CHEMISTRY 043 · MOCK-3 PREP · THE TOPICS THE SCHOOL ALREADY ASKED — AND WE

NEVER COVERED
The 6 Missing Topics
Read each topic → copy the exam-ready lines by hand → do the Try-it. ~3.5 hours total. These are
the exact holes the moderator found.

TOPIC 1 · Crystal Field Theory (CFT)

~50 min · The biggest hole — the real exam already asked this and it went badly

When 6 ligands surround a metal, the five d-orbitals stop being equal —
they split into a lower floor (t2g, 3 rooms) and an upper floor (eg, 2
rooms). The gap is called Δ₀.

THINK OF IT LIKE…
Six people (ligands, each carrying negative charge) walk straight at the metal along the x, y, z axes. The two d-orbitals
that point directly at them (dx²−y² and dz²) get shoved up in energy — face-to-face repulsion. The three that point
between the axes (dxy, dyz, dxz) relax slightly down. One flat floor becomes two floors.

d(x²−y²), d(z²) — point AT ligands

e_g (2)
Δ₀
5 equal d-orbitals
(free ion)
t_2g (3)
d(xy), d(yz), d(xz) — point BETWEEN
Octahedral splitting — memorise this
picture; drawing it earns marks.
High spin vs low spin — the ONE decision
Filling electrons, at the 4th electron there's a choice: pair up downstairs (costs pairing energy P) or jump upstairs (costs
Δ₀). Whichever is cheaper wins:
 Δ₀ > P → pair up → LOW spin (strong-field ligand, e.g. C
Δ₀ < P → jump up → HIGH spin (weak-field ligand, e.g. F⁻

d⁶ example (Co³⁺) — the pair you already know from Mock 2, now in CFT language:
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
t₂g⁶ e_g⁰ · LOW spin · 0 unpaired ↑↓ ↑ ↑ t₂g⁴ e_g² · HIGH spin · 4 unpaired
[Co(NH₃)₆]³⁺ — diamagnetic + [CoF₆]³⁻ — paramagnetic
Why complexes are coloured (CFT version)
An electron in t₂g absorbs a photon of light whose energy = exactly Δ₀ and jumps to e_g. That one absorbed colour is
removed from white light — you see the complementary colour.

EXAM-READY EXAMPLE (NCERT'S FAVOURITE)

[Ti(H₂O)₆]³⁺ is a d¹ ion. The single electron absorbs the blue-green part of light to jump t₂g → e_g, so the complex
looks violet. In the anhydrous state (no ligands → no splitting → no d–d transition) it is colourless.

Tetrahedral (one line is enough)

4 ligands → smaller splitting: Δ_t ≈ (4/9)Δ₀. The gap is always too small to force pairing → tetrahedral complexes are
effectively always high spin.

DON'T MIX UP VBT AND CFT IN ONE ANSWER

If the question says hybridisation → answer in VBT language (d²sp³, inner/outer). If it says Δ₀, t₂g/e_g, high/low
spin, CFSE, colour → answer in CFT language. Same complex, two vocabularies — use the one the question uses.

🌍 REAL LIFE Ruby and emerald are the SAME ion — Cr³⁺. Different host crystals give
different crystal fields → different Δ₀ → one absorbs to glow red, the other green. Gemstone
prices are crystal field theory.

TRY IT (WRITE, DON'T STARE)

Fill d⁴ in an octahedral field for (a) weak-field ligand, (b) strong-field ligand. Count unpaired electrons in each.

Answer: (a) weak: t₂g³ e_g¹ → 4 unpaired (high spin). (b) strong: t₂g⁴ e_g⁰ → 2 unpaired (low
spin). If you got these, you now own the question the real exam asked (d⁴, Δ₀ > P and Δ₀ < P).
 TOPIC 2 · The Isomerism Family
~45 min · Same formula, different compound — six flavours

Isomers = same molecular formula, different arrangement. Four

structural types (different bonds) + two stereo types (same bonds,
different 3-D placement).

The four structural types — as "who swapped places?"

Type Who swaps? Classic pair (memorise one each)
Ionisation
Inside-ion ⇄ [Co(NH₃)₅Br]SO₄ ⇄ [Co(NH₃)₅SO₄]Br — give
outside-ion different precipitates (AgNO₃ ↔ BaCl₂)

Hydrate
Water: inside ⇄ [Cr(H₂O)₆]Cl₃ (violet) ⇄ [Cr(H₂O)₅Cl]Cl₂·H₂O
outside (green)

Linkage
Same ligand, [Co(NH₃)₅(NO₂)]²⁺ (via N) ⇄
[Co(NH₃)₅(ONO)]²⁺
different tooth (via O) — was on your real exam!

Coordination
Ligands swap
between two metals
[Co(NH₃)₆][Cr(CN)₆] ⇄ [Cr(NH₃)₆][Co(CN)₆]

Geometrical (cis/trans) — neighbours or opposite?

M M

cis — 90° neighbours trans — 180° opposite

cis: the two ● are next to each other trans: the two ● face each other
Happens in octahedral [MA₄B₂] and [M(AA)₂B₂] (e.g. [Co(en)₂Cl₂]⁺), and square-planar [MA₂B₂] (e.g. [Pt(NH₃)₂Cl₂]
— cis-platin, the anticancer drug).
fac / mer for [MA₃B₃]: fac = the three A's sit on one triangular face; mer = they wrap around the middle (meridian)
like an equator strip.
Optical — the left-hand / right-hand pair 🫲🫱
Two isomers that are non-superimposable mirror images (like your two hands — mirror twins, but a left glove never fits
the right hand). They rotate plane-polarised light in opposite directions (d- and l-).

THE TWO EXAMPLES WORTH MEMORISING

① [Co(en)₃]³⁺ — three claw ligands arranged like a propeller: left-spin and right-spin versions. ② cis-[Co(en)₂Cl₂]⁺
is optically active; the trans form is NOT — trans has a plane of symmetry (mirror twin = itself). Favourite exam
trick.

🌍 REAL LIFE Geometry decides life and death: cis-platin cures cancer; trans-platin is useless.
And your nose reads optical isomers — carvone's left-hand smells of spearmint, its mirror twin
of caraway. (Hooks only — never write these in place of the definitions!)

TRY IT
(1) [Co(NH₃)₅Br]SO₄ gives a white precipitate with BaCl₂; its isomer gives pale yellow with AgNO₃. Which type of
isomerism? (2) Which shows fac-mer isomerism: [MA₄B₂] or [MA₃B₃]? (3) Why is trans-[Co(en)₂Cl₂]⁺ optically
inactive?

Answers: (1) Ionisation (SO₄²⁻ inside vs outside). (2) [MA₃B₃]. (3) It has a plane of symmetry →
its mirror image is superimposable on itself.
 TOPIC 3 · K₂Cr₂O₇ — the Orange Twin of KMnO₄
~30 min · Same story as KMnO₄, different colours — and it fixes your redox taker too

Chromite ore → YELLOW chromate (Na₂CrO₄) → acidify → ORANGE

dichromate (Na₂Cr₂O₇) → + KCl → K₂Cr₂O₇ crystals.

The three prep steps (write them twice)

Step 1 (fuse with soda ash + air):
4 FeCr₂O₄ + 8 Na₂CO₃ + 7 O₂ → 8 Na₂CrO₄ + 2 Fe₂O₃ + 8 CO₂ (YELLOW)

Step 2 (acidify):
2 Na₂CrO₄ + H₂SO₄ → Na₂Cr₂O₇ + Na₂SO₄ + H₂O (ORANGE)

Step 3 (swap Na for K — KCl):

Na₂Cr₂O₇ + 2 KCl → K₂Cr₂O₇ + 2 NaCl (orange cry

The yellow ⇌ orange see-saw (a guaranteed 1-marker somewhere, someday)

2 CrO₄²⁻ + 2 H⁺ ⇌ Cr₂O₇²⁻ + H₂O
YELLOW --add acid--> ORANGE
ORANGE --add base--> YELLOW

MEMORY HOOK
Acid makes it angrier → deeper colour (orange). Base calms it down → yellow. The pair chromate/dichromate flip
back and forth with pH forever — that's why we say they exist in equilibrium.

As an oxidiser — your taker, again

 Cr₂O₇²⁻ + 14 H⁺ + 6 e⁻ → 2 Cr³⁺ + 7 H₂O (orange → gree

Works on the same "givers" as MnO₄⁻: Fe²⁺ → Fe³⁺ (×6), 2I⁻ → I₂ (×3), H₂S → S. Structure titbit: dichromate = two
tetrahedra sharing one corner oxygen.

🌍 REAL LIFE Old drunk-driving breathalyzers WERE this chapter: orange dichromate
crystals turned green (Cr³⁺) as they oxidised ethanol in the driver's breath. The colour change
was the verdict.

TRY IT
(1) What colour change do you see when NaOH is added to a dichromate solution, and why? (2) Complete: Cr₂O₇²⁻ +
__ Fe²⁺ + __ H⁺ → ?

Answers: (1) Orange → yellow; OH⁻ removes H⁺, pushing the equilibrium to chromate. (2)
Cr₂O₇²⁻ + 6Fe²⁺ + 14H⁺ → 2Cr³⁺ + 6Fe³⁺ + 7H₂O — same equation you needed in Mock 2.
 TOPIC 4 · The Two Untested Numericals
~30 min · π = iCRT and relative lowering — the only colligative maths you haven't faced yet

A. Osmotic pressure
π = i · C · R · T

C = molarity (mol/L) — note: not molality! This is the one colligative formula that uses molarity.
R = 0.0821 L·atm·K⁻¹mol⁻¹ (or 0.083 in bar) · T in KELVIN, always (add 273).
And yes — ⓘ first, same ritual as always.
WORKED EXAMPLE (COPY THIS ONCE)
0.1 M NaCl at 27 °C. π = ?

ⓘ NaCl → 2 ions ⟹ i = 2
T = 27 + 273 = 300 K
π = 2 × 0.1 × 0.0821 × 300 = 4.93 atm

THE 2-MARK THEORY QUESTION THAT RIDES WITH IT

Why is osmotic pressure preferred for finding molar masses of biomolecules (proteins, polymers)? Because ①
it's measured at room temperature (heat would damage biomolecules), and ② even very dilute solutions give a large,
measurable value (other colligative changes would be too tiny).

B. Relative lowering of vapour pressure (RLVP)

(p° − p) / p° = x₂ (mole fraction of solute) ≈ n₂/n₁

THINK OF IT LIKE…
Solute particles are gate-crashers standing at the liquid's surface exit. If 2% of the surface crowd are gate-crashers (x₂
= 0.02), then exactly 2% fewer solvent molecules can escape → vapour pressure drops by exactly 2%. The fraction
blocked = the fraction lowered. That's the whole law.
WORKED EXAMPLE
9 g glucose (M=180) in 90 g water (M=18). Relative lowering?

n₂ = 9/180 = 0.05 n₁ = 90/18 = 5

(p° − p)/p° = 0.05 / (5 + 0.05) ≈ 0.05/5 = 0.01 → 1% lowering

🌍 REAL LIFE Salt on icy roads and salt in the ice-cream churn = freezing-point depression
at work. And a thirsty sailor must never drink seawater — it's hypertonic, so osmosis pulls
water OUT of his cells and dehydrates him faster.

TRY IT
(1) 0.2 M K₂SO₄ at 300 K (R = 0.0821): π = ? (2) 18 g glucose in 178.2 g water: relative lowering?

Answers: (1) ⓘ = 3 → π = 3 × 0.2 × 0.0821 × 300 = 14.78 atm. (2) n₂ = 0.1, n₁ = 9.9 →
0.1/10 = 0.01.
 TOPIC 5 · Werner's Theory + Name → Formula
~25 min · The detective story that started coordination chemistry

Every metal has TWO kinds of valency: primary (its charge — satisfied
by any negative ion, ionisable) and secondary (its coordination
number — satisfied by ligands, fixed and directional).

THE DETECTIVE STORY (THIS IS THE EXAM QUESTION)

Werner took CoCl₃ with different amounts of NH₃ and added AgNO₃ to see how many Cl⁻ were "free" (outside the
bracket):

Compound mol AgCl formed So the formula is…

CoCl₃·6NH₃ 3 [Co(NH₃)₆]Cl₃ — all 3 Cl free

CoCl₃·5NH₃ 2 [Co(NH₃)₅Cl]Cl₂ — 1 Cl trapped inside

CoCl₃·4NH₃ 1 [Co(NH₃)₄Cl₂]Cl — 2 trapped

Only chloride outside the bracket reacts with AgNO₃. Secondary valency (6) stays constant; the bracket protects
whatever is inside. Case closed.

Name → Formula in 4 moves (the direction you haven't practised)

1. Spot the metal + its bracket number → oxidation state. "-ate" ending (ferrate, cobaltate) = the complex is an anion.
2. Decode ligand counts: di/tri/tetra/penta/hexa (or bis/tris for claw ligands like en).
3. Inside the bracket: metal first, then ligands. Work out the bracket's total charge = metal + sum of ligand charges.
4. Balance with counter-ions outside.
THREE WORKED CONVERSIONS (COPY THEM)
potassium hexacyanidoferrate(II)
→ Fe²⁺ + 6 CN⁻ = bracket charge −4 → K₄[Fe(CN)₆]

tetraamminedichloridocobalt(III) chloride
→ Co³⁺ + 4 NH₃(0) + 2 Cl⁻ = bracket +1 → [Co(NH₃)₄Cl₂]Cl

tris(ethane-1,2-diamine)nickel(II) sulphate
→ Ni²⁺ + 3 en(0) = bracket +2 → [Ni(en)₃]SO₄

🌍 REAL LIFE You are a coordination compound: haemoglobin is an Fe complex carrying O₂

as a ligand — and CO poisoning is simply a stronger ligand stealing the seat (the
spectrochemical series, lethal edition). Chlorophyll = Mg complex; vitamin B12 = Co complex;
EDTA is used to chelate lead out of poisoned patients.

TRY IT
Write formulae: (1) pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride (carbonate = CO₃²⁻) (2) sodium
tetrahydroxidozincate(II)

Answers: (1) Co³⁺ + CO₃²⁻ → bracket +1 → [Co(NH₃)₅(CO₃)]Cl. (2) "-ate" → anion: Zn²⁺ + 4
OH⁻ = −2 → Na₂[Zn(OH)₄].
TOPIC 6 · The d-&-f Reason Cluster
~25 min · Say-it-exactly-like-this cards — examiners mark keywords

These short "give reasons" answers repeat every year. Copy each card
ONCE by hand — the keywords in bold are the marks.

CARD 1 — CU⁺ IS UNSTABLE IN WATER (YOUR REAL EXAM ASKED THIS!)

2Cu⁺(aq) → Cu²⁺(aq) + Cu(s) — Cu⁺ disproportionates (is oxidised AND reduced at once). Why does Cu²⁺ win? The
much more negative hydration enthalpy of Cu²⁺ (small, doubly-charged ion grips water strongly) more than
compensates for the second ionisation enthalpy.

CARD 2 — TRANSITION METALS ARE GOOD CATALYSTS

① They show variable oxidation states → can form unstable intermediates with reactants and offer a lower-energy
path. ② Their large surface can adsorb reactant molecules. (Examples: Fe in Haber, V₂O₅ in Contact, Ni in
hydrogenation.)

CARD 3 — INTERSTITIAL COMPOUNDS (WHAT & WHY HARD)

Small atoms (H, C, N) get trapped in the gaps (interstices) of the metal lattice → compounds are hard, high-
melting, chemically inert, and non-stoichiometric (e.g. steel = Fe with interstitial C).

CARD 4 — TRANSITION METALS FORM ALLOYS EASILY

Their atomic radii are nearly the same (thanks partly to the lanthanoid contraction), so one metal's atoms can
substitute another's in the lattice without strain (brass, bronze, steel).

CARD 5 — IONIZATION ENTHALPY TREND (ONE HONEST LINE)

It generally increases across the 3d series (nuclear charge grows) but irregularly, because electrons added to 3d
shield the 4s electrons partially. Special stability spikes at d⁵ and d¹⁰ (e.g. Zn's very high value).

CARD 6 — CR²⁺ REDUCING, MN³⁺ OXIDISING (BOTH D⁴) — WITH THE CORRECT ELECTRON
FLOW THIS TIME
Cr²⁺ (d⁴) LOSES one e⁻ → Cr³⁺ (d³ = stable half-filled t₂g³) → wants to be oxidised → reducing agent. Mn³⁺ (d⁴)
GAINS one e⁻ → Mn²⁺ (d⁵ = stable half-filled) → wants to be reduced → oxidising agent. OIL RIG: Oxidation Is
Loss, Reduction Is Gain. Both arrows point to a stable half-filled product — that's the whole trick.
 🌍 REAL LIFE Card 2 feeds the world and Card 3 builds it: the Haber process (Fe catalyst)
makes the ammonia behind ~half of humanity's food; your car's catalytic converter is
Pt/Pd/Rh doing Card 2 on exhaust fumes; and steel is just iron with interstitial carbon (Card
3).

TRY IT (THE FULL-CIRCLE TEST)

Without looking: which species disproportionates in water, and write the equation. Then: why is Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ different
from Mn³⁺/Mn²⁺ in oxidising power?

Answers: 2Cu⁺ → Cu²⁺ + Cu (hydration enthalpy of Cu²⁺ compensates 2nd IE). Mn³⁺ + e⁻ →
Mn²⁺ reaches stable d⁵ → strongly oxidising; Fe³⁺ is ALREADY d⁵ (stable) → much weaker
oxidiser (Fe²⁺ → Fe³⁺ is actually easy).

Done reading ≠ done. Copy the exam cards by hand, do every Try-it, then play the new
quiz topics (CFT · Isomerism · Advanced). Then: Mock 3.