ageing.
2. Corrosion due to salty water/air.
3. Breakdown of insulation because of over-voltages.
4. Foreign objects, such as snakes.

If needed — dedicated protection schemes for busbars

• System protection used to cover busbars.
• Frame-earth protection.
• Differential protection.

Arguments against protection of busbars

• Busbar and switchgear have a high degree of reliability.
• Accidental operation of busbar protection could cause widespread dislocation of the power system.
• System protection or back-up protection would provide sufficient loss protection.

7.3 Transformer Protection

• HV or LV bushing flashovers.
• HV winding earth fault.
• LV winding earth fault.
• Inter-turn fault.

Core faults
• Heavy fault current may affect core lamination.
• Power-frequency over-voltages may increase stress on insulators, and flux may be diverted into the core bolts.

Tank faults
 • Loss of oil through leakages.

∴ Transformers are protected against internal faults; internal fault protection is achieved via differential protection
• Sludge in oil.

schemes.

7.4 Buchholz Protection

Any fault that could occur inside the transformer causes the build-up of heat, and heat decomposing (the oil) into
gases.

💡 Explanation
A Buchholz relay is a gas-actuated protection device fitted in the pipe between the transformer main tank and its
conservator. Slow-developing faults (e.g. minor insulation breakdown, core lamination faults) generate gas slowly,
which collects in the relay and triggers an alarm; a sudden severe fault (e.g. a major winding short) causes a surge of oil
and gas that trips the relay to a trip contact, disconnecting the transformer immediately. It is valued because it can detect
incipient (developing) faults before they become severe enough to register on electrical protection alone.

7.5 Restricted Earth Fault Protection

• It is applied to a particular part of the transformer.

Operating principle
It balances the current in the phase with the current in the neutral.

7.6 Restricted Earth Fault — Related: Autoreclosing (Operating Principle)

1. Comprises the circuits entering and leaving the protected zone.
2. Operates when the differential between the captured currents exceeds a predetermined threshold.
8. Protection of Buildings

8.1 Lightning Protection

There is a need for protection against lightning.

Protection action required

• There should be a component to capture the lightning current and channel it to ground.
• All metallic objects are connected and grounded [perform equipotential bonding of the installation].
• Install surge protective devices.

8.2 Components of a Building Protection System

• The capture device.
• Down conductors.
• Earth leads (earth electrodes).

8.3 Types of Building Protection System

1. The simple lightning rod (capture rod).
2. Use of a lightning rod with fast wires (early streamer emission / mesh conductors).

8.4 Electrical Installation Protection System

When the earth rod of the lightning protection system and that of the electrical installation are close together, about
50% of the lightning current discharged by the building protection system arcs back into the earthing scheme.
• The flow of current through the down conductor generates induced over-voltages in the electrical installation.

💡 Explanation
This is why lightning protection and electrical earthing standards recommend keeping earth electrodes for the two
systems physically separated (or properly bonded together at a single point). If they sit close together, a fraction of the
massive lightning current can 'jump' from the lightning earth into the building's electrical earthing system — bringing a
dangerous transient voltage into the very wiring meant to be safely grounded, and potentially damaging connected
equipment.
9. Electric Shock & Installation Protection

9.1 Electric Shock — the Phenomenon

The phenomenon of electric shock. Major body functions affected:
1. Muscular — ability to move is affected.
2. Circulatory.
3. Respiratory.

9.2 Factors that Influence the Degree of Injury

1. Any current with a magnitude above roughly 30 mA.
2. Duration of contact/exposure to current.
3. Part of the body through which the current passes.

💡 Explanation
The 30 mA threshold noted here is a widely used reference point: it is roughly the level of AC current through the chest
that can interfere with breathing muscles or trigger dangerous heart rhythms, which is why 30 mA is the standard trip
threshold for RCDs (residual current devices) used for shock protection.

9.3 Composition of an Electrical Installation Protection System

• One or more surge protective devices, depending on the building configuration.
• Equipotential bonding.

9.4 Overcurrent Protection — Devices

• Protective devices.
• Fuses.
• Miniature circuit breakers (MCBs).
• Moulded-case circuit breakers (MCCBs).

9.5 Protective Measures Against Direct Contact

• Physical prevention of contact with live parts.

9.6 Earth Leakage Protection

Metallic frames may become live due to installation failure. Current leaks to earth through the grounded metallic
frame.

9.7 Protective Measures Against Indirect Contact

1. Earthing of all exposed-conductive parts.
2. Installation of residual current devices (RCDs).
3. Automatic disconnection of the supply.
[Circuit sketch from the notes]: Network → RCD (E) → Distribution Board → Load, with the neutral connected at the
top. The section of the installation concerned is disconnected automatically once leakage current is detected.

💡 Explanation
 A residual current device continuously compares the current flowing out on the line conductor with the current
returning on the neutral. In a healthy circuit these are equal. If some current is leaking to earth (e.g. through a person
touching a faulty live frame), the two currents differ — that 'residual' imbalance is what the RCD detects, tripping the
circuit within milliseconds, well before a lethal shock duration is reached.

9.8 Protection of Rotational Motors

Conductors for such protection are required.
1. Internal conductor faults: happen inside/under the motor.
2. Bearing failure.
10. Motor Protection

10.1 Causes of Motor Faults

• Winding faults.
• Overloads.
• When rotor locks (stalling).

10.2 External Conditions Affecting Motors

• Unbalanced supplies.
• Undervoltage.
• Single phasing.
• Reverse phase sequence.

10.3 Essential Settings of Overload Protection

• A current setting must be set slightly higher than the motor's full-load current.
• A time setting longer than the starting time at the starting current.
• Time delay is achieved using thermal relays, which use bimetallic strips.

💡 Explanation
A motor's starting (inrush) current is normally several times its full-load running current, for a short period, and this is
completely normal. If the overload relay's time setting were shorter than this starting time, the motor would trip every
time it was switched on. Using a bimetallic strip (which heats and bends in proportion to current-squared over time)
naturally mimics the thermal behaviour of the motor windings, tolerating the brief high starting current while still
protecting against a sustained overload.

10.4 Phase Unbalance Protection

Causes
• Ruptured fuse on one phase.
• Ruptured fuse on a capacitor circuit.
• Heavy single-phase loading.

Effects of unbalance on three-phase motors

A negative-sequence field is set up, which causes reduced torque and overheating of the motor — remedied mainly via
unbalance (negative sequence) relays.

💡 Explanation
In a perfectly balanced 3-phase supply, the currents produce a single rotating magnetic field that drives the motor
forward smoothly (the positive-sequence field). An unbalanced supply can be mathematically resolved into a positive-
sequence component (driving the motor normally) plus a negative-sequence component, which sets up a second
magnetic field rotating in the opposite direction. This opposing field cuts the rotor at nearly twice supply frequency,
inducing extra heating in the rotor and reducing net torque — which is disproportionately damaging compared to the
size of the original unbalance, hence the need for dedicated negative-sequence relays rather than relying on ordinary
overcurrent protection.

10.5 Protection Targets

• Personnel, motors, motor branch-circuit conductors, and control equipment.
10.6 Protective Devices
• Overcurrent relay with circuit breaker.
• Fuses.

10.7 Overload Protection

Its function is to prevent overheating of the motor.
• Overcurrent schemes operate instantaneously, whereas overload schemes operate with time delay.

10.8 Stalling (Locked Rotor) Protection

Causes
• Obstruction in the load.
• Bearing seizure.

Effects when a motor stalls

It will draw high current, and the resulting heating/demand will increase, which leads to higher voltage stress in the
windings.

10.9 Loss of Supply Protection

It happens during supply loss.
• Exponential decay of back-EMF.
• Reduction in speed.
• Phase shift of back-EMF.

Effects, dependent on restoration timing

When the supply is restored before the back-EMF applied voltage to the motor will be less than the system voltage,
and the motor current drawn will be less than the direct-on-line starting current.
When restored after (i.e. once the back-EMF has largely decayed), the applied voltage to the motor will be high and the
current drawn will be high as well.
After roughly 0.8 s, the short-circuit current will be around 1.5 times the normal value.

10.10 Protective Devices Against Restart-Related Risk

• Field feature.
• Fans to cool it.
• Position of the motor in areas where there is a risk of escalating heat.
Earth-fault relays, fuses, and residual current devices are used to prevent excess damage.

10.11 Damage to Rotor Structure

Damage to the rotor structure may result from increased mechanical forces caused by high eddy currents.

10.12 Protection Scheme

1. Use of under-voltage relays.

💡 Explanation
Under-voltage relays are used here because many of the motor stresses above (locked rotor, loss-of-supply followed by
a bad restart, phase unbalance) are ultimately detectable as a drop in terminal voltage. Tripping the motor off supply
when voltage sags significantly avoids the motor drawing excessive current once conditions return to normal, and
 prevents the risk of an out-of-phase reconnection if the supply is restored while the motor's own back-EMF has not yet
died away.

Note on sources: This document was compiled from 14 uploaded photographs. Two of them (motor unbalance/protection page and the
electric-shock/earth-leakage page) were exact re-photographs of pages already captured elsewhere in the set, so their content appears once
here rather than being duplicated. A handful of words in the original handwriting were genuinely ambiguous even after close zooming (for
example, one phrase reading roughly "When rotor locks" and one reading roughly "the demand will increase" in the motor-stalling section)
— these have been transcribed using the surrounding technical context to arrive at the most plausible reading, and are worth double-
checking against the original notebook if precision matters.
Known gap — cropped left margin: Six of the fourteen photos (the ones behind the sources for Sections 3–5, 7, and 10 covering
CT/overcurrent Q&A, distance-relay comparison, relay coordination, apparatus protection, and phase-unbalance/motor protection) were
framed too tightly and cut off roughly the first 1–3 letters of a whole left-hand column of notes running down the page — visible in the
originals only as isolated fragments like "A", "Ch", "po", "max", "hygl", "F", "i", "ie", "H", "Ar", "DC", "vB", "HC" at the very edge of the
frame. These are not decorative marks or bleed-through from a facing page — they are the start of real sentences whose remaining words
fall outside the photograph entirely, so they could not be reconstructed from the images provided. That left-hand column has therefore
been left out of this document rather than guessed at. If that content matters, the fix is to re-photograph those six notebook pages with the
full page width (including roughly 1 extra inch to the left of the current framing) in frame.