CONTENTS NAME OF THE TOPIC PAGE NO. INTRODUCTION & DEMONSTRATION 1-13 TYPES OF LINES, LETTERING & DIMENSIONING 14-26 SCALES 27-35 CURVES 36-47 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 48-74 SECTION AND DEVELOPMENTS, 75-85 ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS. 86 - 98 BUILDING DRAWING 99-109 PRACTICES ON AUTOCAD 110 - 161SYLLABUS on Engineering Drawing (1s/ 2na Sem. Common) (All drawings are to be made in First Angle Projection) INTRODUCTION & DEMONSTRATION 4.1 Identify various sizes of drawing boards, drawing sheets as pr BIS. 1.2 List the types of pencils, instruments, and scales (RF). 1.3 Demonstrate lying of drawing sheet, margin, standard layout and title block as per BIS, folding principle of drawings (blue prints, print outs etc). TYPES OF LINES, LETTERING & DIMENSIONING 2.1 Demonstrate and explain the use of various types of lines. 2.2 Demonstrate the principle of single stroke, gothic lettering & numerals as per BIS. SCALES 3.1 Significance of scales in drawing; different scales. 3.2 Define and draw plain sale and diagonal sale. . CURVES 4.1 Explain Conic sections with illustration, Explain terms like focus, vertex, directrix and eccentricity. 4.2 Draw conics sections by eccentricity method — Ellipse, Parabola and Hyperbola. 4.3 Draw Ellipse by concentric circle method sand arc of ciole method. 4.4 Draw parabola by Rectangle Method and Tangent Method. OTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 5.1 Demonstrate the principles of 1st angle and 3rd angle projections with the help of models and draw symbols. 5.2 Draw projection of points. 5.3 Draw projection of straight line (parallel to both planes, parallel to one and perpendicular to other, parallel to one and inclined to other and inclined to both reference planes). 5.4 Draw plane figure such as squares, rectangles, triangles, circle, Pentagon and hexagon (perpendicular to one plane and inclined to other). 5.5 Draw projections of solids such as prism, cylinder, cone, tetrahedron and pyramid in simple position (with axis parallel to one reference plane and perpendicular to other reference plane). SECTION & DEVELOPMENTS 6.1 Draw the sectional projection & development of prism, cylinder, cone and pyramid in simple position by a cutting plane perpendicular to one reference plane and inclined to other reference plane. 6.2 Draw true shape of the cutting sections.ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS Draw isometric view & Isometric projection of prism, pyramid, cone & cylinder with axis horizontal and vertical with construction of isometric scales. BUILDING DRAWING 8.1 Explain terms related to building drawing. 8.2 Draw plan, elevation of single room building with verandah (Flat roof according to given line plan and specification). . PRACTICES ON AUTO CAD 9.1 Introduction-Settings, Limits ete. 9.2Auto CAD commands — Draw commands (Line, circle, are polygon, ellipse, rectangle). Edit command, Dimension commands and Modify Commands for two dimensional drafting only. 9.3 Exercise for practice using Auto CAD. 9.3.1 Orthographic projections of lines, planes sand solids as per chapter 5.0. 9.3.2 Isometric projection as per Chapter 7.0. Note : Focus should be on Hands on Practice of student using AutoCAD software Books Recommended Machine Drawing by Basudeb Bhattacharya, Oxford University Press. ‘A Text Book of Engineering Drawing by Dr. R.K. Dhawan. .A Text Book of Engineering Graphics & Auto CAD by K Venugopal. . A Text book of Engineering Drawing by N.D. Bhatt. Engineering Drawing by P.S. Gill. ._ A Introduction to Auto CAD ~ 2012 by George Omura, Willey India Publishers.CHAPTER 4.1 INTRODUCTION & DEMONSTRATION Engineering drawing is a two dimensional representation of three dimensional objects. In general, it provides necessary information about the shape, size, surface quality, material, manufacturing process, etc. of the object. It is the graphic language from which a trained person can visualize objects. 1.2. LIST OF INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING: The Instruments and other aids used in drafting work are listed below: Pencil Drawing board Setsquare Mini drafter Instrument box Protractor Measurement Scale Drawing sheet |. Drawing clips or Drawing pins Pencils : Pencils with leads of different degrees of hardness or grades are available in the market. ‘The hardness or softness of the lead is indicated by 3H, 2H, H, HB, B, 2B, 3B, etc. The grade HB denotes medium hardness of lead used for general purpose. The hardness increases as the value of the numeral before the letter H increases. The lead becomes softer, as the value of the numeral before B increases. ‘+ HB Soft grade for Border lines, lettering and free sketching _H Medium grade for Visible outlines, visible edges and boundary lines «2H Hard grade for construction lines, Dimension lines, Leader lines, Extension lines, Centre lines, Hatching lines and Hidden lines. Gnitgcnnical Srawinge. The harder graces fro iseinsirumont drawings andthe stor 8 Fig 1.1 Pencil SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’2. Drawing Board : Drawing board (Fig 1.1) is one of the main equipment of Draughtsman. It is used for supporting the drawing paperitracing paper for making drawings. It is made of well seasoned wood strips of about 25 mm thick, free from knots and warping. It should be softer enough to allow insertion and removal of drawing pins. Two battens are fastened to the board by screws, in slotted joints. They prevent warping and at the same time permit expansion and contraction of the strips due to the change of moisture in the atmosphere. Working surface on ig Wooden platens —_ Ebony edge Fig 1.2 Drawing Board One of the shorter edges of the drawing board is provided with an “ebony edge” (hard wood) fitted perfectly straight. Standard drawing boards are designated as follows in Table 1.1 as per IS: 1444-1989. Designation Size (mm) Do 1500 x 1000 x 25 D1 1000 x 700 x 25 D2 700 x 500 x 15 4 D3 500 x 350 x 15 Table 1.1 Different sizes of Drawing Boards The working edge (ebony) must be straight. Now-a-days the drawing boards are available with laminated surfaces. The flatness can be checked by placing a straight edge on its surface. If no light passes between them, the surface is perfectly flat SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”3. Set Square : They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 30°, 45° and 60°) in technical drawings. The 45° x 45° and 30° x 60° triangles are the most commonly used for ordinary work. They are shown in the fig. 1.3 below. 45°x45° Set Square 30°x60° Set Square Fig 1.3 Set Squares, 4. Mini-Drafter : Mini-drafter consists of an angle formed by two arms with scales marked and rigidly hinged to each other. It combines the functions of T-square, set-squares, scales and protractor. It is used for drawing horizontal, vertical and inclined lines, parallel and perpendicular lines and for measuring lines and angles. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 1.4Mini Drafter Fig 1.5 Drawing Board and Mini Drafter Assembly 5. Instrument Box: Instrument box contains i. Compasses, Dividers and il, Inking pens. The important point is the position of the pencil lead with respect to the tip of the compass. It should be at least 1 mm above as shown in the Fig 1.7. Because the tip goes into the board for grip by imm. Fig 1.6 Instrument Box SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’(a) Sharpening and position of (©) Position of the lead leg to ‘compass lead draw larger circles Fig 1.7 Compass 6. Protractor: Protractors are used for constructing and measuring angles. Protractors are generally semicircular in shape. The base diameter of the semicircle serves as the straight edge. A semicircular protractor can measure and angles of any measure between 0° to 180°. Least count of the protractor is generally 1°. Like set square protractor is also made of transparent celluloid or plastic material. Semi-circular protractor Fig 1.8 Protractor 7. Measurement Scale: A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of engineering design. Scales with beveled edges graduated in mm are usually used. Least count of such scale is generally 1 mm. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 1.9 Measurement Scale 8 Drawing Sheet: These are of two types: * Hand-made paper * Mill-made paper Hand-made papers have rough surfaces, pale in colour and not used for regular work, but meant for charts. Mill-made papers are most commonly used for regular work, and are available in different sizes and rolls. They are specified by their weight in kg per ream or density in grams per square meter. Size of drawing sheets (in mm): While working or handling, the papers are liable to tear on the edges. So slightly large size (untrimmed) sheets are preferred. They are trimmed afterwards. IS: 10811:1983 lays down such as designation of preferred trimmed and untrimmed sizes. The basic principle involved in arriving at the sizes of the drawing paper is as under. The area of the biggest size (AQ) is 1m? and its length and breadth are in the ratio 1:2 = (1/2). Designation of sheets : The drawing sheets are designated by symbols such as AO, A1, A2, A3, Ad and AS. AO being the largest. Table 1.2 below gives the length and breadth of the above sizes of sheets For class work use of A2 size drawing sheet is preferred. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Designation imension in mm (Trimmed AD ‘841 X 1189 AL 594X841 Az 420 594 rc 297 420 ry 210X297 Table. 1.2 Different size of Drawing Sheets 1189 AS Total rectangle = AO Fig 1.10 Standard size of drawing sheets according to I.S.1(All dimensions are in mm) 9. Drawing Clips or Drawing Pins : They are used to fix the drawing sheet firmly in position to the drawing board as one construct the drawing. Both drawing clips and drawing pins serve the same purpose. They are generally made up of steel or plastic. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Fig 1.11 Drawing Clips Fig 1.12 Drawing Pins 1.3. SCALE (R.F): Dimensions of large objects must be reduced to accommodate on standard size drawing sheet. This reduction creates a scale of that reduction ratio, which is generally a fraction & such a scale is called Reducing Scale and the ratio is called Representative Factor. RF = Dimension of drawing = Lenath of object in drawing Dimension of object ‘Actual length Note : For computing R.F, the numerator and denominator should be in same units. 1.4 STANDARD LAYOUT OF DRAWING SHEET: The layout of a drawing sheet used on the shop floor is shown in Fig.1.13, The layout suggested to students is shown in Fig.1.14. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Minimum wiath (20 mrn for AO and At TO. mm for AZ. A3 and Aa) rh a Trimming mark, Matric reference graduation Centring mark 7 Drawing space “S Orientation mark — Frame Title block. 1" Gn reterence Border Fig 1.13 General features of a drawing sheet DRAWING OR WORKING AREA z 3 All dimensions are in mm TITLE BLOCK BORDER LINE(HB) 10 Figure.1.14Layout of sheet for class work All dimensions are in mm 1.5 FOLDING PRINCIPLE OF DRAWINGS Method of folding of printed drawing sheets as per BIS SP: 46-2003: When drawing sheets are in more numbers, they have to be folded and kept in order to save the trace required for preserving them (Fig1.15). Requirement While folding the drawings following care to be taken, 1. It is required to fold the drawing sheets such that, they should not get defaced or damaged. 2. Drawing sheet to be folded such that the title block is easily visible to retrieve it and keeping SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing” Page 9it back The following is the method of folding printed drawing sheets for Drawing Sheet of size A1, A2 and ‘A3as recommended by BIS SP 46-2003. SIOnATION ki kk’ we e Fig 1.15 : Method of folding drawing sheet SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’1.6 TITLEBLOCK : The title block should lie within the drawing space at the bottom right hand comer of the sheet. The title block can have a maximum length of 185 mm and width of 65 mm providing the following information. + Title of the drawing. © Drawing number. © Scale. ‘* Symbol denoting the method of projection. Name of the firm, and ‘© Initials of staff, who have designed, checked and approved. The title block suggested for students class work is shown in Fig.1.16. NAME NAME OF INSTITUTE 0. ROLL NO REGD. NO SHEET NO. | PROJECTION BRANCH SCALE: TD? SEMESTER CHECKED BY: DATE TITLE OF THE SHEET 85. - 100 TITLE BLOCK FOR CLASS WORK 40.10. 10_10., Fig 1.16: Title block for class work All dimension are in mm Another ttle block according to B.1.S. specification is given in Fig 1.17. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’DESIGNED NAME OF THE FIRM RAWA ‘CHECKED ‘STANDARD "APPROVED | TITLE DRAWING NO. SHEET 10F 4 C ra TITLE BLOCK AS PER BIS SPECIFICATIONS Fig 1.17 : Title block as per B.1.S specifications Al dimension are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”EXERCISES . What is Engineering Drawing? . What are the standard sizes of drawing boards and drawing sheets as suggested by BIS? Draw a title block for your drawing sheets prepared in class room? Mention the use of mini drafter? How to fold drawing sheets as per BIS? SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”CHAPTER - 2 TYPES OF LINES, LETTERING AND DIMENSIONING . TYPES OF LINES,LETTERING & DIMENSIONING Line is one important aspect of technical drawing. Lines are always used to construct meaningful drawings. Various types of lines are used to construct drawing, each line used in some specific sense. Lines are drawn following standard conventions mentioned in BIS (SP46:2003). A line may be curved, straight, continuous, segmented. It may be drawn as thin or thick. General applications | Al Visible outlines | A2 Visible edges | | BL Tiagisory lines of inteniection| B2 Dimension lines. B3 Projection lines ] B4 Leader lines | BS Hatching | B6 Outlines of revolved section in| bas | | Continuous thin freehand** | C1. Limits of partial or interrupted | views and sections, if the limit is not a chain thin line DI SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Fig 21 Line Strokes Line strokes refer to the directions of drawing straight and curved lines. Vertical and inclined lines are drawn from top to bottom, horizontal lines are drawn from left to right. Curved lines are drawn from left to right or top to bottom. perveset err een 2 Co SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Uses of different types of lines in a given drawing i am ‘DIMENSION LINE 36mm EXTENSION LINE .35mm ‘CENTER LINE 35mm, (PATH OF MOTION) PHANTOM LINE .35mm CONVENTIONAL BREAK LINE Smm ‘SECTION LINE 35mm VISIBLE LINE .7mm NOTE 5mm 2.2 Demonstrate the principle of single stroke, gothic lettering & numerals as per BIS. Single Stroke Letters The word single-stroke should not be taken to mean that the lettering should be made in one stroke without lifting the pencil. It means that the thickness of the letter should be uniform as if it is obtained in one stroke of the pencil. Sinale-stroke letters are of two types: i. Vertical ii. Inclined. (Inclined letters lean to the right, the slope being 75° with the horizontal) According to the height of letters, they are classified as: i. Lettering'A’ ii. Lettering ‘8’ In lettering 'A’ type, the height of the capital letter is divided into 14 parts, while in lettering 'B' type it is divided into 10 parts. The height of the letters and numerals for engineering drawing can be selected from 2.5, 3.5, 5, 7, 10, 14 and 20 mm according to the size of drawing. The ratio of height to width varies but in case of most of the letters it is 6 : 5. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’terrennc 4 ( feria aS Dimensions (mm) Lettering height Height of capitals Height of lower-case letters Spacing between characters _ ee cee aE height ‘Height of capitals Height of lower-case letters Spacing between characters ‘Minimum spacing of base lines ‘Minimum spacing between words Thickness of lines SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”‘ENGINEERING, ‘DRAWING. | [Link].AEC DEFIGHUKLIMY Gothic letters: Stems of single-stroke letters, if given more thickness, form what are known as gothic letters. The thickness of the stem may vary from 1/5 to 1/10 of the height of the letters. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Here stem thickness is taken as 1/7 times height. Dimensioning Dimensioning is the process of specifying part's information by use of lines, numbers, symbols and notes. The general principle of dimensionin As far as possible, it should be placed outside the view. It should be taken from a visible rather than hidden lines. Dimensioning of a centre line should be avoided except when the centre line passes through the centre of a-holes. The dimension should be placed on the view or section which is most clear to the corresponding features. Each dimension should be dimensioned once on a drawing. Each drawing should have the same dimensional uni More than one dimension should not be used for features of the same parts. Elements of Dimensioning Dimension Line: Dimension line is a continuous thin line. It is indicated by arrowheads, it is drawn parallel to the surface whose length must be indicated. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”nage Dimension ine Fig 2.10 Projection or Extension Line : A projection line or extension line, it is a thin line. It is drawn perpendicular to the surface which is to be dimensioned. The projection line slightly extends than the dimension line. Fig 2.11 Constructions line: A construction line is a thin line drawn to indicate the dimension line. The construction line is extended slightly beyond the point intersection. Arrowheads: Arrowheads are used to indicate the dimension line. Usually, the arrowhead must include angles of a minimum of 15°. The Arrowhead may be open or close or closed and filled. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 2.12 Leader or Pointer Lines: These are thin continuous lines drawn from a dimension figure to the feature to which it refers. Leader line is drawn may be 30° or 60° to the bottom of dimensions. Dimension Figure: These are drawn may be vertical or inclined to indicate the height of the dimension figure. Units of Dimensions The dimension unit is millimetre. The unit of the dimension is omitted while writing the dimension fig, and a footnote stating “ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM” is written at the prominent place on the drawing sheet. Dimensioning common features Dimensioning diameters ireular views may be indicated in any ‘one of the ways as shown in figure SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Dimensioning Radius : Dimensioning Arcs : Fig 2.15 Dimensioning Chords : Itis a linear distance between any two points of an arc. obe — | SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Dimensioning Angles : ‘Types of Dimensioning systems: Aligned System : In this type of dimensioning systems, Dimensions are placed above the dimension lines which are drawn without any break and written parallel to them, Fig 2.18 Unidirectional System: Dimensions are inserts by breaking the dimension lines at the middle. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 2.19 Aligned System Unidirectional System }e——s a a v o— = 3 L Fig 2.20 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”EXERCISES What is the purpose of sectioning of an object? How hidden lines are represented? Show different method of indicating diameters? . What do you mean by lettering? . What do you mean by single stroke letters? What is the slope of inclined letters? . Write down CIVIL in single stroke vertical letter. . Write down ENGINEERING in single stroke inclined letter. Draw the different types of lines and name them, SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”CHAPTER-3 SCALE 3.1. Introduction ‘A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a drawing to the actual dimensions of the same. It is not possible always to make drawings of an object to its actual size. If the actual linear dimensions of an object are shown in its drawing, the scale used is said to be a full size scale. Wherever possible, it is desirable to make drawings to full size. Purpose of Scale Scales are used for the following purposes 1. To prepare a drawing on a reduced scale so that large object can be accommodated on the limited size of drawing sheet. e.g. building, machine parts etc. To prepare the drawing of a very small objects. e.g. parts of wrist watches, measuring instruments etc. on enlarged scale in order to give better Understanding and to study the details of the minor parts of the objects. To measure linear measurements of the object under measurement directly without involving any calculations. To measure and set off dimensions as per scales decided upon or given before starting the drawing. ‘Types of scale: 3.3.1 Reducing Scale: It is the scale in which the actual measurements of objects are reduced and represented on the drawing sheet. Generally the drawings are very big objects like buildings, machine parts; town plans etc are prepared in reduced scale. The standard proportions are 4:2, 15, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:200, 1:500, 1:1000, 1:2000, 1:5000, 1:10000 for this scale, RF <1 Example-If the actual size of the object is 100cm then using R.F. of 1:10, the size of the object would be 100 x (1/10)= 10cm in drawing, 3.3.2 Full Size Scale: In this scale the actual measurements of the objects are represented on the drawing, In this scale the usual proportion is 1:[Link] this scale R.F. = 1 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Example- If the actual size of the object is 150om then using R.F. of 1:1, the size of the object would be 150 x (1/1 }= 150 om in drawing. 3.3.3. Enlarging Scale : It is the scale in which the actual measurements of the objects are increased in some proportion to accommodate object details on the drawing sheet. Generally the drawings of very small objects like watches, electronic devices, precision instruments etc. are prepared in enlarging scale. The standard enlarging scales are 50:1, 20:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1 for this scale, R.F.>1 Example- If the actual size of the object is 2om then using R.F. of 50:1, the size of the object would be 2 x (50/1}= 100em in drawing. Representative Fraction (R.F.) The ratio of the dimension of the object shown on the drawing to its actual size is called the Representative Fraction (R.F.). Both in same units NOTE : The dimensions in both numerator and denominator of the fraction must be in the same units. Since itis a ratio it has no units. example : If tom length of drawing represents 5m length of the object then RF= tom/5m =1em/500em =1/500 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS Metric measures : i. Linear Measures Classification of The scales used in engineering drawing are classified as follows: SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’i, Plain scale or simple scale — = —— 10 5 ster eses Fig 3.1 ii, Diagonal scale 200 140,00,000 DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS, Fig 3.2 iii, Comparative or Corresponding Scale RE =1/4,00.000 COMPARATIVE SCALE SHOWING MINUTES AND KILOMETERS Fig 3.3 Fig 3.4 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”ve Scale of chords o—= ———— SEeIeeeteaatete ee Fig 3.5 Here in this chapter we will discuss about the plain scale and diagonal scale only. 35 Plain Scale This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it's sub-division. Q. No. 1. Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m. Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm CONSTRUCTION : a. Calculate R.F.= (DIMENSION OF DRAWING /DIMENSION OF OBJECT) RF.= tom/ 1m = 1/100 Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance = (1/100) X 600 cm = 6 om Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit Sub-divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit. Place (0) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions on left- hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale, After construction of scale mention it's RF and name of scale as shown. Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown Fig. 3.6. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 3.6 [Link]. 2. In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and construct a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on it CONSTRUCTION : a. Calculate RF. R.F.= 45 om/ 36 km = 45/( 36 x 1000 x 100) = 1/ 80,000. Length of scale = R.F x max. distance = 1/ 80000 x 12 km = 15 om Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division unit. . Sub-divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit, Place (0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and subdivisions on left- hand side of Zero, Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting a look of scale. ‘After construction of scale mention it's RF and name of scale as shown. ‘Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown in Fig 3.7. —_—_———— SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 3.7 The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km. In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 ‘om long, Find it's R.F. Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km. Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km ‘SOLUTION STEPS : RF =[Link]/200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000 Length of scale = ( 1 / 40, 00, 000) X 600 X 105 = 15 om Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km. Divide it in six equal parts. Each will represent 100 km. . Divide first division in ten equal parts. Each will represent 10 km. Draw a line upward from left end and mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown in Fig 3.8. Join 8th sub-division of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and complete diagonal scale. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’% ¥ 3 2 100 KILOMETERS RF=1/4000000 KILOMETI DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS (Fig 3.8) [Link]. 4. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters. Show the distance of 13.4 cm in it. SOLUTION STEPS: RF.= 1/25 Length of scale = (1 / 2.5) X 20 om = 8 cm, Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4 equal parts. (Each part will represent a length of Scm.) Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions. (Each will show 1 cm). At the left hand end of the line, draw a vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal divisions of any length. Complete the scale as explained in previous problems. Show the distance 13.4 om on it in Fig3.9. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”MILLIMETERS 10, CENTIMETER: RF= 1/2.5 CENTIMETERS, DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS (Fig 3.9) SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”EXERCISES Construct a diagonal scale to measure kilometers, hectometers, and decameters and long enough to measure 4Km, when a distance of 0.25km is represented by one centimeter on map. Find RF of the scale and also the length of the diagonal scale. Indicate on the scale a distance of RF of the scale and also the length of the diagonal scale. Indicate on the scale a distance of a. 3KM, 6 hectometer and 3 decameter. b. 2KM, 3 hectometers and 8 decameters . Construct a diagonal scale of R.F.= 1/6250 to read up to 1km and to read meters on it. Show a length of 653m on it If the distances between two towns is 600km and it is represented on map by 120m. Construct a diagonal scale to measure up to a single kilometers. Measure a distance of 349km, 417km and 495km on the map. Also find the R.F. . The distance between Kolkata to Puri is 560 Km which is represented by 14 cm on a map. Find the RF. of the scale used for drawing the map. Construct a diagonal scale to show distance up to 800 Km and show a distance of 666 Km on it. . Construct a diagonal scale to read kilometres and decametres, given that 1 Km is represented by 5 cm on the drawing, Mark a distance of 3.47 Km on the scale. . Construct a diagonal scale to read metre ,decimeter and centimeter and long enough to measure up to 5 metres, when 1 metre is represented by 3c.m. Find the R.F and indicate on the scale distance of metre Tdecimeter 6centimetre and 2metre 4decimetre 8 centimetre. Draw a plane scale to show metre and decimeters when 1 metre is represented by 2.5cm on the scale. The scale should be long enough to measure up to 6m . Mark a distance of 4metre and 6decimetre on the scale. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”CHAPTER - 4 CURVES 4.1 CONIC SECTIONS Cone is formed when a right angled triangle with an apex and angle @ is rotated about its altitude as the axis. The length or height of the cone is equal to the altitude of the triangle and the radius of the base of the cone is equal to the base of the triangle. The apex angle of the cone is 20. When a cone is cut by a plane, the curve formed along the section is known as a conic section Right Cone Vertex Slant Height 1 Axis Fig 4.1 Following are some important conic sections. 1. Circle 2. Ellipse 3. Parabola 4, Hyperbola 44.1 CIRCLE: When a cone is cut by a section plane A-A making an angle a= 90° with the axis, the section obtained is a circle. ELLIPSE : When a cone is cut by a section plane B-B at an angle, amore than half of the apex angle i.e., @ and less than 90°, the curve of the section is an ellipse. Its size depends on the angle « and the distance of the section plane from the apex of the cone. PARABOLA : If the angle a is equal to @ i.e., when the section plane C-C is parallel to the slant side of the cone the curve at the section is a parabola. This is not a closed figure like circle or ellipse. The size of the parabola depends upon the distance of the section plane from the slant SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing” Page 36side of the cone. HYPERBOLA: If the angle «is less than @ (section plane D-D), the curve at the section is hyperbola, The curve of intersection is hyperbola, even if « = 6, provided the section plane is not passing through the apex of the cone. However if the section plane passes through the apex, the section produced is an isosceles triangle. Conic sections Fig 4.3, 4.2. SOME IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS: 4.2.1 Major axis : It is the longest distance which passes through the centre, at right angle to the fixed lines called the directrix. AB is the major axis. 4.2.2. Minor axis : It is the maximum distance which bisects the major axis at right angle. It will be parallel to the directrix. CD is the minor axis. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’ Page 374.2.3 Directrix : It is a straight line perpendicular to the major axis. 4.2.4 Focus: When an arc is drawn with C or D as centre and radius equal to half of the major axis i.e. AB/2 it is cut at two points F,and Fon the major axis. F,and Fare the focal points of an ellipse F, or F, is the focus. The sum of the distances from F,, F, to any point on the curve ie., F P+ FP is always constant and equal to the major axis. Focal radii : The distances from point P on the curve to the focal points F,and F, are called focal radii. Sum of the focal radii is equal to the major axis. Eccentricity: The ratio between the distances from the vertex to focus and vertex to the directrix is called the eccentricity. a. Ife=t, itis parabola b. Ife>1, itis hyperbola ©. Ifect, itis an ellipse Vertex : The end points of the major axis on the curve are callled vertex. (A, B) Tangent and normal to an ellipse : Normal is the line bisecting the angle F, PF, in Fig 4 Tangent is a line at 90° to the normal and touching the ellipse. Directrix, axis, focus, vertex and tangent are the elements common to ellipse, parabola and [7 DIRECTRIX hyperbola. MINOR AXIS. oT MAJOR AXIS. TTL=TANGENT AND PN = NORMAL Fig 4.4 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”[Link].1 To draw a parabola with the distance of the focus from the directrix at 60mm (Eccentricity method) Construction : Draw the directrix AB and the axis CC’ at right angles to it Mark the focus F on the axis at 60 mm. Locate the vertex V on CC’ such that CV = VF Draw a line VB perpendicular to CC’ such that VB = VF Join C, B and extend. Now, VF / VC = 1, the eccentricity Locate number of points 1, 2, 3, ...... on VC' and erect perpendiculars through them meeting CB produced at 1',2.3'.... With F as a centre and radius equal to 1-1" cut two arcs on the perpendicular through 1 to locate P1 and P1’, Similarly with F as center and radius 2-2', 3-3' etc cut arcs on the corresponding perpendiculars to locate P2 and P2', P3 and P3' etc. Draw a smooth curve passing through V,P1, P2, P3....P3',P2',P1’, a s = Ps Fig 4.5 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”To draw a normal and tangent through a point 40mm from the directrix. To draw a tangent and normal to the parabola. locate the point P which is at 40 mm from the directrix. Then join P to F and draw a line through F, perpendicular to PF to meet the directrix at T. The line joining T and P and extended is the tangent and a line NN, through P and perpendicular to TP is the normal to the curve. [Link]. 2. To draw an ellipse with the distance of the focus from the directrix at 50mm and eccentricity = 2/3 (Eccentricity method). Construction : 1. Draw any vertical line AB as directrix and mark appoint C on it. Draw a horizontal line CD of any length from point C as axis. Mark a point F on line CD at 50mm from C. Divide CF in 5 equal divisions. Mark V on 2" division from F. Draw a perpendicular on V and mark a point E on it at a distance equal to VF. Join CE and extend it, Mark points 1,2,3.....on CF beyond V at uniform distance and draw perpendiculars on each of them 50 as to intersect extended CE at 1',2',3' SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 3. To draw a hyperbola with the distance of the focus from the directrix at 50mm and e=3/2 (Eccentricity method). Construction : 1, Draw the directrix AB and the axis CC’. Mark the focus F on CC’ and 50mm from C. Divide CF into 5 equal divisions and mark V the vertex, on the second division from C. Draw a line VE perpendicular to CC’ such that VE=VF. Join C and E. Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular to meet CE produced att’. With centre F and radius equal to 1-1', draw ares intersecting the perpendicular through 1 at P1 and Pr, Similarly mark a number of points 2, 3 ete and obtain points P2 and P2’,etc. A = a VvVF=30mm CcVv=20mm e= VFICV=3/2 Ps Fig 4.7 All dimensions are in mm. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’[Link]. 4. Construct an ellipse by concentric circle method. Major axis 80 mm. Minor axis 40 mm, Construction : |. Draw the major axis AB(8Omm) and minor ax is CD (60mm),bisecting at right angle at 0. . CD (60mm), bisecting at right angle at 0. ‘0! as centre OA and OC as radius, draw two concentric circles, . Draw a number of radial lines through '0' (say12) cutting the two circles. . Mark the points on the outer circle as a, b, c. Similarly mark the corresponding intersecting points on inner circle as a ". From points such as a, b, c...draw lines parallel to minor axis. ’, ¢' draw lines parallel to the major axis to intersect with the corresponding vertical lines at points P,P, P, etc. |. From points such as al 1. Join all these points with a smooth curve by free hand or using "French curve" and form the ellipse. Fig 4.8 Al dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Q. No. 5. The foci of an ellipse are 90 mm apart and its minor axis is 65 mm. Find major axis and construct ellipse by arcs of circle method. Construction : All dimensions are in mm 1. Draw a horizontal line. Mark Fl and F2 such that distance between F1 and F2 is 90 mm (Focal distance). Mark midpoint of F'1-F2 as ‘0’ Draw vertical line through ‘O’ and mark MN (minor axis = 65mm) such that OM = ON = 32.5 mm. 3. We know MF1 = OV1 = OV2. Take distance in compass equal to MF1 and mark points V1 and V2 by taking center as ‘O’. V1-V2 is major axis. Mark 4 to 5 points randomly between F1 and O. Name the points as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Take distance in compass equal to V1~1 and by taking center F1 mark arcs above and below the major axis. With same distance and taking center F2 mark arcs above and below the major axis. . Take distance in compass equal to V2-1 and by taking center F1 mark arcs to cut previous arcs. With same distance and taking center F2 mark arcs to cut previous arcs. Repeat the procedure for all remaining points 2, 3, 4 and also for ‘O" Draw a smooth curve passing through all points and end of major axis. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 6. Draw a parabolic arc with a span of 1000 mm and a rise of 800 mm. Use the rectangular method. Construction : 1. Draw an enclosing rectangle ABCD with base AB = 1000 mm and height BC = 800 mm using a suitable scale; 2. Atits mid-point E, draw the axis EF at right angle to AB; 3. Divide AE and AD into the same of equal parts and label them, say 1, 2, 3 and 1’, 2',3' etc; 4. Draw lines joining F with points 1, 2 and 3. Through 1', 2’, and 3’, draw perpendiculars to AB intersecting F1, F2 and F3 at points P,, P2 and P respectively: . Draw a curve through A, P;, P2 etc. It will be a half parabola, Repeat the same construction in the other half of the rectangle to complete the parabola. Or, locate the points by drawing lines through the points P,, P2 etc. parallel to the base and making each of them of equal length on both the sides of EF, e.g. P}O = O P;’. AB and EF are called the base and the axis respectively of the parabola. See Fig. given below. Do Fig 4.10 Al dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’[Link]. 7. To draw a parabola using the tangent method with 70 mm as base and 30 mm as the length of the axis. Construction : 1, Draw the base AB and locate its mid-point C. .. Through C, draw CD perpendicular to AB forming the axis . Produce CD to E such that DE = CD Join E-A and E-B. These are the tangents to the parabola at A and B. . Divide AE and BE into the same number of equal parts and number the points as shown. Join 1-1', 2-2', 3-3', etc., forming the tangents to the required parabola. A smooth curve passing through A, D and B and tangential to the above lines is the required parabola. Fig 4.11 All dimensions are in mm —_—_————— SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”EXERCISES Construct a conic when the distance of its focus from the directrix is equal to 50 mm and its eccentricity is 3/4. Measure its major and minor axes. Draw a tangent at any point on the curve. What is the distance between the foci 2. The major and minor axes of an ellipse are 8O mm and 50 mm respectively. Construct the curve. Draw an ellipse whose major and minor diameters are 150 mm and 100 mm respectively. Use concentric circle method. Draw a parabola whose focus is at a distance of 50 mm from the directrix. Draw a tangent and normal at any point on it. . Construct a parabola if the distance between its focus and directrix is 60 mm. Also draw a tangent to the curve. Construct an ellipse with major axis and minor axis measuring 120 mm & 70 mm respectively by rectangular or box method. Construct an ellipse, with a distance of the focus from the directrix as 60 mm and eccentricity as 2/3. ‘Also draw normal and tangent to the curve at a point 40 mm from the directrix. . Construct a parabola whose base is 90 mm and axis is 80 mm using the following methods: a. Rectangular method b. Tangent method SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”CHAPTER -5 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION 5.1. PRINCIPLES OF FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION AND THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION 5.1.1 INTRODUCTION ‘A projection may be defined as a representation of an object on a two dimensional plane. It is obtained by drawing straight lines from various on the contour of an object is said to be projected on that plane. The figure formed by joining in correct sequence, the points at which these lines meet the plane is called the projection of the object. The lines which are drawn from the object to the plane are called projectors. Following are the elements to be considered while obtaining a projection. Object Plane of projection Point of sight Rays of sight 5.1.2 TYPES OF PROJECTION Following are the methods of projection are commonly used in engineering practice. a. Orthographic projection b. Isometric projection ©. Oblique projection 4. Perspective projection ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION Orthographic Projections is a technical drawing in which different views of an object are projected on different reference planes observing perpendicular to respective reference plane. DEFINITION OF SOME TERMS IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION i. Horizontal Plane (H.P) : Itis the plane horizontal and at right angle to the vertical plane. The top view or plan of the object is projected on this plane. It is generally denoted in short form as H.P. Vertical plane (V.P): It is the plane which is perpendicular to the horizontal plane and is also known as frontal plane because the front view or elevation of the object is projected ‘on this plane. It is generally denoted by V.P. The V.P and H.P. are called principal planes. Auxiliary plane (A.P) : Any other plane which is placed at any angles to te principal plane i.e. H.P. and V.P. is called auxiliary plane. iv. Reference line: The line of intersection of two principal planes of projection ie. V.P and HP. is called reference or ground or intersection line. It is generally denoted by X-Y line. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’ Page 48Elevation : The projection of the object on the vertical plane (V.P) is called elevation or Front View (F.V). Front View of the object is taken while looking at the object from its front. vi. Plan : Plan or top view (T.V) of the object is taken while looking at the object from it's top. The plan or top view is projected on the horizontal Plane (H.P).. vii. Side view or End View : Projection of the object on an auxiliary plane (A.P) or auxiliary vertical plane (AVP) is known as side view or end view or profile view or side elevation. vili, Auxiliary View : The projection of the object on an auxiliary plane is known as auxiliary view (A.V). FOUR QUADRANTS The object may be situated in any of the four quadrants , its position relative to the planes being described as above or below the H.P and in front of or behind the V.P. In INDIA generally the first angle projection is adopted for drawing works but in countries like U.S.A, Canada, U.K ete third angle projection is adopted for normal drawing work The position of the object placed in any of the, ovuomawr quadrant is described as under in Fig 5.1 Object placed in 1 Quadrant: Above H.P and in front of V.P. Object placed in 2° Quadrant: Above H.P and behind V.P. Object placed in 3 Quadrant: Below H.P and behind V.P. Object placed in 4" Quadrant : Below H.P and infront of V.P. ST ANGLE PROJECTION : If the object is situated in the first quadrant i.e above H.P and in front of V.P. , the projection of the object so obtained is known as First Angle projection. Symbol of the First Angle projection [© Fig 5.2 is denoted by Fig 5.2. THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION : If the object is situated in the third quadrant i.e below H.P and in behind V.P. The projection of the object so obtained is known as third Angle projection. Symbol of the Third Angle projection is denoted by Fig 5.3, Fig 5.3 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’5.2 PROJECTION OF POINTS : 5.2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘A point may be defined as a line having zero length or it also may be defined as a circle having zero diameter. It has no size and dimensions. 5.2.2. SOLVED PROBLEMS Q. No. 1. Draw the orthographic projections of the Point P which is 30 mm above H.P and 40 mm in front of VP. Solution : i, As the point is above H.P. and in front of V.P.; so it is in 1% quadrant. Draw a line XY (Reference Line) which is the intersection line of HP and VP. As 'P’ is 30mm above H.P.., its front view “p” is 30 mm XY. ‘P’is 40 mm in front of VP, its top view ‘p’ is 40 mm from XY. Draw the projector pp’ as shown in figure. Fig 5.4 All dimensions are in mm NOTE : Front view of the points are denoted by small letters with an apostrophic symbol and top views are specified by small letters only. For e.g. for a point A in space the front view and top view are represented bya’ and a respectively. —_—_———— SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 2. Draw the orthographic projections of the Point Q which is 25 mm above H.P and 35 mm behind VP. Solution : As the point is above H.P. and behind V.P.; so itis in 2" quadrant. Here both the views ( top and front) will be obtained above the reference line XY, Hence the H.P. will coincide with V.P. Draw a reference line XY. Mark a point 'q’ 25mm above XY which is the front view and another point ‘q’ 35mm from XY which is the top view as shown in figure. Fig 5.5 All dimensions are in mm Q. No. 3. Draw the orthographic projections of the Point R is 32 mm. below H.P and 45 mm behind VP ns As the point is below H.P. and behind V.P.; so it is in 3° quadrant. Here the front and top view will be obtained on VP and HP assuming VP is transparent. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the front view at a distance 32 mm below XY and top view at a distance 45 mm above XY as shown. Fig 5. All dimensions are in mm —_—_—— SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 4, Draw the orthographic projections of the Point S is 35 mm. below H.P and 42 mm in front of VP Soluti i, As the point is below H.P. and in front of V.P.; so itis in 4” quadrant. ji, Here both the views will be lie below the reference line as the H.P. coincides with V.P as shown. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the front view and top view at a distance of 20mm and 30 mm respectively from XY on the same projector. Fig 5.7 All dimensions are in mm Q. No. 5. Draw the orthographic projections of the Point T is in H.P and 30 mm behind VP Solutior As the point is in H.P. and behind V.P.; so itis in H.P. Here side view will be on VP and top view 30mm behind VP. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the front view at any point on XY and top view at a distance of 30 mm from XY on the same projector. Fig 5.8 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”[Link]. 6. Draw the orthographic projections of the Point U is in V.P and 40 mm. below HP. Solutic As the point is in V.P. and below H.P.; so itis in V.P. Here side view will be on VP and top view 40 mm. below HP. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the top view at any point on XY and side view at a distance of 40 mm from XY on the same projector. Fig 5.9 All dimensions are in mm [Link]. 7. Draw the orthographic projections of the Point V is in V.P and 35 mm, above H.P Solution : i. As the point is in V.P. and above H.P.; so it is in V.P. Here side view will be on VP and top view on HP. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the top view at any point on XY and side view at a distance of 35 mm from XY as shown in fig 5.10. Fig 5.10 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 8. Draw the orthographic projections of the Point W is in H.P and 48 mm. in front of VP Solution : As the point is in H.P. and 48mm in front of V.P.; so it is in H.P. Here side view will be on VP and top view on HP. Draw the reference line XY. Mark the side view at any point on XY and top view at a distance of 48 mm from XY as shown in fig 5.11 VP x He “ w Fig 5.11 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’5.3 PROJECTION OF LINES : 5.3.1 INTRODUCTION A straight line may be defined as the shortest distance between any two points. It may be generated by a point moving in one direction. 5.3.2 SOLVED PROBLEMS [Link]. 1. A 50mm long line AB is parallel to both H.P and V.P. The line is 25mm in front of V.P and 60mm above H.P, draw the projections of the line. Solution : Draw reference axis XY. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a’ at a distance of 60mm above XY and “a’ at 25mm below XY. Through a’ and a draw lines a’b’ and ab parallel to XY of its true length 50mm, iv. a’b’ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively. Fig 5.12 Al dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 2. A. 60mm long line AB has its end A at a distance of 20mm above the H.P. The line is perpendicular to the H.P and 40mm in front of V.P, draw the projections of the line. Solution : i. Draw reference axis XY. ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a’ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view a’ at 40 mm below XY. il, Through a’ and a draw lines a'b’ of its true length 60mm. Point “a” will coincide with point “ top view. iv. a’b’ and (a)b are the front view and top view of line AB respectively. Since point “a” is hidden, it is represented in brackets. Fig 5.13 All dimensions are in mm Q. No. 3. A 60mm long line AB, has its end A at a distance of 20mm in front of the V.P. the line is perpendicular to V.P and 40mm above H.P, draw the projection of the line. Solution : i. Draw reference axis XY. Mark the side view of the point B of the line AB i.e b' at a distance of 40mm above XY and top view “al at 20mm below XY. Through “a’ draw line ab of its true length 60mm in the direction perpendicular to XY. Point a’ will coincide with point b’ in its side view. (a)b’ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively. Since point a’ is hidden, represented in brackets. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 5.14 All dimensions are in mm [Link]. 4, ‘A.80 mm long line AB has the end A at a distance of 20 mm above HP and 40mm in front of V.P. The line is inclined at 30° to H.P and parallel to V.P, draw the projection of the line. Solution : Draw reference axis XY. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e. a’ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view ‘a’ at 40 mm below XY. Through “a” draw line ab of its true length 80mm parallel to XY and through a’ draw line a’b’ at an inclination of 30° to XY. a’b’ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Fig 5.15 All dimensions are in mm Q. No. 5. A 80mm long line AB is inclined at 30° to V.P and is parallel to H.P. The end A is 20mm, above the H.P and 20mm in front of the V.P, draw the projection of the line. Solution : i. Draw reference axis XY. ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a’ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view “a’ at 20 mm below XY. il, Through “a” draw line ab of its true length 80mm at an inclination of 30° to XY and through a’ draw line a’b' parallel to XY, iv. a'b’ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively. « & ve x wey ~! ee > Fig5.16 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 6. A 70mm long line AB has an end A at 20 mm above H.P and 30 mm in front of V.P. The line is inclined at 45° to the H.P and 30° to V.P, draw the projections. Solution : i. Draw reference axis XY. ii. Mark the side view of the point A of the line AB i.e a’ at a distance of 20mm above XY and top view “a at 30 mm below XY. ii, Through “a’ draw line ab of its true length 70mm at an inclination of 30° to XY and through a’ draw line a’b’ of it's true length 70mm at an inclination of 45° to XY. iv. a'b’ and ab are the front view and top view of line AB respectively Fig 5.17 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”5.4 PROJECTION OF PLANES: 5.4.1 INTRODUCTION A plane is at two dimensional object having length and breadth only. Its thickness is always neglected; various shapes of plane figures are considered such as square, rectangle, circle, pentagon, hexagon etc. Moo (SQUARE, (PENTAGON (i) HEXAGON (morcLe Es GSS | EQUILATERAL TRIANGLE (W) RIGHTANGLE TRIANGLE, () RECTANGLE Fig 5.18 5.4.2 TYPES OF PLANES: 1. Perpendicular planes which have their surface perpendicular to anyone of the reference planes and parallel or inclined to the other reference plane. 2. Oblique planes which have their surface inclined to both the reference planes. 5.4.3. TRACE OF PLANE : The trace of a plane is the line of intersection or meeting of the plane surface with the reference plane; if necessary the plane surface is extended to intersect the reference plane. The intersection line of the plane surface with HP is called the Horizontal Trace (HT) and that of VP is called the Vertical Trace (VT). A plane figure is positioned with reference to the reference planes by referring its surface in the following possible position. 5.4.4 PROBLEMS: SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Q. No. 1 : A Square plane with a 40mm side has its surface parallel to and 20mm above the HP. Draw its Projections, when (a) A side is parallel to VP (b) A side is inclined at 30° to VP Solution : Visualized position of surface plane Picture: Draw a square abcd of side 40mm such that one of its sides say ad is parallel to XY. Draw projectors from the points a & d Locate the points a’b’ at 20mm above XY. /. Draw a line through a! and parallel to XY intercepting the projector through d at cd’. a’b’c'd’ & abed are the required projections. Similarly draw the projection of the point abed when two of i's sides are inclined at 30° to VP. Fig 5.20 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Q. No. 2. A Hexagonal plane with a 30mm side has an edge on the HP, the surface of the Plane is inclined at 45° to the HP. Draw it's Projections. Solution : Visualized position of surface plane Picture: Fig 5.21 Draw the reference axis XY and then draw the regular hexagon a’b'c’d’e'f in elevation such that one of its side a’b’ is perpendicular to the reference axis. ji, Draw the top view abcdef below XY and parallel to it. Draw the plan in changed position a;(b;) f; (ci) €: (di) so that it makes 45° with XY line and has the point a, 15mm away from XY. iv, Complete the corresponding new elevation a,'by'c;'d’e"f by projecting from this plane and projecting horizontally from the previous elevation. Fig 5.22 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 3. A Circular plane with a 60mm Diameter is resting on a point it's circumference on the VP. The center is 50 mm above the HP , and The surface is inclined at 45° to the VP. And perpendicular to the HP Draw It's Projections. Solution : Draw the projection of the circle assuming it to be lying on VP and it's centre is 50mm above HP. Divide the circumference of the circle into 12 equal parts and name them as shown and transfer the division points on the top view. Redraw the Top view such that it makes an angle of 45° with XY and one end of it lies on XY forming the final Top view. Obtain the final front view by projection. Fig 5.23 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”A regular pentagon ABCDE, of side 25 mm side has its side BC on ground. Its plane is perpendicular to H.P and inclined at 45° to the V.P. Draw the projections of the pentagon and show its traces when its comer nearest to VP is 15 mm from it. Solution : As the plane makes an angle 45° to VP , so let's assume that the plane parallel to VP with one of its side say d’c’ on HP. The true shape of pentagon having side 25mm will be seen in the front view with one side on HP. a’b’c'de’ the required pentagon. The top view of the pentagon will be a line. Project the points. Draw the line eb at a distance 15mm from XY below it. /. Shift the top view eb to e1b1 of equal length making at an angle of 45° to VP as shown. Project the final front view a1’b1'c1'd1’e1'as shown. Fig 5.24 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”5.5 PROJECTION OF SOLIDS 5.5.1 INTRODUCTION : A solid has three dimensions, the length, breadth and thickness or height. A solid may be represented by orthographic views, the number of which depends on the type of solid and its orientation with respect to the planes of projection. Solids are classified into two major groups. i. Polyhedral ii. Solids of revolution Polyhedral A polyhedral is defined as a solid bounded by plane surfaces called faces. They are: a. Regular polyhedral b. Prisms c. Pyramids Regular Polyhedral A polyhedron is said to be regular if its surfaces are regular polygons. The following are some of the regular polyhedral. 5.5.2 SOLIDS Prisms : A prism is a polyhedron having two equal ends called the bases parallel to each other. The two bases are joined by faces, which are rectangular in shape. The imaginary line passing through the centers of the bases is called the axis of the prism. ‘A prism is named after the shape of its base. For example, a prism with square base is called a square prism, the one with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism, and so on. The nomenclature of the prism is given in Fig 5.25. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”SOLIDS ‘To understand and remember various solids in this subject properly, those are classified & arranged in to two major groups. Group A Group B i top and base of same shape Solids having base of some shape and just a point as atop, called apex. inder Prisms, TOO Oo Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagor jzular Square —Pentagonal Hexagonal Cube f Tetrahedron (A solid having (Assolid having six square faces) | Four triangular faces) Tetrahedron: It consists of four equal faces, each one being a equilateral triangle. Hexahedron (cube): It consists of six equal faces, each as square. Octahedron: It has eight equal faces, each an equilateral triangle. Dodecahedron: It has twelve regular and equal pentagonal faces. Icosahedrons: It has twenty equal, equilateral triangular faces. Pyramids : A pyramid is a polyhedron having one base, with a number of isosceles triangular faces, meeting at a point called the apex. The imaginary line passing through the centre of the base and the apex is callled the axis of the pyramid. The pyramid is named after the shape of the base. Thus, a square pyramid has a square base and pentagonal pyramid has pentagonal base and so on. The nomenclature of a pyramid is shown in Fig 5.26. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Square Prism Square Pyramid Rectangular Face Longer Edge SOLIDS Dimensional parameters of different solids. Ape Top. 7 Triangular Face Base Cylinder Comer of base ‘Comer of base Z Generators Imaginary lines generating curved surface of evlinder & cone. O04 Sections of solid top & base not parallel) Frustum of cone & pyramids ‘(top & base parallel to each other) Types of Pyramids : There are many types of Pyramids, and they are named after the shape of their base. These are Triangular Pyramid, Square Pyramid, Pentagonal pyramid, hexagonal pyramid and tetrahedron. Solids of Revolution : If a plane surface is revolved about one of its edges, the solid generated is. called a solid of revolution. The examples are (i) Cylinder, (i) Cone, (i) Sphere. Frustums and Truncated Solids : If a cone or pyramid is cut by a section plane parallel to its base and the portion containing the apex or vertex is removed, the remaining portion is called frustum of a cone or pyramid, SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’5.5.3 Draw the projections of a cube of 35mm side, resting on one of its faces (bases) on HP., such that one of its vertical faces is parallel to and 10mm in front of VP. Solution : 1. Draw the top view such that one of its edges is 10mm below XY. 2. Obtain the front view by projection, keeping one of its bases on XY. Fig 5.27 All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 2. A triangular prism with side of base 35mm and axis 50mm long is resting on its base on HP. Draw the projections of the prism when one of its rectangular faces is perpendicular to VP and the nearest ‘edge parallel to VP is 10mm from it. Solution Draw the top view keeping one edge perpendicular to XY and one comer at 10mm from XY. ‘Obtain the front view by projection, keeping the height equal to 50mm. Fig 5.28 All dimensions are in mm —_—_———— SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”Q. No. 3. A pentagonal prism with side of base 30mm and axis 60mm long is resting on its base on HP such that one of its rectangular faces is parallel to VP and 15mm away from it. Draw the projections of the prism. 1, Draw the top view keeping one edge of the base parallel to XY and 15mm away from it. 2. Obtain the front view by projection keeping the height equal to 60mm. All dimensions are in mm SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’Q. No. 4. A cylinder of base 60mm diameter and axis 100 mm long is resting on its base on the HP. The axis of the cylinder is 40mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections of the cylinder. Solution : As the axis of the cylinder perpendicular to H.P, the top view must drawn first and then the front view will be projected from it. Draw a circle of diameter 60mm, representing the top view of the cylinder from a distance of 4mm from the XY. From top view project the front view which is a rectangle of height 100mm, its base coincide with XY as shown. FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW Fig 5.30 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”All dimensions are in mm Q. No. 5. Draw the projection of the right circular cone of base 80mm diameter and height 90mm resting with it's base on H.P. and 50mm in front of V.P. Solution : i. The top view gives the true size of the base, so the top view is draw first. ii, Draw the circle of about 80mm dia in a such a way that its axis is 50 below XY. ii, Project the front view from top view as shown. FRONT VIEW TOP VIEW Fig 5.31 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’All dimensions are in mm Q. No. 6. Draw the projection of a right regular pentagonal pyramid of 30mm base and axis 70mm long is 50mm in front of V.P. The pyramid is resting on the H.P with one edge of the base perpendicular to the vp. Solution : As the pyramid is resting with base on H.P having axis perpendicular to the H.P, draw the top view of the pyramid keeping the axis 50mm in front of V.P. and edge perpendicular to the V.P. Draw the pentagon 12345 of side 30mm. Project the front view having height of the axis 70mm as shown FRONT VIEW Fig 5.32 SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’All dimensions are in mm EXERCISES A line PS 65mm has its end P 15mm above the HP and 15mm in front of the VP. It is inclined at 5° to the HP and 35° to the VP. Draw its projections. A line CD, inclined at 25° to the HP, measures 80mm in top view. The end C is in the first quadrant and 25mm and 15mm fromthe HP and the VP respectively. The end D_ is at equal distance from the both the reference planes. Draw the projections, fine true length and true inclination with the VP. A straight line ST has its end S, 10mm in front of the VP and neater to it. The mid-point M line is 50mm in front of the VP and 40mm above HP. The front and top view measure 90mm and 120mm respectively. Draw the projection of the line. Also find its true length and true inclinations with the HP and VP. . Aline PQ has its end P, 10mm above the HP and 20mm in front of the VP. The end Q is 85mm in front of the VP. The front view of the line measures 75mm. the distance between the end projectors is ‘50mm. Draw the projections of the line and find its true length and its true inclinations with the VP and HP. The plan of straight line PQ 85 mm long measures 70 mm while its elevation measures 55 mm. Its end P is in the HP and 20 mm in front of VP. Draw its projections and find the angle of inclination of the line with HP & VP. . A regular hexagonal plate of side 45mm lies on H.P with one of its side perpendicular to V.P . The plate is lying 25mm in front of V.P and inclined 45° to H.P. Draw the projections of the plate A regular pentagonal lamina ABCDE of 25 mm side has one side on the HP. Its surface is inclined at 45° to the HP and perpendicular to VP. Draw its projections. . A pentagon of sides 30mm rests on the ground on one of its comers with the sides containing the corners being equally inclined to the ground. The side opposite to the comer on which it rests is inclined at 30° to the VP and is parallel to the HP. The surface of the pentagon makes 10° with the ground. Draw the top and front views of the pentagon A regular pentagon of 30mm side is resting on one of its edges on HP which is inclined at 45° to VP. Its ‘surface is inclined at 30° to HP. Draw its projections. |. Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25mm side, having one of its sides in the H.P. and inclined at 60° to the V.P., and its surface making an angle of 45° with H.P. |. A thin circular plate of 40mm diameter having its plane vertical and inclined at 40°. Its center is 30mm above H.P. and 35mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections . A cone of base diameter 40 mm and axis height 60 mm rests on the ground on a point of its base circle such that the axis of the cone is inclined at 40° to the HP and 30° to the VP. Draw its front and top views. SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing”CHAPTER-6 SECTION & DEVELOPMENTS 6.1 SECTIONING & DEVELOPMENT OF SOLID : > An object (solid) is cut by some imaginary cutting plane to understand internal details of that object. The action of cutting is called sectioning a solid & the plane of cutting is called section plane. > The development of surface of an object means the unrolling and unfolding of all surfaces of the object on a plane. If the surface of a solid is laid out on a plain surface, the shape thus obtained is called the development of that solid. 6.1.1. SECTION PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE V.P. AND INCLINED TO THE H.P. Fig 6.1 6.1.2 SECTION PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO THE H.P. AND INCLINED TO THE V.P. : VP = VERTICAL PLANE HP = HORIZONTAL PLANE SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’ILLUSTRATION SHOWING goa ha a) Pere inie SECTIONAL TV. ‘OP VIEW, FV=FRONT VIEW) Fig 6.3 ‘Typical Section Planes & Typical Shapes of Sections. = Section Plane angle ‘Through Apex & \ & BD Section Plane Parallel Section Plane ‘Hyperbola to end generator. Parallel to Axis. Ellipse 7 Trapezium =< &\ eee Cylinder through ‘Sq. Pyramid through generators. all slant edges SCTES&VT Learning Materials “Engineering Drawing’