LEADSTAR CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

Department of Leadership
BA Degree

Basic Writing Skills

Course Code: Enla 1002

July, 2026
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Basic Writing Skills (Enla 202)

Unit One: Effective Sentences Writing

1. Introduction to Sentence and Its’ Structure

1.1. Sentence Definition

It is probably impossible to define a sentence to everyone‟s satisfaction. However, on the simplest
level it may be described as a word or group of words, when they are written down, begin with a
capital letter and end with a full stop, question mark or exclamation point and make sense,
expressing an idea or perception or feeling clear enough to stand alone. Every complete sentence
has a subject and a predicate as well conveys a complete thought or meaning on their own. It
always tells who or what and what is or what happened.

For example:
 The man is going for a walk.
 The dog suddenly started barking at the guests.
 She laughed.
 Wait!

Note: A complete sentence fundamentally contains three constituents:

A. Subject (either explicitly or implicitly)
B. Predicate (or in other spoken „‟)
C. A complete thought or meaning

A subject is a thing or person that is being discussed, described or dealt with in the sentence.
A predicate is a part of a sentence containing a verb that makes a statement about the subject of the
verb.

Note: Each parts of a sentence and the way in which we put these parts together makes the
sentence pattern.

1.2. Sentence Classifications

All sentences fall into four categories mainly based on their structure or function.

1.2.1. Types of sentences based on their structure

Structurally, sentences are grouped into Simple, Compound, Complex and Compound-Complex.
Each of these is determined by the kind and number of clauses it contains.

Note: A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb and forms a sentence or a part
of a sentence. Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. A clause can be either independent or

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dependent. Independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb, thereby
conveys a complete thought or meaning on its own; whereas dependent clause is a group of words
that contains a subject and a verb, but cannot convey a complete thought or meaning alone by itself.

Most dependent clauses usually start their clause with subordinate conjunctions, such as: when,
while, who, whom, whose, which, how, what, where, whenever, wherever, whether, that, since,
because, after, before, until, just, if, as if, as soon as, although, though, even though, and etc.

Look at the following examples of independent and dependent clauses:

 Because pollution causes cancer

 Ecology is a science.
 The sun rose.
 When the sun rose.

A. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence contains one clause; i.e. an independent clause. It is usually comprised of one
subject and one verb, but it may have compound subject or a compound verb, or both. A simple
sentence can be as short as one word; however, it should be noted that simple sentences are not
short in their length or easy to understand.

Check out the following examples, they are all simple sentences:
 Kids love to watch television.
 Does this seem a normal activity?
 I like simple sentences.
 Many international students experience cultural shock.
 Many international students and postdoctoral fellows experience cultural shock and leave
back to their native country.(compound subject and compound verb)
 Being an English teacher with a penchant for syntactical complexity, I like simple sentences.
(It is longer, more challenging and contains bigger words, but it is still a simple sentence.)
 Being an English teacher with a penchant for syntactical complexity, I love to read simple
sentences upon getting up and before going to bed. (Amazingly, it is still a simple sentence;
the sentence still contains only one independent clause and chunks of phrases one after the
other.)

Note: In written work, simple sentences can be very effective for grabbing a reader‟s attention or
for summing up an argument; however you need to use transitional phrases to connect them to the
surrounding sentences.

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 B. Compound sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses connected or joined by
connectors. The connectors can be coordinating conjunction or conjunctive adverbs with
proper use of punctuation marks or using semicolon alone.

Coordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join two independent clauses, which are set
off by a comma. These are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (FANBOYS)
Independent clause 1, coord. conj Independent clause 2.

Conjunctive Adverbs are discourse markers that also join two independent clauses, but with a
semicolon. They can occur in three positions in a sentence: initial, middle, and final position. Good
writers use the position of discourse markers to give particular emphasis to the element that
immediately precedes the connector. However, the punctuation is different, depending on the
position of the connector.

Some of the conjunctive adverbs are: thus, as a result, hence, in contrast, on the other hand,
instead, rather, furthermore, besides, as a matter of fact, likewise, moreover, in addition,
however, therefore, and etc.

Initial position: the connector is positioned at the beginning of the second clause.
Independent clause 1; connector, Independent clause 2.
Middle position: the connector is positioned in the middle of the second clause, usually between
subject and verb. In this case, the subject is emphasized and contrasted.
Independent clause 1; S ,connector, V + C
Final position: the connector is positioned at the end of the second clause.
Independent clause 1; S + V + C ,connector.

We can also use semicolon [;] alone to construct compound sentence.

Consider the following examples:

 Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater, so food cooks faster in salt water.
 Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater; therefore, food cooks faster in salt
water.
 Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater; food cooks faster in salt water.

Note: A compound sentence is most effective when we use it to create a sense of balance or
contrast between two (or more) equally important pieces of information.

C. Complex sentence

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A complex sentence is composed of one or more dependent clause(s) combined with an
independent clause. Unlike a compound sentence, in a complex sentence, one idea is generally more
important than the other. We place the more important idea in the independent clause and the less
important idea in the dependent clause. There are two patterns for positioning the dependent clause
and consequently, two patterns of punctuation.

Independent clause SUB Dependent clause or, SUB + dependent clause, Independent
clause.

There are Three Types of Dependent Clauses:

1. Complex Sentences with Adverb Clauses

An adverb clause acts like an adverb; that is, it tells where, when, why, and how. An adverb clause
begins with a subordinator, such as when, while, after, before, since, because, although, though,
if, so, or that. It can come before or after an independent clause.

E.g. Although women in the United States could own property, they could not vote until 1920.

2. Complex Sentences with Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause describes a noun or pronoun. An adjective clause begins with a relative
pronoun, such as who, whom, which, whose, or that, or with a relative adverb, such as where or
when. It follows the noun or pronoun it describes

E.g. Men who are not married are called bachelors.

3. Complex Sentences with Noun Clauses

A noun clause begins with a wh- question word, that, whether, and sometimes if. A noun clause
acts like a noun; it can be either the subject or an object of the independent clause.

E.g. That there is a hole in the ozone layer of Earth's atmosphere~ is well known.

Note: when a complex sentence begins with a subordinator a comma is required at the end of the
dependent clause.

D. Compound-complex sentence
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses, i.e. a compound
sentence, and one or more dependent clause(s).

Ex. After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to work immediately.

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Activity 1: Identify the types of the following sentences.
1. Being an English teacher with a penchant for syntactical complexity, I love simple
sentences.
2. I love conjunctive adverbs; my students love each other, and we all love holidays.
3. I can name several conjunctive adverbs; consequently, my friends are impressed.
4. Because life is complex, we need complex sentences.
5. Because I am an English teacher, some people expect me to speak perfectly, and other
people expect me to write perfectly
6. Because people know that I am an English teacher, they make allowances for how I dress
and what I say.
7. Although it started to rain, we decided to continue our walk.
8. There were books on the floor, under the table and all about the room.
9. She was going to school full-time, and hoped to graduate in June.
10. Transportation came to a stop as the steadily falling snow accumulated faster.
11. Marta and Behailu and I stayed up until four in the morning.
12. Unless conditions change for her, she will spend the rest of her life working for minimum
wage in a dusty mill; there are thousands of women like her.
13. She wanted to go, but her child was sick.
14. Yonas is smart; he will go far.
15. As soon as Dula started a coin collection, his brother bought a car.
16. Nature is her passion in life, and colleagues say that she is a skilled naturalist.

Activity 2: This time, be more creative. Write four sentences (one simple, one compound, one
complex and one compound-complex), and compare your sentences in small groups.

1.2.2. Types of sentences based on their function

Each sentence we write serves a particular purpose or function. The English language has four
kinds of sentences in terms of their functions: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and
exclamatory.

A. Declarative Sentence:
Declarative sentences are sentences with the subject are present and generally precede the verb.
They are typically used to make a statement or to declare/state a fact arrangement or opinion; it
gives information, expresses/describes ideas, things, events, persons or places. A speaker uses a
statement to assert or deny a proposition, i.e. a claim that can at least in principle, be determined to
be either true or false. It starts with a capital letter and ends with a period or a full stop.

Example: The house will be built on a hill.

Exams are considered an obstacle by many students.
We learn one modular course in a month.
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 B. Imperative Sentence:
Imperative sentences normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb has the base
form. Imperative sentences express command or makes request/order to do something and ends
with either a period or exclamation point. The imperative takes no subject, as „YOU‟ is the implied
subject.
Example: Give me a digital watch for my birthday.
Samuel, come and turn the TV on.
Please replay the music.

C. Interrogative Sentence:
Interrogative sentences are sentences which are formally marked in one of two ways, giving a
command or making a request to do something:
[I] yes-no interrogative: the operator is placed in front of the subject:
Did Pauline give tom a digital watch for his birthday?
[II] wh-interrogatives: the interrogative wh-element is positioned initially:
What did Pauline give tom for his birthday?

Example: Is your computer working?

Do you understand that I am upset?
What are you up to?

D. Exclamatory Sentence:
Exclamatory sentences have an initial phrase introduced by „what‟ or „how‟, usually with subject-
verb order. They are used to express excitement or strong feeling, emotion, or admiration and ends
with an exclamation mark.
Example: What a fine watch he received for his birthday!
What an interesting match!
Look, the house is on fire!
Marvelous!

Note: declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentences can be made into exclamatory sentences
by simply punctuating them with an exclamation mark.

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1.3. Common Sentence Skill Errors
Using the right word at the right place and using the right punctuation mark is the secret of a perfect
sentence. The effectiveness of your expression depends upon how you put words together,
successfully.

1.3.1. Sentence Fragments

One of the most common mistakes in writing is the use of incomplete sentences; lacking the
essential constituents that form a complete sentence. A sentence must have a subject, verb and
must express a complete thought. A word group that lacks a subject or a verb or that does not
express a complete thought is a fragment.

A sentence fragment is thus a string of words or a portion of a sentence that has been punctuated
as a sentence but is not valid sentence and makes incomplete communication. In written language a
missing of subject or predicate in a sentence leaves the sentence incomplete.

Rule-of-thumb: Anything between two full stops (i.e. a sentence) should sound complete in itself.

A sentence fragment can be, therefore, explained as a group of words that:

A. Lacks a subject,
B. Lacks a verb, or;
C. Is a dependent clause not joined with a complete sentence?

There are several reasons why a group of words seem to act like a complete sentence while they are
sentence fragments. The following are the main ways in which sentence fragments creep into
writing.

I. Locating something in time and place with a prepositional phrase or a series of phrases, but
lacking a proper subject-verb relationship with an independent clause.
Example: in Ethiopia, just before the fall of Derg. (Here, there is no subject and verb)
II. When describing something by starting with participle phrases normally ending in “-ing” or
“-ed” which have no subject-verb relationship or not followed by an independent clause.
Participle phrases require an independent clause so that they make sense.
Example: working far into the night in an effort to raise her children.
motivated by her good grades…..
III. Sentences having an “-ing” verb, still missing an important part of a verb string (a helper as a
main verb.
Example: some of the students working in IT laboratory. (it misses auxiliary verb.)
IV. Is a dependent clause; begins with subordinate conjunctions or pronouns: cannot stand alone
with a complete meaning.

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 V. Sentences containing added-details, such as: (also, especially, except, for example, including,
such as, for instance, that is…), which are separated from the main sentence.
Example: I like to improve my English skills. Specially, speaking and writing skills.

Questions to be asked to spot ‘fragments’:

 Is there a subject? To find the subject, one has to ask “who, or what” is performing the
action of the sentence.
 Is there a verb? To find the „verb,‟ look for a work that conveys what is happening, what
has happened, or what will happen.
 Is the clause independent or merely a dependent (subordinate) clause or a phrase?

Methods of correcting sentence fragments:

1. Add a subject and/or a verb to the fragment to make it a complete sentence.
2. Attach or join the fragment to a nearby sentence that comes before or after it.
3. Add a helping verb in the appropriate tense.
4. Omit and change words as necessary to make the fragment part of the preceding or
following sentence.
5. Re-write it using a finite verb or turn the fragment into a complete sentence.

Activity 3: The following paragraphs contain sentence fragments. Find the sentence fragments, and
correct them using the aforementioned methods.

Text One:
After I had gotten up. I ate my breakfast. While I was eating breakfast. I heard a squeaking sound at my
door. It was a little dog that was crying. I wept. It was really cute. That I picked the dog up and took it
inside in order to give it a big bowl of warm milk and a soft blanket. I took the day off so that I could take
him to the veterinarian. The vet told me he was fine. Because I had given him what he needed: milk and a
warm blanket. He still needed a home. I asked all my friends to take him. They wanted the little guy.
However, they couldn't keep pets in their apartments. By the time we got home. Now, he is my pet and
friend.

Text Two:
The study of French requires patience. Because the grammar rules are different from those of the English
language. This should not discourage you from learning a new language. It important to be able to
communicate with people from other countries. In fact, in Canada it is doubly important to learn French. So
you will be better able to communicate with your fellow citizens. Which include getting a job and being able
to travel. For these reasons encourage you to accept the challenge and learn French.

Text Three:
I prefer living in smaller communities. While they may not offer all the services of larger cities. They are
advantageous in many ways. Less pollution, less noise and fewer people. Knowing your neighbours is
another advantage. Being part of a community. Having a feeling of belonging is rare in high-rise

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apartments. Because they are overcrowded and poorly designed. Perhaps living away from the city means
fewer choices for entertainment, shopping and excitement, but means more time for family and friends.

1.3.2. Run-on Sentences and comma splice

A run-on sentence is an error in which two complete thoughts/ independent clauses/ simple
sentences are fused or merged together within the same sentence without proper punctuation or
appropriate connector. Some run-ons have no punctuation at all to mark off the break between the
two thoughts. Most run-ons, however, occur as a comma splice, i.e. the writer inserts a comma
between the two independent thoughts (the coordinating conjunction is missing).

This error usually occurs when the writer fails to use a period or other appropriate end mark at the
end of each sentence.

Compare the following run-on sentences:

 My friend will visit me this weekend I probably will not have much time to work. (Run-on, Fused)
 My friend will visit me this weekend, I probably will not have much time to work. (comma-splice)

 I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor I get in trouble. (Run-on, Fused)
 I leave muddy paw prints on the kitchen floor, I get in trouble. (comma-splice)

Note that neither of the above sentences is correct. Each is a run-on as it is made of two complete
thoughts joined incorrectly. The first runs two main/ independent clauses together without any
punctuation, while the second joins the same clauses together only with a comma placed where
other appropriate marks should be used. The first is a fused sentence whereas the second is a
comma splice.

We may use five basic ways of correcting a run-on sentence or a comma-splice:

1. Using period and capital letter

Create two separate sentences. End the first thought with a period and begin the next with a capital
letter.
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend. I probably will not have much time to work.

2. Using semicolon
Determine the independent clauses. Separate those two or more independent clauses with a
semicolon.
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend; I probably will not have much time to work.

3. Using comma and coordinating conjunctions

Join the two thoughts by using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, but, for, nor, so,
or yet.)
Example: My friend will visit me this weekend, so I probably will not have much time to work.
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 4. Using subordinate clauses
Subordinate one thought to the other. To do this, make one thought into a dependent clause by
adding a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun.
Example: Since my friend will visit me this weekend, I probably will not have much time to work.

5. Using conjunctive adverb

Determine the independent clauses. If there are only two independent clauses, separate them with a
semicolon, conjunctive adverb, and comma. Conjunctive adverbs are however, consequently,
therefore, hence, thus, as a result, etc.
Example: my friend will visit me this weekend; however, I probably will not have much time to
work.

Activity 4: In the following exercise, you will be presented with a series of sentences. Circle
the numbers of run-on/fused sentences.

1. Greece is a fantastic country it has lovely people and great food.

2. Despite a long flight, arriving in Addis Ababa is always a good feeling.
3. There is nothing better for a cold than a hot whisky and a big box of chocolates.
4. The chest contained large amounts of gold, rubies, sapphires and other precious stones.
5. She ran out of the room the shadows in the corner had scared her.
6. Bikila rushed to his mate's house there was cold beer in the fridge.
7. Thomas loves jelly strawberry is his favorite flavor.
8. The meal was a huge success despite his lack of skill in the kitchen.
9. I really enjoyed the smoked kippers that he had prepared the night before.
10. Thomas prefers a nice pint of bitter, but sometimes he likes a lager on warm days.

Activity 5: Each of the following is run-on/fused sentences. From the group of three sentences
that follows, select the correct form of the run-on/fused sentence.

1. Our solar system has nine major planets only one is known to have intelligent life.
A. Our solar system has nine major planets, only one is known to have intelligent life.
B. Our solar system has nine major planets only one, is known to have intelligent life.
C. Our solar system has nine major planets; only one is known to have intelligent life.
2. Most asteroids are small and far away therefore they are dim and hard to see.
A. Most asteroids are small and far away, therefore they are dim and hard to see.
B. Most asteroids are small and far away therefore, they are dim and hard to see.
C. Most asteroids are small and far away; therefore, they are dim and hard to see.
3. Please check the position of that star cluster I can't find it.
A. Please check the position of that star cluster; I can't find it.
B. Please check the position of that star cluster, I can't find it.
C. Please check the position, of that star cluster, I can't find it.
4. Watch the sky closely for several minutes you are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over.
A. Watch the sky closely for several minutes; you are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over.

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 B. Watch the sky closely for several minutes, you are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over.
C. If you watch the sky closely for several minutes. You are likely to see an artificial satellite pass over.
5. Some club members were late for the meeting for example, Taye and Solomon came in at 9:30.
A. Some club members were late for the meeting, for example Taye and Solomon came in at 9:30.
B. Some club members were late for the meeting, for example, Taye and Solomon came in at 9:30.
C. Some club members were late for the meeting; for example, Taye and Solomon came in at 9:30.

Activity 6: Correct any comma splices using appropriate punctuation mark and discourse
markers. Not all the examples contain comma splices.
1. I always wanted an electric train, however, I didn‟t get one until I was forty.
2. Kibret, our mailman, broke his leg in three places.
3. We should go on a picnic this Saturday, I know the perfect place.
4. I‟ll light the fire, and you put the kettle on for tea.
5. Before he left for vacation, Mohammed sold his comic book collection to Universal Book Shop.
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6. The weatherman predicted heavy thunderstorms for the April 20 weekend; nevertheless, we decided to
drive our motorcycles down to Hawassa.
7. I wrote letters all afternoon, but I didn‟t even get started on my homework.
8. I have quit drinking coffee, tea and soda, when I eat out, I always ask for water.
9. She wrote him a letter, he answered it in person.
10. Man can easily destroy a wilderness, he cannot make one.

Activity 7: Read the following sentences. Correct them when they are wrong.
1. At this time the mob was desperate, it would do anything.
2. At this point nothing seemed to matter to the cancer patients, all they wanted to do was die.
3. Many people might disagree with the President‟s beliefs, therefore the Congress acts as a safeguard of
people‟s liberty.
4. Hana saved money for a year, however she still could not buy a car.
5. Jemal jogged every day, he lost weight.

1.3.3. Errors of Sentence Modifiers

Note: word(s), phrases and clauses that describe other words are called modifiers. This part focuses
on two types of errors related with the use of modifiers in a sentence: misplaced modifiers and
dangling modifiers.

A. Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is simply a word, a phrase, or a clause that is placed in a wrong location and
does not describe the word the writer intended it to describe, i.e. the modifier is not close or near
enough to the word or phrase it is meant to modify. Misplaced modifiers often confuse the meaning
of the sentence.

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Rule-of-thumb: Modifiers must be placed either immediately before or after the word or words it
modifies, i.e. as close as possible to what they describe.

A single adjective, for instance is usually placed just before the word it modifies. An adjective
phrase or clause follows immediately after the word it modifies. Many adverb modifiers can be
moved from one place in a sentence to another without a change of meaning. Occasionally,
however, moving an adverb produces unexpected effects.

Consider the following sentences:

Misplaced: I saw a dress in a magazine that cost 120$. [Did the magazine or the dress cost 120$?]
Correct: I saw a dress that cost 120$ in a magazine. Or. In a magazine, I saw a dress that cost 120$.

Misplaced: Angry with the delay the referee finally arrived and the crowd booed.
Correct: Angry with the delay, the crowd booed and the referee finally arrived.

Kinds of Misplaced Modifiers:

i. Misplaced adjectives
These are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost always distort the intended
meaning.
Misplaced adjective: The child ate a cold dish of cereal for breakfast this morning.
Correct: The child ate a dish of cold cereal for breakfast this morning.
ii. Placement of adverbs
This can also change the meaning in sentences.
Example: Just Kasa was picked to host the program. (Only Kasa was picked, no one else.)
Kasa was just picked to host the program. (Kasa was picked now.)
Kasa was picked to host just the program. (Kasa hosted only the program, nothing else.)
Each of these sentences says something logical, but quite different, and its correctness depends
upon what the writer has in mind.
iii. Misplaced phrases
These may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make sense.
To fix such problem, we put the phrases next to the word they are supposed to modify.
Misplaced phrase: They saw a fence behind the house made of barbed wire.
Correct: They saw a fence made of barbed wire behind the house.
iv. Misplaced clauses (noun clauses, adjectival clauses, adverbial clause)

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These may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that does not make a
sense. To fix errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are supposed to
modify.
Misplaced clause: The waiter served a dinner to the woman that was well buttered.
Correct: The waiter served a dinner to the woman that was well buttered.

Caution! In correcting a misplaced modifier, don‟t create a sentence with two possible meanings.
Example: The teacher said on Monday she will return our essay.
 The teacher said she will return our essay on Monday. (The essay will be returned on
Monday.)
 On Monday the teacher said she will return our essay. (The teacher spoke on Monday.)

The position of limiting modifiers also gives different meaning: look at these pair of
sentences:-
 The customers only looked at two samples.
 The customers looked only at two samples.

 I almost failed every English course I took.

 I failed almost every English course I took.

 I only ate vegetables.

 I ate only vegetables.

“Sara hit her husband in his eye”

 Only Sara hit her husband in his eye.
 Sara only hit her husband in his eye.
 Sara hit only her husband in his eye.
 Sara hit her only husband in his eye.
 Sara hit her husband only in his eye.
 Sara hit her husband in his only eye.
 Sara hit her husband in his eye only.

How to avoid and correct misplaced modifiers:

Here are some tips to help you avoid misplacing your modifiers:
 Check to see if your modifiers are close to the subject or the verb they are referring to.
 Be careful with the placement of limiting modifiers (“almost,” “even,” “hardly,” “just,”
“merely,” “nearly,” “scarcely,” “only,” and “simply”). These modifiers must be placed right
before the words they modify.

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  Watch out for modifiers that end in –ing or in –ed. Also watch out for these modifiers when
they are used with words like „in‟ „by‟ „when‟ or „while‟

Then, follow these suggested steps when revising a misplaced modifier:

A. Determine who or what is being described in the modifying phrase.
B. Make sure that there is a word in the sentence to serve as the subject for the modifier.
C. Place the modifier next to the word or phrase that it describes.

Rule-of-thumb: To avoid misplaced modifiers in general, be sure to place the modifier immediately
before or after the word or words it modifies.

Activity 8: Rewrite the following sentences by correcting the misplaced modifier

 The book was checked out by a student that mark had taken two months to return
 Angry with the delay the referee finally arrived and the crowd booed.
 A national problem, the governors of all the states met to discuss homelessness.
 Zwedie proudly turned in his research paper that had taken two months to complete.
 Sara kept a list of all the countries she had visited in her files.
 I prefer always to study from nine to twelve in the morning.
 The operation was halted before much harm was done by Mr. X.
 One should do whatever is commanded by one‟s parents immediately.
 Jossy almost went into the heart of the city.
 Betty took one course on pathology at Jimma University.

B. Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that modifies something which is not mentioned in the
sentence, i.e. the word that was intended to be modified by the modifier is missing from the
sentence. A modifier is usually considered to be dangling when the modifier opens a sentence is not
followed immediately by the word it modifies.

Note: Dangling modifiers often involve introductory modifying clauses and phrases – those that
come at the beginning of a sentence, before the main independent clause. Dangling often has
a word formed from a verb, ending in “-ing” (present participle) or past “-ed”/”-en”
participles or “to + verb” phrase near the start of the sentence which relate to a Noun
(subject) that is not mentioned.

So, to avoid dangling modifiers, make sure that each modifier has a clear antecedent (a word or
phrase it refers).

Consider the following examples:

Dangling: While driving on the main street yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward Jim‟s
car. (It sounds like the tree was driving!)

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Correct: While Jim was driving on the main street yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward
her car.
Dangling: Flood damage was visible crossing the river. (The modifier makes it sound as though the
flood damage was crossing the river.)
Correct: Flood damage was visible as we cross the river.
Dangling: walking to the movies, the cloudburst drenched Tola.
Correct: Walking to the movies, Tola was drenched by the cloudburst.
Dangling: Taking the exam, the room was so stuffy that Paula almost fainted. (Who took the exam?
The answer is not „the room‟ but Paula. The subject Paula must be added.)
Correct: Taking the exam, Paula found the room so stuffy that she almost fainted.
Note: A dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply moving it to a different place in the
sentence.

Strategies for revising or correcting dangling modifiers:

1. Add a logical word (person, concept, idea) that the modifier clearly describes. Name the
appropriate or logical doer of the action as the subject of the main clause. Place the subject
just after the participial phrase modifier, and rearrange other parts of the sentence as
necessary.
Dangling: While watching television the cake burned.
Correct: While watching the television, Sarah burned the cake.
2. Change the phrase that dangles into a complete introductory clause or a subordinate clause
by naming the doer of the action in that clause and use the correct tense.
Dangling: While watching television the cake burned.
Correct: While Sarah was watching television, the cake burned.
3. Combine the phrase and the main clause into one.
Correct: The cake burned, for I was watching television.

Activity 9: Correct the following sentences with dangling modifiers.

 Having finished the assignment, the TV set was turned on.
 After reading the original study, the article remains unconvincing.
 Relieved of your responsibilities at your job, your home should be a place to relax.
 The experiment was a failure, having not studied the lab manual.
 Walking across the window, I saw a fly.
 A big dog followed the old man that was barking loudly
 Turning the corner, a large school building appeared.
 At the age of eight, my family finally bought a dog.
 Reaching the station, the sun came out.
 After checking the map for directions, the trip was resumed.
 While at the museum, the president passed by.
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  Closing the door, darkness set immediately.

Activity 10: Rewrite the following sentences to repair any dangling modifiers.
1. Writing carefully, the essay was finished in time to hand in.
2. My flesh felt creepy after seeing a monster movie.
3. At the age of four, my grandmother taught me to knit.
4. To do well in college, good grades are essential.
5. Crowded in the car, the trip was uncomfortable.
6. While still a student, a job offer was received.
7. After doing calculus problems for hours, John's foot went to sleep.
8. Driving over the hill, the ocean came into view.
9. Confused by complicated wording, the contract made no sense.
10. After clearing his throat, his voice sounded much better to me.

Activity 11: All these sentences have at least one dangling modifier. Identify them and fix them.
1. Please go down to the main office and laying on the desk you will find a copy of laboratory's
financial records.
2. After having been run through the computer, the researcher used the figures for his report.
3. By using lab animals in medical testing, it can only hinder long-term development of new strategies.
4. Though only sixteen years old, the college accepted Martha's application.
5. Before replacing any wall outlet, the electricity should be turned off.
6. Vegetables are an important part of your cooking list. To be cooked well, you must steam
vegetables.
7. I have many fond memories of my Aunt Jitu. While still a boy, my Aunt Jitu and I went to the Dilla.
8. Dentists provide many useful tips for your health. For instance, flossing your teeth daily, gum
disease can be prevented.

Activity 12: The following sentences contain either misplaced or dangling modifiers. Rewrite the
sentences to correct the problems.

1. I found a hawk's nest near the river in a tree.

2. A man and his dog ran around the building with a red leather collar.
3. I heard that our school needs additional instructors on the television news.
4. After dancing alone on stage, the audience applauded Hanna's performance.
5. While taking a nap, the volcano erupted.
6. The new student will take the corner seat wearing the muscle shirt.
7. While standing in line, the thunder could be heard.
8. Kidist donated a television to the Youth Center that she no longer used.

1.3.4. Agreement Errors

This part focuses on two types of agreement errors: errors in Subject-Verb Agreement and errors
in Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement.

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 A. Errors in Subject-Verb Agreement
Subject-verb agreement refers to a situation in which the subject (the person or thing that does
the action or is being discussed) agrees with the verb (the part of a sentence that shows action or
state). In writing, the subject must agree in number with its verb so that the sentence flows well. A
singular subject thus agrees with a singular verb, while a plural subject calls for a plural verb.
Agreement between the subject and the verb in a sentence is essential because it is through this
agreement that the sentence effectively communicates the intended meaning.

Errors in subject-verb agreement can occur due to the following reasons:

I. Inclusion of words between the subject and the verb: Errors in subject-verb agreement can
occur because of the words used between subjects and verbs, especially, prepositional phrases.
But these words and phrases do not affect the agreement between the subject and its verb. In
such cases, be sure that you distinguish the person or thing that is doing the action or that is
being discussed. Let‟s look at the examples given below:
 The tire under the tools is flat. (Tire - the thing being discussed agrees with the singular
verb is.)
 One of the sixty students was studying in class. (One - the person performing the action
agrees with the singular verb was.)
 The nine delegate members, along with the Prime Minister, are on picnic. (The plural
subject „nine delegate members‟ agrees with the plural verb are.)
 The Prime Minister, together with nine delegate members, has left for Russia. (The singular
subject „the Prime Minister‟ agrees with the singular verb has.)
II. Indefinite pronouns: Another cause of subject-verb agreement errors involves indefinite
pronouns (e.g. somebody, something) used to refer to general people or things rather than
specific ones. Some indefinite pronouns are singular, some are plural, but some can serve as
either singular or plural depending on their context of use. The following table summarizes
indefinite pronouns, and illustrates their use with examples:

Singular Plural Singular or Plural

another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, both all most
neither, everybody, everyone, everything, few any none
much, either, nobody, no one, nothing, one, many more some
someone, somebody, something several
E.g. 1) All her interest has given way.
E.g. Nobody wants to be ridiculed. E.g. Both of the teachers 2) All their properties were destroyed.
look smart.

Note: With the pronoun in the third category, use the singular form of the verb if they refer to a
singular word, and a plural verb if they stand for a plural word; one can indicate these
indefinite pronouns by looking at the prepositional phrase that follows.

III. Compound subjects: Some subjects are compound, i.e. more than one word usually joined by
‘and’, or ‘or’. The following situations are observed regarding compound subjects:
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  Compound subjects connected by „and‟ are plural. The exceptions are subjects that are
thought as a unit (e.g. pork and beans, peanut butter and jelly, ham and eggs, rock and
roll, red beans and rice, etc.).
Examples:
a.) A woman and a small boy were the only survivors of the accident.
b.) College deans and department heads work in harmony.
c.) Red beans and rice is my mom‟s favorite dish.

Note: if „each‟ or „every‟ comes before a compound subject that is joined by „and‟ each subject is
being considered separately. As a result, the verb is singular.

 When two subjects are joined by or, nor, neither/nor, either/or, and not only/but also to
form a compound subject, the verb agrees with the subject that is nearer to it. That means
the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb. Whether the subject comes
before or after the verb doesn‟t matter; the proximity determines the number.

If two singular subjects are connected by „or‟, the singular form of the verb is used.
Example: My wife or the eldest daughter takes care of the guests.

If two plural subjects are joined by „or‟, we use the plural form of the verb.
Example: The ministers or their wives are expected to address the problem.

If „or‟ connects one singular word and one plural word, the verb agrees with the subject
closest to it.
Example: The boss or the subordinates are responsible for the decrease in the quality of
service provision.
The subordinates or the boss is responsible for the decrease in the quality of service
provision.

 Phrases such as “together with”, “as well as”, and “along with” are not the same as and.
They take a singular verb.
Example: Bread together with honey tastes delicious.

 When gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence they take the singular verb form of the
verb, but when they are linked by and they take the plural form.
Example: Standing in the water was a bad idea. Swimming in the ocean and playing drums
are my hobbies.
 When a sentence asks a question or begins with the words “there” and “here,” the subject
will always be placed after the verb, so it needs care to identify the correct use of the verb.
The words there and here are never subjects. With these constructions, the subject follows
the verb but still determines the number of the verb.
Example: Incorrect: There is four gas stations on the main street.
Correct: There are four gas stations on the main street.

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IV. Collective nouns: Collective nouns are words that name groups of objects or people. These
nouns include: audience, class, committee, faculty, flock, herd, jury, swarm, army, club, crowd,
team, etc. Collective nouns agree with singular verbs when they are thought as a unit (the group
acts together as single unit) and with plural verbs when we wish to refer to the members within
the group (the group act separately, as individuals).
Examples:
a.) Manchester United is winning. (Manchester United taken as a unit)
b.) Manchester United are winning. (The writer/speaker imagining the members within the
team)

V. Singular words ending in –s: Some words that end in –s may look plural, but they are in
essence singular, and agree with singular verbs. Words such as economics, ethics, mathematics,
measles, mumps, news, physics and politics fall under this category.
Example: Physics is an amazing science.

VI. Words referring to measurement: Nouns that refer to measurement, money, time and weight
can also cause subject-verb agreement problems. These words, although they look plural, are
singular since they refer to the entire amount as a unit. Therefore, they are obviously followed
by singular verb forms.
Example: A hundred dollars is less than the amount needed.

VII. Relative Pronouns: When a relative pronoun is used as subject of the verb in the relative
clause, the number of the verb depends upon the number of the pronoun‟s antecedent. If the
antecedent is plural, the relative pronoun is plural. If the antecedent is singular, the relative
pronoun is singular.
Example: Malaria, which is a serious problem, is common in lowland areas.
Babies who contact AIDS are likely to die.

Note 1: Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects have s-ending.
Note 2: Use singular verb with “the number of”; a plural verb with “a number of”. If an adjective
is preceded by the expression “one of” then the verb in the clause is usually plural; and
singular when it is preceded by the expression “the only one of”.

Example: Kedir is one of those boys who are always happy

Elsi is the only one of the girls who has a lab top.

Activity 13: The following passage contains various kinds of errors in subject-verb agreement.
Cross-out the incorrect verbs and substitute them with correct ones.

(1)There is many choices available for the person looking for a laptop computer. (2) Thanks to price cuts by
most major manufacturers, anybody wanting the option of a portable computer now have that possibility. (3)
This new class of laptops appear to consist of the first portables with broad computer appeal.

19
(4) Attractive laptop computers with huge amounts of memory mow costs far less than ever before. (5) Only a
few years ago, $3,000 were considered a bargain-basement price for a basic portable computer. (6) Right now,
a laptop with ten times as much memory and many more built-in features, including wireless capability, run
under $2,000.

(7) In the past two years alone, there has been improvements almost beyond belief. (8) Today, for example, five
pounds are considered heavy for these powerhouse portables. (9) A tiny keyboard or awkward pointer was a
negative feature of many of the older portable computers. (10) Today, however, everybody trying the new
generation of laptops give positive marks to these features.

(8) Either a brighter active-matrix color screen or the many built-in features is also cited by consumers as
factors that cause them to consider purchasing a laptop. (12) In addition, there have been great interest in the
DVD driven and extended-life batteries available to consumers. (13) All these features has been applauded by
prospective buyers.

(14) According to consumer responses, here are the most popular improvement: speed. (15) Everyone trying
these new laptops remark on this improvement, especially with complex tasks. (16) Many of these laptops
features the newest generation of Pentium chips. (17) Now, some of the most complex functions takes only a few
seconds.

(18) Does manufacturers expect these innovations in laptops to lead most people to abandon their desktop
computers? (19) Nobody seem to know for sure. (20) But with prices for portable computers so slow, a real
choice between desktop computers and this new generation of laptops exist for the first time.

B. Errors in Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

Pronouns are words that substitute for nouns. Pronouns help writers to use brief and easy
alternatives for nouns and to avoid repeating the nouns here and there. However, a danger is
encountered when there is a mismatch between pronouns and the nouns they represent. One
problem in sentence construction occurs when pronouns do not agree with their antecedents, i.e. the
words they refer to. Pronouns should agree in number, gender and case with their antecedents (a
word or phrase to which a pronoun refers). Otherwise, there occurs an error known as error in
pronoun-antecedent agreement. The antecedent often comes before the pronoun in sentences.

Consider the following sentences:

Example: The government workers (the antecedent) received their (pronoun) paybacks.
Jane (the antecedent) thought she (pronoun) saw the missing boy (the antecedent)
and reported him (pronoun) to the police.

A pronoun must match the number of its antecedent with the coupling of “either-or” and “neither-
nor”, both the verb and the pronoun agree with the noun or pronoun following or and nor.
Example: Either the people or the judge is wrong in his opinion.
20
 Either the judge or the people are wrong in his opinion.

Look at the following sentences:

1.) Mrs. Alona promised to devote some of their time to counsel female students.
2.) Mrs. Alona promised to devote some of his time to counsel female students.
3.) Mrs. Alona promised to devote some of her time to counsel female students.

Q. Which of the above sentences (1, 2 or 3) contains correct pronoun-antecedent agreement? Why?

Activity 14: Choose the correct pronoun from the ones given in parenthesis.
1. The boy lost (her, his, its) school bag.
2. Senior students in the School of Law volunteered to devote (their, his, her) time to provide
legal support to those who need it.
3. I feel that you and I are ready to contribute a portion of (their, our, his) wages to the cause.
4. Last week, the senate held (its, their, our) regular meeting.
5. The student union elected (their, its, whose) president yesterday.
6. Few of the workers have collected (their, his, her) monthly wages.
7. The man (whose, who, whom, him) boy was shown on TV yesterday is a university
chancellor.
8. Anybody can improve (his, her, their) life through hard work.

Activity 15: Identify and revise the subject-verb agreement errors in this passage:

Uncle Stanley and his girlfriend, Kira, is coming to visit me next weekend. Unfortunately, neither of them are
very interesting. Every time they visit, Kira sleeps about eighteen hours a day, and Stanley tells childhood
stories over and over. There is only about three stories in his entire repertoire, and, although he finds them
amusing, neither his stories nor his one and only joke are funny at all. I try to get him to discuss other topics,
but economics are his only real interest, and I don‟t find that topic very interesting either. I hate to admit it,
but I hope the days they spend with me passes quickly.

Activity 16: Answer the following questions accordingly.

1. Which of the following sentences contains a verb agreement error?

A. These are a collection of valuable nineteenth-century manuscripts.

B. The professor that teaches nineteenth-century novels are interesting.
C. The only dog that the buyers want are Dalmatians.
D. the entire above E. none of the above

2. Which of the following sentences contains an error in agreement of pronoun and antecedent?

A. Every student must bring their own dictionary to class.

B. Most of the children have his own book.
C. Does each of you have their book?
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 D. all of the above E. none of the above

3. Which of the following pronouns is correct in the blank in the sentence "Is one of the professors ready to
present ____ paper?"
A. their B. her

4. Which are the correct words for the blanks in the sentence "Each of the legislators ____ ____ own
reason for voting `no'"?
A. has his/her B. have their

5. Which are the correct words for the blanks in the sentence "Everyone who said that it couldn't be done
____ now regretting ____ words"?
A. is his/her B. are/ their

Activity 17: identify and revise pronoun-agreement and case errors in the following passage.

I can never decide who my favorite author is because every author I read has their own strengths. Just
yesterday, Simone gave my husband and I a copy of Joanne Harris‟s novel, The Coastliners, and we‟ve both
been reading it. I like it better than him, though; in fact, I‟ve had a hard time putting it down. The
description in the story is wonderful, as is the dialogue. I can tell who is who in a conversation without even
reading the names because each character has their own way of speaking. Madeleine is the main character,
and there‟s a lot of tension between she and her father. It‟s clear that one of them will have to change the
way they think about family, but it‟s hard to tell whom. Just between you and I, my chores around the house
are going to have to wait until after I finish this novel.

1.3.5. Faulty Parallelism

In writing, it is necessary to present a series of words or items in a similar grammatical form.

Parallelism is an important aspect of co-ordination. Two or more equivalent ideas in a sentence that
have the same purpose should be presented in the same form. Pairs of ideas should always be
presented in parallel constructions. An element of a sentence or entire sentences can also be joined,
but these elements must be of the same category. S are joined to other S, NP are joined with other
NP, P.P are joined with other P.P.

A subset of co-ordination conjunctions are the correlative conjunctions. When using „correlative
conjunctions‟ – which is the technical term for constructions, like either/or. not only/but also,
both/and, -since they are two part coordinators make sure each „arm‟ of the expression bears the
same weight and works correctly with the rest of the sentence.

To put it more simply, when one element in a proposed parallel structure is an infinitive, the other
element must be an infinitive; when one is a participle, the other element must be a participle. A
word must be balanced by words, a phrase by phrases (NP with NP, PP with PP), a clause by
clauses, and a sentence by sentence (active-sentence with active-sentence, and passive-sentence
with passive-sentence).
22
Compare the following examples:

Nonparallel (Not Balanced) Parallel (Balanced)

Kiros enjoys reading and to go to the theatre. Kiros enjoys reading and going to the theatre.

No one told Yared to bring a note and that he has to No one told Yared to bring a note and to go to the
go to the office. office.

The single life offers more freedom of choice; more The single life offers more freedom of choice;
security is offered by marriage. marriage offers more security.

Mr. pat is an actor, a comedian, and he is involved Mr. pat is an actor, a comedian, and a politician.
in politics.

Every time I try to stop smoking, I gain weight, get Every time I try to stop smoking, I gain weight, get
headaches, or irritability takes over. headaches, or become irritable.

Bear the following things in mind to maintain parallelism.

A. Words in series: when two or more nouns, verbs, or adjectives appear together in a sentence,
they should be parallel in grammatical form. Verbs should be in the same tense.
Incorrect: All night long the music from the next apartment was banging, thumping, and
pounded so loudly that I couldn‟t sleep.
Correct: All night long the music from the next apartment banged, thumped, and pounded so
loudly that I couldn‟t sleep.
B. Phrases
Incorrect: My sister likes wearing crazy hats, dressing in funky clothes, and to go to
classic music.
Correct: My sister likes wearing crazy hats, dressing in funky clothes, and going to classic
music.
C. Clauses
Incorrect: While Almaz studied Math and worked on Psychology, her husband was
watching the baby.
Correct: While Almaz studied Math and worked on Psychology, her husband watched
the baby.

Activity 18: The following sentences contain errors in parallelism. Cross out the nonparallel
structures and then write the correct version of each sentence.

23
 1. A few years ago, people could find employment as long as they were willing to work hard
and learning on the job.
2. When I was in high school, I was frequently in trouble for fighting with other students,
destroying school materials, disobeying teachers, and to fail to attend classes.
3. When I was young, I used to tease old people, assault girls, and fought with peers.
4. Mother looked for her lost necklace under the bed, in her jewels box, in her purse, and she
searched on the shelf.
5. The guard is both honest and he is hard-working.
6. The secretary is neither polite nor is she hard-working.
7. The abrupt public uprising was terrifying not only to civil officials but also army members
were terrified.
8. Many individuals suffering from alcoholism are more likely to hide the problem than
seeking treatment.

Activity 19: There are five parallelism mistakes in each of the following passages. Identify the faulty
sentences and rewrite them correctly.
Passage A
For the 10 percent of the American population that is left-handed, life is not easy. Using a pair of scissors
or to write in a spiral notebook can be very difficult. The scissors and the notebook are two items designed
for right-handers. Also, have you ever seen a “southpaw” take notes or writing an exam at one of those
right-handed half-desks? The poor “lefty” has to twist like a yoga devotee or in the style of a circus acrobat
in order to reach the paper. But a recent study proves that being left-handed can be psychologically
damaging as well as tax a person physically. A survey of 2,300 people showed that 20 percent more left-
handers than right-handers smoked. Could lefties smoke to relieve the tension or forgetting the problems of
living in a right-handed world?

Passage B
Some people today are “survivalists.” These people, because they fear some great disaster in the near
future (like the economy collapsing or nuclear war), are preparing for a catastrophe. Hoarding food,
stockpiling weapons, and the achievement of self-sufficiency are some of the activities of survivalists. In
Arkansas, for example, one group has built a mountain fortress to defend its supplies and staying safe.
Arkansas, the group feels, is the best place to be for several reasons: it is an unlikely target for nuclear
attack; it offers plentiful supplies of food and water; a good climate. Some Americans feel that the attitude
of survivalists is selfish and has a lot of greed. These people say that such a philosophy turns society into a
“dog-eat-dog” race for life. Other people believe that after a nuclear war, the world, with radiation and
where there would be disease, wouldn‟t be worth living in.

1.3.6. Wordiness (Verbosity)

Wordiness is using more words than necessary to express a meaning. Excess words in
communication waste space and time, and distort the message to make it difficult for the reader to
understand. Get in the habit of streamlining your writing, making the sentences as concise as
possible. If you have five words where three would do, delete the extra words or structure your
sentences to void them.

Look at the following pair of sentences:

24
Wordy:
It was decided that the church would organize a committee for the purpose of conducting a
search for a new pastor.
Revised:
The church organized a committee to search for a new pastor.
Wordy:
The nature of the scheduling system is a very important matter that can definitely have a
really significant impact on the morale aspect of an employee‟s attitude. Aspects of our
current scheduling policy make it absolutely necessary that we undergo a significant
change.
Revised:
The scheduling system can affect employee morale. Our policy needs to be changed.
Wordy:
Helina is of the opinion that the death penalty should be allowed.
Revised:
Helina believes in the death penalty.
Wordy:
During prime time there are more silly situation comedies than there are serious dramas
and news programs. Many of these silly situation comedies are simply boring.
Revised:
During prime time, silly situation comedies, many of which are simply boring, outnumber
serious dramas and news programs.
Wordy:
I world like to say that my subject in this paper will be the kind of generous person that my
father was.
Revised:
My father was generous.

Note: Some wordiness is caused by using passive voice verbs when you could use the active voice.

Look at the following sentences:

Wordy:
It has been decided that your application for grant money is not in accordance with the
constraints outlined by the committee in the application guidelines.
Revised:
The committee denied your grant because it did not follow the application guidelines.
Wordy:
The letter of resignation was accepted by the Board of Directors.
Revised:
The Board of Directors accepted the resignation.

25
The following table contains some wordy expressions, and alternative expressions:

Wordy Version Better Version

subsequent to after
in the event that is
in my own personal opinion I believe
due to the fact that because (of)
it would be advisable you should
in close proximity to near
in view of the fact that because (of)
at that point in time then
has the ability to can
with reference to the fact that concerning
a large number of many
within the realm of possibility possible
in some cases sometimes
I came to the realization I realized
I am of the opinion that I think that
concerning the matter of about
during the matter of during
in the event that if
regardless of the fact that although
in all cases always

1.3.7. Inconsistency in Tense and Point of view

Unwarranted shifts in tense send mixed signals that disorient the reader. The effect is little like that
of following a driver who keeps switching in and out of our lane.

A. Tense shift
Don‟t shift verb tenses unnecessarily. If you begin writing a paper in the present tense, don‟t shift
suddenly to the past. If you begin in the past, don‟t shift without reason to the present.

26
Notice the inconsistent verb tenses in the following examples:
1. The shoplifter walked quickly toward the front of the store. When a clerk shouts at him, he
started to run.
2. We no sooner finished our meal than he turns to me and asks if I minded paying.
3. I played my stereo and watched television before I decide to do some homework.

B. Shift in Point of view

Authors can write using the first-person point of view (I, me, we, us, my, our), second-person point
of view (you, your), or third-person point of view (she, he, one, they, her, him, them, hers, his,
one‟s, theirs). For the sake of consistency, don‟t shift abruptly from one point of view to another.
Avoid switching points of view within or between sentences. If you start writing in the third-person
(s/he), don‟t jump suddenly to the second-person (you), or if you are writing in the first-person (I),
don‟t shift unexpectedly to (one).

Take a look at the following sentences:

1. If one didn‟t do it the right way, you got in trouble.
2. In order not to hurt your feet, we all wore our sneakers into the water.
3. As soon as a person walks into Aster‟s apartment, you can tell that Aster owns a dog.
4. In our society, we often need a diploma before you are hired for a job.
Inconsistent:
I enjoyed my trip to the park. You could see trees budding, flowers blooming, and baby
animals running all over.
Consistent:
I enjoyed my trip to the park. I saw trees budding, flowers blooming, and baby animals
running all over.

1.3.8. Diction
Diction is the choice and use of words in writing. Words that you choose should be appropriate for
your audience and express your meaning clearly.

The following suggestions will help you improve your diction:

1. Avoid slang. Slang refers to the informal, special expressions created and used by groups of
people who want to give themselves unique identity. Slang is appropriate and useful way to
communicate in some social situations and in some forms of creative writing. However, it is not
appropriate for academic or career writing.

Slang: We pigged out at the ice cream shop.

27
 Revised: We consumed enormous quantities of ice cream at the ice cream shop.

2. Avoid colloquial language. Colloquial language refers to casual, every day, and spoken
language. It should be avoided in formal situations. Words fall into this category are labeled or
colloquial in your dictionary.

Colloquial: I almost flunked bio last sem.

Revised: I almost failed Biology last semester.

3. Avoid nonstandard language. Non-standard language consists of words and grammatical

forms that are used in conversation but are neither correct nor acceptable standard written
English.
4. Avoid trite expressions. Trite expressions are old, worn-out word and phrases that have
become stale and do not convey meaning as effectively as possible. These expressions are
also called clichés
Trite expressions

Needle in a hay sadder but wiser as old as the hill

Hard as a rock white as a snow Pretty as a picture

Face the music gentle as a lamb

2. Sentence Variety

Sentence variety means assorted sentence patterns, lengths, and rhythms. It gives your writing
better rhythm and flow; it makes your writing more mature. Good writers use a variety of sentence
structures to avoid wordiness and monotony and to show relationships among thoughts. To achieve
sentence variety, one does not have to use all simple sentences or complex or compound sentences,
and again, one does not have to begin or end all sentences in the same way. Instead, one has to vary
the length; the amount of detail and the structures of one‟s sentences.

You can use sentence variety following the suggestions below:

A. Begin sentences with these common variations:

 With a prepositional phrase, such as after dinner last night…
 With a participial phrase, such as walking home alone…
 With an infinitive phrase, such as to put her next foot forward…
 With an adverb clause, such as after we ate dinner last night…
 With a transitional word, such as thus…
 With a transitional phrase, such as no matter the results…

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Note: commas usually follow these kinds of introductory phrases and clause.

B. Vary sentence structure: if you use a mixture of sentence structures, you can create emphasis.
Put the many background details in a series of compound, complex, and compound-complex
sentences. Put the conclusion in a simple sentence. The simple sentence packs emphasis.

C. Vary sentence lengths: a series of very short sentences surrounded by longer sentences can
create a staccato-like rhythm that hits hard. Long sentences followed by a simple short one
generally build to a powerful emphasis.

How to Use Sentence Variety:

1. Use sentences of various lengths (Don‟t use all simple sentences). This makes your writing
choppy.
Choppy: We went to the movies. We went out eat. We came home. We went to bed.

2. Avoid stringing simple sentences together with coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or and so
on). Instead, one has to use some introductory participial phrases.
Simple: There was a long queue at the bakery, so Samson decided to leave.
Varied: Seeing the long queue at the bakery, Samson decided to leave.

3. Begin some sentences with a prepositional phrase

Example: During the concert, the fire alarm rang.

Inside the theatre, the crowd waited expectantly.

4. Begin some sentences with a present or past participle (cooking, eating, tired, informed)
Example: Singing and dancing, the Greece expressed their joy.
Still laughing, two girls left the movie.
Slapped and pushed, the thief fell into the ditch.

5. Begin some sentences with adverbs.

Example: Angrily, the guard slammed the gate shut.
Patiently, the father advice the boy.

6. Begin some sentences with infinitive phrases („to‟ plus the infinitive form; to make, to go, to
prepare, to eat etc)
Example: To make a lot of profit, the merchant labored a lot.
To develop their writing skill, students practiced writing a lot.
To get breakfast ready on time, I set my alarm for 7 A.M.

7. Begin some sentences with a dependent clause introduced by subordinating conjunctions.

Example: Because I studied hard, I managed to pass the exam.

29
 Provided that the company pays all the money, the workers are ready to
resume their work.

8. Begin sentences with a conjunctive adverb.

Example: Consequently, we decided to have fried meat for lunch.

3. Punctuation and capitalization

A. Punctuation Marks
Punctuation is the use of standard marks and signs in writing to separate words into sentences,
clauses, and phrases in order to clarify meaning. The marks or signs are called punctuation marks.
Punctuation marks are signals to readers. When you speak, you can pause, stop, or change your tone
of voice to make your meaning clear, but in writing, you must use punctuation marks to make your
meaning clear.

The use of punctuation marks can be very complex. Each punctuation mark can be used in many
ways. Here are the punctuation marks that are most commonly used when writing and the most
typical way or ways they are used.
1. Full stop/Period (.)
 At the end of a sentence that is not a question or an exclamation:
Example: That was a wonderful movie.
 In abbreviations:
Example: I think that Mr. Williams is a great teacher.
2. Question Mark (?)
 At the end of a direct question:
Example: Did you like that movie?
3. Comma (,)
 To separate three or more items in a series:
Example: My history class meets each Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.
 To separate independent clauses in a sentence:
Example: We wanted to go to the beach, but it rained that day.
 After introductory words, phrases or clauses in a sentence:

30
 Example: Certainly, I have my homework right here.
 To set off dates and addresses:
Example: My friend Jane, who was born June 18, 1992, lives in Akron, Ohio.
4. Semicolon (;)
 To separate two main clauses, especially those not joined by a conjunction:
Example: I like pizza; Carlos also likes pizza.
 Between independent clauses in a sentence that are separated by any of the following
transitional words or phrases: accordingly, consequently, for example, for instance,
furthermore, however, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, therefore and etc.:
Example: I planned to study Saturday morning; however, the power in our house went out
due to a storm.
 To separate parts of a sentence that already contains commas:
Example: I have lived in Los Angeles, California; Boston, Massachusetts; Trenton, New
Jersey; and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
5. Colon (:)
 Before a list that is preceded by a complete independent clause. Some form of the word
“follow” is often used in such a case.
Example: On our next vacation, we plan to visit the following countries: England, France,
Italy, and Greece.
 To divide hours form minutes.
Example: I have an appointment with the doctor at 10:30 tomorrow morning.
6. Exclamation Point (!) (Sometimes called an Exclamation Mark)
 At the end of a sentence expressing surprise, joy, anger, shock or another strong emotion:
Example: I am very upset with him!
 At the end of a sentence expressing emphasis:
Example: I have to go home right now!
 After an interjection at the start of a sentence (an interjection is a word used to express
strong feeling or sudden emotion):
Example: Wow! That test was harder than I expected.
7. Apostrophe (')
 To indicate a missing letter or letters in a contraction:
Example: I don't think she will win the election.

31
  With s to indicate that a thing or person belongs to somebody or to show possession:
Example: Please take good care of Brad's dog.
B. Capitalization
Capitalization is the process of making capital the letter (s) of words based on the rules of particular
language.

 The first word of every sentence is capitalized:

Example: We enjoyed reading the book.

 The first-person singular pronoun I is always capitalized:

Example: My brother and I picked up the papers.

 The first, last, and important words in a title of a book, magazine, song, movie, or other
work are capitalized:
Example: She saw Snow White when she was five years old.

 Proper nouns are capitalized:

 Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors
Corporation.
 Specific geographical locations: Hartford, Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo, Lake
Erie, the Northeast, the South end. However, we do not capitalize compass directions or
locations that aren't being used as names: the north side of the city; we're leaving the
Northwest and heading south this winter. When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize
attributive words when they precede place-names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the
opposite happens when the order is reversed: the Appalachian and Adirondack
mountains. When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to being an actual part of a
proper noun, do not capitalize it, as in "The California deserts do not get as hot as the
Sahara Desert."
 Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, however, capitalize
earth, moon, sun, except when those names appear in a context in which other
(capitalized) celestial bodies are mentioned. "I like it here on earth," but "It is further
from Earth to Mars than it is from Mercury to the Sun.
 Names of newspapers and journals. Do not, however, capitalize the word the, even
when it is part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.
 Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of seasons
(spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by spring,
we'll be back up north."
 Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.
 Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish, African American, Jewish, French,
Native American. (Most writers do not capitalize whites, blacks.)
32
  Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity,
Christians, Judaism, Jews, Islam, Muslims.
 Names of courses: Economics, Biology 101. (However, we would write: "I'm taking
courses in biology and earth science this summer.")
 Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.

 Names of relationships only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name are
capitalized. (Often this means that when there is a modifier, such as a possessive pronoun, in
front of such a word, we do not capitalize it.)

Example: Let's go visit Grandmother today. Let's go visit my grandmother today.

I remember Uncle Arthur. I remember my Uncle Arthur. My uncle is unforgettable.

Activity 20: Can you put in the capital letters, full-stops, commas, question marks, exclamation marks
and any other marks necessary in the following text?

morris the martian was flying around the solar system one day when he saw a strange light in front of him
what is that he thought to himself morris was scared but he flew a little bit closer so that he could see it
better hello he called out there was no reply hello is anyone there he called but again there was no reply
suddenly a creature appeared in front of the light boo it shouted poor morris was really scared and he flew
off home and hid under his bed

Activity 21: Rewrite the sentences with corrections

1. the honey be can fly at a sped of 15 miles per houre a hive of honey bees has about 40 000 bees in it the
honey bee has five eyes
2. to make one pound of honey the worker bees flys 55000 milles and taps two million flours
3. a worker bee will make 1/12th of a teespoon of honey over its lifetime bees have been makeing honey for
about 150 million years
4. the honey bee provids us with honey and beeswax
5. a lot of poeple are afrad of bees because of there painful sting when a honey bee stings a person it then
dyes
6. did you know that bats are mammals we knwo they are mammals just lik us becaus they are warm
blooded they are the only mammals that know how to fly bats are nocturnal which means thay sleep
during the day and are awak at nite
7. baby bats are called pups baby bats dont have hair when they are born within a month baby bats are
flying and hunting for food on their own
8. there are lots of diferent kinds of bats bats live all over the world but they dont live in cold regons one
groupe of bats eats fruits and the other group of bats eats insectes birds and nectar
9. the statment blind as a bat is not true because bats can see quit well
10. the next olympic games are in 2012 and they are going to be held in London
11. i always like to use google when i surf the internet but my friend likes yahoo better
12. my favorite football team is liverpool but Rahel thinks the everton are better
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13. the only game that belete plays is basketball and i dont know how he can play it for so long
14. my sister liya thinks that cinderella and snow white are the best movies ever made
15. i have seen the movie charlotte‟s web 4 times now and i still like to watch Wilbur
16. mount everest is the tallest mountain if you measure from sea level
17. the longest river in the world is the nile river in africa

34
 Unit two
Writing effective paragraph
Definition
Conventionally, in composition, a paragraph can be defined as a series of closely-related
sentences that work together and are arranged in a logical order to develop one core idea. A
paragraph tells about a single idea, description, or action often set forth in a general statement
called topic sentence. A paragraph must be unified, coherent and complete. The sentences must
be related and must have a particular structure. This structure is determined by the relationship of
the ideas, and it is by constructing the paragraph properly that you develop the idea.

A paragraph may stand alone as a unit of writing or may also be one part of a longer piece of
writing that creates a larger work such as an essay or a book. Moreover, a paragraph that stands
alone is written somewhat differently than one that is building block for a longer piece of
writing.

A standalone paragraph almost always appears to have the following characteristics:

 A subject narrowed sufficiently to be treated as a single idea in a specific time and space,
 A topic sentence that announces the subject of the paragraph often appears as the 1st
sentence, though it may appear later,
 A specific and consistent attitude toward the subject you want to share with your reader,
and;
 A concluding statement that shows the writer‘s completed thoughts.

Paragraph Structure
By the structure of a paragraph is meant the building or composition of it. The definition of a
paragraph indicates that the sentences must be related; they must have a particular structure. This
structure is determined by the relationship of the ideas, and it is by constructing the paragraph
properly that you develop the idea.

The development of idea in all paragraphs follows the same procedure. Most paragraphs have a
three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion. Each part of the paragraph plays an
important role in communicating your meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other
sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide
a transition.
Body: the main part of a paragraph; follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea,
using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other information.
Conclusion: the final section; restates the main idea, i.e. the paragraph‘s controlling idea, or
summarizes the point discussed in the main part.
1
In short, the introduction-part or the topic sentence makes a point and informs the reader the
main idea of the paragraph. From that point follows the body-part or the supporting details in
the order in which you think best work for readers to understand the points. Here, writers must
provide enough specific details to support fully their point. Then, at the end, the conclusion-part
brings the paragraph to a complete end; that is, it leaves the readers feeling that you have told
him all you have to say. In general, if you follow this method of developing your idea, your
paragraph will be well-organized.

Basic constituents of a Paragraph

Regardless of the kind of information paragraphs contain, all paragraphs share certain
characteristics, i.e. all paragraphs have a topic sentence and supporting sentences, and in most
case a concluding sentence.

A. Topic Sentence
Every good paragraph has a topic sentence, which clearly states the topic and the controlling
idea of the paragraph. A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a paragraph since it
introduces the reader with the whole idea of the paragraph. It briefly indicates what the
paragraph is going to discuss by identifying the topic for the reader and making a statement of
some kind about the topic.

The topic sentence must clearly state the topic and the controlling idea of the paragraph. The
topic names the subject of the paragraph and the controlling idea makes a claim or statement of
some kind about the topic. The controlling idea is usually used to limit the topic to one specific
area that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph.

Topic sentence, usually (but not always), is the first sentence in the paragraph. Readers who are
used to the English way of writing want to know what they will read about as soon as they begin
reading. However, experienced writers sometimes put topic sentences in other locations.
Sometimes a topic sentence may either come at the end and may work better as the conclusion if
you address a highly controversial subject or if the paragraph builds to a surprise or at the middle
if the paragraph requires introductory information for readers to understand the subject. In the
previous case, the paragraph often begins with a series of examples or begins with a series of
facts, and the topic sentence at the end is the conclusion from these facts.

E.g. of topic sentences

 Planting trees is very important to avoid or prevent soil erosion/ to maintain weather
condition/ to prevent climate change.
 I preferred to study environmental science for several reasons.
 Sexual relationships must be taught to university students most importantly for three
reasons.
 Lack of knowledge affects human beings in several ways.
2
  Research will be needed as a preliminary to taking a decision.
 Separate sex education improves students’ academic performance.

Topic sentence has several important functions in paragraph writing:

I. it introduces the most general statement of the paragraph to the readers;
II. it substantiates or supports an essay‘s thesis statement (in essay writing);
III. it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the order of the sentences;
IV. it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it;
V. it helps the writers what information to include (and what information to exclude);
VI. it informs the attitude of the writer about the topic.
B. Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences explain or prove the topic sentence by presenting details, facts, examples,
quotes and arguments that support the topic sentence‘s main idea or claim. They supply
information about the topic in a number of ways. Adequate and coherent supporting details yield
a good paragraph. Usually the support comes in the form of subtopics: reasons, causes,
examples, illustrations, steps, comparisons, differences, or other explanations. No magic number
of supporting details makes a perfect paragraph; the details, added together, must clarify the
topic and leave the reader satisfied. The topic sentence is general and should be developed
sufficiently so that the reader can have a complete idea.

The supporting details should be related to each other to make the paragraph coherent. One way
of achieving coherence is connecting sentences by supplying appropriate transition through the
use of appropriate transitional expressions. Transitional markers show the relationship among
sentences and tie the ideas expressed. Below is a list of common transitional expressions used
with supporting details to show cause and effect, to add/restate/emphasize, to show time or
place relations, to illustrate, to compare and to contrast:

A) Transitional Expressions that Show Result

accordingly consequently as a result because(of) since
after all therefore thus, due to, etc.

Example: The University believes that students who have academic problems need special support. As a
result, a remedial office has been set up in each college.

B) Transitional Expressions Used to Add, Restate or Emphasize

again besides furthermore in other words on the whole
also finally in addition moreover eventually
and first, second, next, last etc. in conclusion another overall, etc.

Example: We had a prolonged discussion on the problem, but finally it was resolved.

3
C) Transitional Expressions that Show Time or Place Relation
above beyond lately since on the left/right
after currently now soon under
as soon as before earlier once then
below immediately presently there when
whenever where opposite next to until, etc.

Example: As soon as we reached the mountain summit, it got dark.

D) Expressions Used to Compare

and neither both likewise
as …as in the same way compared to similarly, etc.

Example: High school students should study hard. In the same way, university students cannot be
successful unless they work hard on their studies.

E) Transitional Expressions that Show Contrast

although in contrast though even so, etc.
despite in spite of whereas
even though nevertheless yet
however regardless but

Example: High school students receive grades in numbers calculated out of 100. However, in
universities, letter grades are given mostly.

Note: Though, there are several kinds of specific supporting details, the choice of which
supporting details work best to expand your idea is determined by how the claims are
stated in your topic sentence.

In order to think through the logical subdivisions of your topic, divide either the subject or
the predicate of your topic sentence.

Look at the following topic sentences and think how the supporting details can be developed:
 Globalization has a number of negative side effects than its positive side effects.
 Globalization causes the world to become one in trade.
 Globalization improves communication of around the world.
 Globalization introduces modernization to traditional people.
 The concept of globalization was introduced to impose western thinking.
 Globalization is a system of colonization of western countries.
 Globalization has several disadvantages in one country.

4
Note: Supporting sentences are usually concrete and specific: “show, don’t tell, the reader your
message”. One of the biggest problems in student writing is that student writers often fail
to support their ideas with concrete details.

Note: The writer should provide adequate and relevant supporting details to substantiate the
claim set forth in the focus statement. While insufficient details make the paragraph
incomplete, irrelevant details make the information unclear; harm the unity of the
paragraph and obscure smooth flow of ideas.

C. Concluding Sentence
Concluding sentences are customary for all stand-alone paragraphs in contrast to a multi-
paragraph essay.

A concluding sentence serves two purposes:

1. It signals the end of the paragraph, and;
2. It leaves the reader with the most important ideas to remember. It can do this in two
ways:
I. By summarizing the main points of the paragraph. A sentence that sums up the
paragraph reminds the reader what the writer‘s main idea and supporting were.
II. By repeating the topic sentence in different words. A sentence that restates the main
idea should give the same information in a slightly different way, perhaps by using
different words or by using different word order.

Note: A concluding sentence should not introduce a new point.

You may want to begin your concluding sentence with one of the signals in the following list, or
you may also end a paragraph without a formal signal or perhaps by using an expression like
those in the column on the right.

End-of-Paragraph Signals
Followed by a Comma
Lastly,
Therefore, End-of-Paragraph Signals
Thus, Not Followed by a Comma
To sum up, The evidence suggests that .
Finally, There can be no doubt that .
In brief, These examples show that .
In conclusion, We can see that ...
Indeed,
In short,

5
Qualities of good paragraph: Unity, Cohesion, Coherence, and Completeness

A. Unity
Unity is one important quality of a good paragraph. Unity means “oneness.” That is, a paragraph
must deal with only one idea. Unity, thus, refers to that every supporting sentence must directly
explain or prove the main idea and should discuss one and only one main idea from beginning to
end. In a paragraph with unity, each sentence is clearly related to the topic sentence or controlling
idea. Therefore, one should choose information that will help to support and perpetuate that main
idea throughout the entire paper.

A topic sentence makes a promise that the paragraph must fulfill. Do not wander from the topic. No
matter how attractive an idea may seem, let it go if you cannot fit it into the topic you have staked
out or cannot revise the topic to include it.

You can be sure that you are stressing the main idea by keeping the same subject in every sentence,
in this way you are likely to improve the unity because it will not be so easy to go off the track. You
are much less likely to introduce unrelated ideas if you are not changing subjects.

Note: Always stick to your subject to maintain unity of your paragraph; nothing vital to the main
topic must be omitted. Always cross out any sentence that is not doing its work–which is
developing the topic sentence.

B. Cohesion
Another important quality of a good paragraph is cohesion. Cohesion means “sticking together.”
That is, the sentences must hold together, and the movement from one sentence to the next must be
logical and smooth. Each sentence should flow smoothly into the next one. Cohesion is usually
accomplished when its sentences are woven together or flow into each other and are arranged in a
logical manner.

If a paragraph is cohesive, each sentence flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or
jumps. A cohesive paragraph also highlights the ties between old information and new information
to make the structure of ideas or arguments clear to the reader.

Note: - There must be no sudden jumps from one sentence to the other.

A number of techniques can be used to establish cohesion in paragraphs. Sentences can be linked
in several ways. Below are lists of ways for linking successive sentences in a paragraph.

I. Repeat key words or phrases

The easiest way to achieve cohesion is to repeat key nouns frequently in your paragraph,
particularly in paragraphs in which you define or identify an important idea or theory. This
consistency and repetition will bind the paragraph together and help your reader understand your
6
definition or description. There is no fixed rule about how often to repeat key nouns or when to
substitute pronouns. You should repeat a key noun instead of using a pronoun when the meaning is
not clear. If you do not wish to repeat a key noun again and again, you can use synonyms or
expressions with the same meaning.

Verbal repetition is the most obvious link. Sometimes the identical word is repeated. The repeated
words may occur in a variety of positions. Of these the most useful are the beginnings of successive
sentences, the endings of such sentences, and the close of one sentence and the opening of the one
immediately following.

A special case of synonymous repetition involves pronouns and demonstratives such as one,
another, some, the former, the latter, the first, the second, the third, and so on. These words link
sentences by substituting for an earlier word or phrase. This and that (along with their plurals these
and those) are especially useful in this way and may be employed either as pronouns or as
adjectives.

II. Use consistent pronouns

Pronouns refer to an antecedent, which its antecedent form a link. When you use pronouns, make
sure that you use the same person and number throughout your paragraph and be consistent in point
of view, verb tense, and number. Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle
but important aspect of cohesion. If you shift from the more personal "you" to the impersonal
―one,‖ from past to present tense, or from ―a man‖ to ―they,‖ for example, you make your paragraph
less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse your reader and make your argument more
difficult to follow.

III. Create parallel structures

Parallel structures are created by constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the same
grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech. By creating parallel structures you make
your sentences clearer and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of consecutive
sentences helps your reader see the connections between ideas.

IV. Use transition words or phrases to link ideas

Transition words or phrases emphasize the relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow
your train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise miss or misunderstand.
Transition words are expressions such as first, finally, and however, or phrases such as in
conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result. Other kinds of words such as subordinators (when,
although), coordinators (and, but), adjectives (another, additional), conjunctive adverbs
(therefore, as a result) and prepositions (because of, in spite of) can serve as transition signals.

7
Transition signals are like traffic signs; they tell your reader when to go forward, turn around, slow
down, and stop. In other words, they tell your reader when you are giving a similar idea (similarly,
and, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, but, in contrast), an example (for example),
a result (therefore, as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion).

Note: Transition signals connect ideas in one sentence to the idea in another sentence. The
relationship may be one of time (presently, meanwhile, afterwards); of space (above,
below, in front); or of logic (therefore, however, as a result).

Some useful transition words/phrases and conjunctive adverbs

There are many transition words and phrases in English that are used to connect sentences together
or relate ideas to one another, creating a smooth flow of ideas. Most words and phrases in the first
two columns of the chart can appear at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of an independent
clause and are usually separated by commas. Conjunctive adverbs are best placed at or near the
beginning of a sentence.

Meaning/function Transition Conjunctive Coordinating Subordinating Others

phrases adverbs conjunctions conjunctions
To introduce an in addition furthermore and an additional (+ noun)
additional idea moreover another (+ noun)
besides
also, too
To introduce an on the other however But although in spite of (+ noun)
opposite idea hand nevertheless yet though despite (+ noun)
or contrast in contrast instead, still even though
nonetheless whereas, while
To introduce a otherwise or if
choice or unless
alternative

To introduce a in fact that is

restatement or indeed
explanation
To list in order first, second, the first, second, third,
next, last, finally etc.
the next, last, final
To introduce an for example an example of (+ noun)
example for instance such as (+ noun)
to illustrate
To introduce a clearly
conclusion or in brief
summary in conclusion
indeed
in short

8
 in summary
To introduce a accordingly therefore so
result as a result consequently
as a consequence hence
thus
To show time as long as Meanwhile after, as
as soon as subsequently before, during
at last thereafter since, until
afterward when, while
later, finally
formerly
immediately
shortly, then
To show place to the left (north, elsewhere
or direction etc.) farther on
not far away here
To indicate as a result consequently so because, since
logical for this reason accordingly if
relationship therefore
then, thus
otherwise
hence
Rule of thumb 1:
1. The words and phrases in the chart (for listing ideas and time sequences, for emphasizing,
for giving reasons, and for conclusions) usually appear only at the beginning of a sentence,
not in the middle or at the end.
2. Too usually appears only at the end of a sentence, sometimes preceded by a comma.
3. The short time words then, now, and soon usually do not need commas.

Rule of thumb 2:
 The seven coordinating conjunctions and, but, so, or, nor, for, and yet and the five
correlative ("paired") conjunctions both ... and, not only ... but also, neither ... nor, either
...or, and whether . . . or. Coordinators may or may not have commas. When they connect
two independent clauses, use a comma. When coordinators connect two words or phrases,
do not use a comma.
 Some writers use a comma before but and yet even when they do not connect independent
clauses to emphasize the contrast of the connected ideas.

Rule of thumb 3: Don't Overuse Transition Signals

9
 C. Coherence
“Get your ideas into some sort of order before beginning to write.”
Coherence lies primarily in the order of ideas (organization) and how this order expresses the
relationship between ideas that is important (sequence). Coherence means “to arrange in a logical
order.” That is all the ideas in a paragraph must flow smoothly form one sentence to the next
sentence and must follow some kind of logical order. That is ideas must be arranged in a way that
clarifies their logical connection or their importance. A coherent paragraph has a beginning, middle,
and an end.

Note: Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on your topic
and your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical orders in the same
paragraph. The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order
that is logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing.

There are various methods of organizing sentence logically in paragraphs. The most common ones
are: chronological, spatial, and emphatic.

 Chronological order:- is a way of organizing paragraph through a particular sequence,

apparently as the main idea appear in the order of its occurrence in time. In chronological
ordering a series of events, things, or actions are recorded in the order/sequence they occur
in relation to each other. It is the natural order of narration commonly used in explaining
events, actions, or the steps in a process.

Common transitional words/phrases used with chronological ordering

First, second afterward after that later then/next eventually later
After before when while since until since during earlier finally formerly
Immediately meanwhile shortly subsequently thereafter as as soon as
as long as by the time that

Chronological ordering is mainly used to narrate stories, historical events, biographies and
autobiographies, and to explain processes and procedures.

E.g. telling a story or giving directions on how to reach a certain designation or how to bake a
cake, the natural order would be a time order.

 Spatial order:- is a method of organization mainly employed to explain the location of an

object, place or person in relation to other objects, places or people. That is based on relative
to space and the position, size, shape, etc. of things as they appear in space point of view. It
is mainly used to explain where something exists in relation to other objects using some
logical or natural progression from one description detail to the next. Often used in
descriptive writing to help the reader visualize a scene. Objects, people or places are

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 viewed from top-bottom, left-right, front-back, near-far, in-out, north-south, etc. in an
orderly or natural way.

Common transitional words/phrases used with spatial ordering

above below beyond close elsewhere farther on here nearly opposite
not far away to the left (north,)

 Emphatic order:- is also called order of importance/order of significance. In this pattern

of content organization, writers mainly organize their ideas based on their importance. That
is, they either begin with less important ideas then move to the most important ones which
they raise towards the finish or vice-versa. Often used in persuasive writing.

Common transitional words/phrases used with emphatic ordering

mainly mostly most/more importantly most of all above all primarily/secondary/tertiary

 Deductive order:- is also called general to particular. In this pattern of organization,

writers begin their idea with a general statement, and then move to particulars which explain
or illustrate, or persuade the reader to accept the generalization. Most popular method in
expository paragraphs.

 Inductive order:- is also called particular to general. Just the reverse of the above, writers
begin their idea with a succession of particular statements to the general statements or
conclusion to which the particulars lead. By this order the reader is led to the conclusion
through details of evidence or illustration. A paragraph so organized will have the topic
sentence at or near the end.

D. Completeness
A paragraph needs to be well-developed. It must treat adequately the idea it is presenting, and
satisfy the reader. Well-developed/complete paragraphs finally leave the reader virtually with no
unanswered questions. A paragraph is adequately developed when it describes, explains and
supports the topic sentence. If the "promise" of the topic sentence is not fulfilled, or if the reader is
left with questions after reading the paragraph, the paragraph has not been adequately developed.

Completeness is relative. No one can say how long a paragraph should be. “How much
explanation an idea requires depend in how much the reader needs”. Therefore, one has to
offer sufficient supporting details to support its topic sentence.

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Types of Paragraph/Essay
The various effects a writer may wish to have on his or her readers result in different kinds of
writing. The most common one‘s depending on what it is about is expository, descriptive,
argumentative, or narrative.

A. Expository Paragraph/Essay
Expository paragraph/essay explains an idea, a point of view, a process or a feeling. It deals with
facts, ideas, beliefs, theories, and explains how something works, is made, or happened; facts of
everyday life-how many people get divorced, phenomenon-a fact or an event in nature or society,
controversial issues laden with feelings-abortion, politics, religion. Expository paragraph/essay
requires the writer to investigate an idea, evaluate evidence, expound on the idea, and explain the
idea in depth. Its primary purpose is to communicate information and to answer questions like
What? Why? How? What was the cause? The effect? Like what? Unlike what? about a specific
topic.

An expository paragraph/essay is essentially an enlargement of a subject/predicate pattern. The

subject of the topic sentence/thesis statement is more complicated which is usually placed at or near
the beginning. The predicate—that is, what is asserted about the topic—requires several
sentences/pragraphs. These constitute the body of the paragraph/essay, developing or supporting the
topic in any of several ways.
The patterns of development in expository paragraphs/essays may include giving examples,
detailing a process of doing or making something, analyzing causes and effects, comparing and/or
contrasting, defining a term or concept, and dividing something into parts or classifying it into
categories.

Its movement is signaled by connectives like therefore, however, and so, besides, but, not only, more
important, in fact, for example, etc.

Note: Expository writing usually does not include opinions, judgments, or arguments rather it
focuses on facts and objective details organized around cause/effect, true/false, less/more,
positive/negative, general/particular, assertion/denial.

Sample Paragraph
Field trip remains my favorite outdoor education of all time due to all of the memorable activities
we experienced. For instance, I was able to touch and hold a wide variety of animals that I had
never seen until I visited their science center. One animal was a blue skinned that reminded me of
leather because it was dry and smooth. Yet its fur was also the softest that I had ever felt. I would
have never guessed that a reptile and a mammal would have anything in common, but their bodies
were pleasing to the touch in different ways! In addition, I also was able to scale to great heights
when I visited the high ropes course deep in the forest. I realize now that even something difficult
can be fun. I hope to use this thought in other areas of my life because now I might achieve even

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more than before. Finally, I loved splashing around Lake Abaya with my partner. The direction on
how to hold the row and how to steer were not that hard, but actually doing it on the lake was
difficult. In general, I have learned from this trip that there are many opportunities out there for us
to experience and that we should take advantage of them to create lifelong memories.

B. Narrative Paragraph/Essay
A narrative paragraph/essay is a meaningful sequence of events that are ―true‖ or ―real‖ over a
period of time told in words. Narrative writing relates a series of events arranged in
chronological/time order (and usually other arrangements as well).

Note: Narrative paragraphs/essays are told from a defined point of view, often the author’s.

Narrative paragraph/essay conveys an evaluation of some kind, known as the ―theme‖ of the story.
It must achieve some kind of meaning beyond telling.

Note: In narrative writing, there always must be some purpose in the telling, a purpose that goes
beyond mere enjoyment of the story itself.

Note: In narrative paragraph/essay writing the problem is twofold: to arrange the events in a sequence
of time and to reveal their significance.

Sample Paragraph
My parents’ divorce was the saddest day of my life. I will never forget the day that it happened. It is
all the more sad because my parents were married for about 13 years. I walked into our kitchen,
and my mother and sister were crying because my sister had found out that my dad was having an
affair with his secretary. At the time, my dad did not realize that my sister was home. My father
picked up the phone to call his mistress; my sister picked up the phone to call her friend, and she
heard his explicit conversation; she told my mother. My mother did not want to mention anything,
yet. However, my sister and I, in anger, blurted out to my father what was revealed. After my sister
repeated word for word of what she heard, my father panicked and admitted it. And thus, the word
"divorce" took place. As soon as I heard the word "divorce," I cried and I cried, and my dad tried
to hug me, but I pushed him away. I knew in that one instant that my life changed, it shifted, but of
course I was too young to understand how or why. It was a moment that I will regret forever, and it
was beyond my control. I truly was happy with my family, but now it is over, and I should have
appreciated more. Every time my dad asked me to do something, I always said no, I am busy. I did
not mean to be this way, but I was, and I can never go back.

C. Descriptive Paragraph/Essay
Descriptive paragraph/essay is a verbal picture of a person, a place, an object or a thing; saying in
words what somebody/something is like, looks, sounds, tastes. It is very much concerned with
sensory impressions (sight, sound, smell, touch). It provides specific sensory details to paint a vivid
picture of a person, scene, or object being described. It uses concrete descriptive language: – exact,
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colorful and vivid words that appeal to the senses and establish a dominant impression: – an attitude
or a feeling expressed in the topic sentence. Descriptive writing, in the main, uses spatial order to
organize details logically.

Descriptive writing is of two kinds: objective and subjective. In objective description the writer sets
aside those aspects of the perception unique to himself and concentrates on describing the percept
(that is, what is perceived) in itself. In subjective (also called impressionistic description a writer
projects his or her feelings into the percept. Objective description says, "This is how the thing is";
subjective, "This is how the thing seems to one particular consciousness."

Descriptive paragraphs/essays reflect the following key qualities, which should be observed in all
good descriptive writing.

i. It arranges what we see into a significant pattern: -the ability to see, touch, taste, hear or smell
various elements in the world. Talented descriptive writers refine the power of their five
senses in order to recreate people, places, things, emotions, and ideas.
ii. The writer must select details carefully. There might be thousands of details in any given
scene; however, the writer‘s must choose only those details most useful to paint a vivid
picture for the reader.
iii. Writers must organize their descriptions carefully. With description, the writer must decide on
a perspective (top to bottom, left to right, front to back) as he/she moves carefully from detail
to detail.
iv. Descriptive writing should create a “dominant impression” of its subject. This main
impression arises from the writer‘s focus on a single subject, and from the feelings that the
writer brings to that subject.

Note: Descriptive writing can use one of three patterns of organization: chronological, spatial, or
order of importance/significance.

Sample Paragraph
Most students like the freedom they have in college. Usually college students live on their own, in
the dormitory or in an apartment. This means they are free to come and go as they like. Their
parents cannot tell them when to get up, when to go to school, and when to come home. It also
means that they are free to wear what they want. There are no parents to comment about their hair
styles or their dirty jeans. Finally, they are free to listen to their favorite music without interference
from parents.

D. Argumentative Paragraph/Essay
An argumentative paragraph/essay makes a claim of particular view or belief about a controversial
topic and justifies this claim with specific evidence. The goal of the argumentative writing is to
convince the reader that the claim is true based on the evidence provided.

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It enables writer‘s pick one topic of controversy and argue for or against the issue through
appealing a solid stand on one side of the issue. The writer‘s main purpose is to persuade the reader
to agree with his/her opinion in one or another way.

In argumentative, writers must consider both sides of the controversy and must take a position on
one side of the argument. The main point of their argumentation often expressed as the major
proposition using the topic sentence. The main point in an argument makes a claim of the writer‘s
viewpoint or stance. Then the remaining part of the paragraph (the supporting details) strives to
present a logical reasoning to defend the major proposition (the position they have taken). We term
these reasons minor propositions-in other words, assertions designed to support your main
argument. To support each minor proposition, the writer must offer evidence in the form of facts,
statistics, and testimony from authorities, and personal experience. In addition to presenting your
own argument logically and convincingly, you must also recognize and deal with opposing
arguments, a technique called refutation. Obviously, there has to be more than one side to any
debatable issue, and you have to take this fact into account.

Sample Paragraph
I am against smoking Marijuana because it can cause two very detrimental conditions: paranoia
and laziness. First, I believe that people should not smoke marijuana because reaching a state of
paranoia can cause a person to act irrationally, which can lead to huge mistakes and regret. For
example, one day my friend smoked some pot. Soon after, he started complaining about his heart
racing, and was sweating excessively. Out of panic, he ran down the street crying and claiming that
people wanted to kill him. The police soon arrested him on suspicion of drug use. Second,
marijuana causes laziness, which prevents people from living up to their full potential. For
instance, I once watched a movie about a guy who smoked Marijuana regularly. He became so lazy
that he failed out of school. Furthermore, he was fired from his job because he always called in sick
when he was really stoned and lethargic (slow and lazy). In summation, marijuana may make some
people feel good, but I completely disagree with smoking it because of its long-term effects that are
devastating for your mental health and energy level.

Paragraph/Essay Development Techniques

Every idea we have, every prediction we hazard, every assertion we make, begs for some king of
amplification or proof. We expand upon it or prove it by describing it, defining it, making
comparisons or contrasts, relating its history or background, giving examples or illustration,
showing a cause and effect relationship, offering details or by using some other developments. That
is a paragraph could contain a series of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general
point. It might describe a place, character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast
two or more things; classify items into categories; or describe causes and effects. No matter what
you write, you must choose a means to develop your idea.

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The methods of paragraph development thus include definition, exemplification, classification,
comparison and contrast, cause and effect, narration, description, etc. Within a particular method
of development, writers arrange details in a logical fashion using different patterns of organization
such as spatial order, chronological order, order of importance/significance, deductive/inductive
order, and so on.

Note: No matter what you write, you must choose a means for developing what you say.

A. Definition
One of the most important ways to explain an idea fully is to define it. Through definition, writers
can establish, limit and develop main ideas. Definition paragraphs require ‗terminology‘ for
description. Definitions are developed in various ways. We can expand our definition through the
following techniques:
Defining by Genus-Species
This is one of the most common means of definition. The entity or word being defined (called the
definiendum) is first set into its genus (class) to which the term belongs and then distinguished from
other members of that class:
E.g. History is the recital of facts given as true, in contradistinction to the fable, which is the recital
of facts given as false.

Defining by Synonyms
A synonymous definition is simply explaining something in different words, usually simpler words.
Synonyms are useful when you must use a term readers cannot reasonably be expected to know.

Defining by Illustration
Examples are valuable when you define, especially in dealing with abstractions. Heroism, for
instance, is most easily explained by illustrating heroic (and perhaps non-heroic) actions.

Defining by Metaphor and Simile

Metaphors and similes, which draw a kind of comparison in a way that is different from its normal
use, sometimes help to clarify the meaning of a word or concept.

Defining by Antonyms
Negative definition tells us what something is not.

Defining by Etymology and Semantic History

Another way of getting at the meaning of a word is through its root meaning (the etymology) and
the changes that meaning has undergone (the semantic history).

Sample paragraph
Anger is having a feeling of hatred toward someone or something. It is one of our basic emotions
and can be most dangerous if it is not carefully controlled. A person can become angry when he
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cannot fulfill some basic need or desire that is important to him. For example, a child may become
angry when he cannot play outside with his friends. An adult may become angry when he does not
receive a raise in pay that he expected. Mentally, anger can interfere with our thoughts, making it
difficult to think clearly. Physically, it may cause violent reactions in the muscles and in the nervous
system. This causes an angry person to flush and tremble and to show other signs of disturbance. A
person can be dangerous if he is in an angry mood because he can develop feelings of hostility and
hatred toward another person, which can then often turn violent.

B. Exemplification
Another technique of paragraph or essay development is the use of examples to illustrate concepts,
point of view, ideas or generalizations. This method is useful to clarify generalizations or to make a
general idea clear by providing specific examples and statistical data that substantiate it. With
examples, we make abstract concepts familiar or concrete. The writer illustrates the topic sentence
with detail examples. To develop a paragraph or essay using examples, be sure that:
 Your examples are relevant and sufficient;
 Each example is as specific as possible;
 It is clear how each example illustrates your main point;
 You use transitional words and phrases to connect your idea.
Exemplification is usually signaled by markers such as ―for example‖, ―for instance‖, ―an
interesting example‖, ―the best example‖, ―to cite/give an example‖ and ―a case in point‖. However,
there are cases in which exemplification is not explicitly signaled but implied and understood from
contextual clues.

Sample paragraph
The ability to write well-organized paragraph is essential to a student’s success in almost all
university courses. For instance, a student presents his/her ideas in a logical order and clear
language in order to receive a good evaluation of his/her work. Likewise, to write successful
answers to essay questions on examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions
according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly, when a student writes a
report or term paper for different courses, style and organization are often as important as content
to inform and persuade his/her readers. Clearly, skill in paragraph writing is crucial to success in
most university subjects.
C. Classification
Classification refers to the specific technique of developing a topic by distinguishing its
components into groups or categories in order to make or show relationships among members of the
group. In other words, it is a method of explaining or analyzing a topic by organizing its parts into
categories. In texts developed through this method, the whole is stated in the topic sentence, and its
parts/the categories/types are indicated in the supporting sentences.

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Sample paragraph
Newspapers in India are classified into two categories according to the amount and completeness
of information in them. Newspapers in the first category have more information and truth. Those in
the second category do not have much information and sometimes they hide the truth. Newspapers
in the first category have news collected from different parts of the country and also from different
countries. They also have a lot of sports and business news and classified ads. The information they
give is clear and complete, and it is supported by showing pictures. The best known example of this
category is the Indian Express. Important news goes on the first page with big headlines,
photographs from different angles and complete information. Unlike newspapers in the first
category, newspapers in the second category do not give as much information. Therefore,
newspapers in the first group are more popular than those in the second group.

D. Cause-and-Effect
Another technique of paragraph development is using the cause and effect method. A cause and
effect paragraph is a paragraph that indicates the cause (or reason) that produces an effect (or
result), or the paragraph that points out the effect (or result) produced answer the questions ―why‖,
such as ―why did it happen?‖ or ―what‖, such as ―what are its causes?‖ or ―what are its effects?‖ in
short the cause/effect paragraph explains why a condition occurs or the effect that this condition
brings about.

Note: a cause is something that leads to a certain phenomenon, event or situation called effect.

The cause-and-effect method of development works well for analyzing a situation from one of two
directions and follows one of two patters of organization. First, it works for examining the cause or
causes of a situation. The result is known, and cause and effect is the best method of development
to explain what brought it about—the cause, the why, the how. Second, the cause-and-effect
method of development works well for examining the effect or effects of a situation. The cause is
known, and cause and effect is the best method of development to explain the result, the effect.

To write an effective topic sentence or thesis statement, you need to:

 Clarify the cause-and-effect relationship;
 Decide whether to emphasize causes or effects;
 Determine if the events are related or independent.

Organization of a cause and effect paragraph/essay

The cause/effect paragraph is based on a formula ―X‖ (cause) produces Y (effect) or ―Y (effect) is
produced by X (cause).‖ In other words, ―Because X has taken place, Y has occurred‖ or ―Y has
occurred because of X.‖ based on the formula, the organization of a cause and effect paragraph or
essay falls into two basic patter outlines: the cause-to-effect pattern, and the effect-to-cause
pattern, each of which is determined by the topic sentence that gives both the cause and the effect.

18
The cause-to-effect pattern: in this pattern, the topic sentence of a paragraph states the main idea in
such a way that some cause produces some effects. The topic sentence indicates the cause
first, and then the discussion of the paragraph concerns the effects resulting from that cause.
Consider the following in which the topic sentence indicates the cause first, and then the discussion
of the paragraph concerns the effects resulting from that cause.
Topic sentence: A copper industry depression in Arizona has caused great losses.

In the above topic sentence indicates clearly that the cause (a copper industry depression) produces
effects (great losses). The other sentence of the paragraph concern the effects produced by that
cause.

The effect-to-cause pattern: in this pattern, the topic sentence of a paragraph states that the effect
or result comes from some causes.
Consider the following paragraph in which the topic sentence announces that a copper industry
depression (effect) has occurred because of two main causes.
Topic sentence: There are two main causes that have brought about a copper industry depression
in Arizona.

The topic sentence indicates clearly that a copper industry depression (effect) has occurred due to
two certain causes. Here the topic idea is regarded as causing the con-sequences discussed in the
remainder of the paragraph.

Cause/Effect Signal Words and Phrases

Cause Signal Words
Subordinators: because/since/as
Coordinators: for
Others: to result from/to be the result of
due to/because of
the effect of/the consequence of
as a result of/as a consequence of

Effect Signal Words

Transitional words and phrases: as a result/as a consequence/therefore/thus/consequently/hence
Coordinators: so
Others: to result in/to cause
to have an effect on/to affect
the cause of/the reason for
thereby

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Sample paragraph
I decided to attend Jimma University for three main reasons. First, and most important to me, I
want to get a high-paying, interesting job that I will enjoy. Right now, the only jobs I can get pay
minimum wage, and as a result, I am working in a restaurant. This kind of job does not make me
proud of myself, and I get bored with routine tasks. Second, my parents have always wanted me to
have a better job than they do, and I know my father will not respect me until I do. A university
degree would make them proud of me. A third reason for attending the university is to make new
friends. It is hard to meet people, and everyone in my neighborhood seems stuck in a rut. I want to
meet other people who are interested in improving themselves like I am. These are the main reasons
for me to attend Jimma University.

E. Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast is a method of analyzing likeness and differences between two or more
subjects. It takes two subjects and identifies how the two subjects are the same and how they are
different. For instance, a writer may be asked to pick two cities in which he/she would like to live
and explain the similarities and differences between the two.

Note: Comparison treats two subjects of the same nature, as does contrast; but the former shows
how the subjects are alike, while the latter focuses on how they differ.
It is important to keep in mind that the specific points of similarity and difference will be important,
but must go beyond just comparing and contrasting. A conclusion should be drawn from the
analysis of the similarities and differences. This conclusion will be the topic sentence/thesis
statement and will need to explain why the writer has drawn the conclusion s/he.

When writing to compare and contrast, keep in mind the purpose for comparing and contrasting the
two subjects: is the purpose to make a judgment about or just observe different subjects?

To develop content using compare/contrast strategy, you can present ideas and information in one
of the three ways using the topic sentence/thesis statement:
I. Compare and contrast, discussing similarities as well as differences between two or more
persons, places, or things.
II. Compare only, discussing just similarities.
III. Contrast only, discussing just differences.

Organization of a compare and contrast paragraph/essay

There are two ways of organizing comparison and contrast paragraph/essay:
1. Subject-by-subject organization (separation)
2. Point-by- point organization (integration)

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 I. Subject-by-subject organization
In subject-by-subject method, each point being compared or contrasted is presented distinctly. You
write first about one of your subject, covering it completely and then you write about the other,
covering it completely. Ideally, you cover the same points of comparison and contrast for both and
in the same order. Let‘s look at the following comparison between two professors Jira and Hirut:
With subject-by-subject organization you first discuss Professor Jira –his class organization, exams
and grading system.
You can visualize this arrangement as follows:
Subjects' points of comparison and contrast

1. Professor Jira a) class organization

2. Professor Hirut b) examination
c) grading system

Sample paragraph
Two excellent teachers, Professor Jira and Hirut, present a study in contrasting teaching styles.
Professor Jira is extremely organized. He conducts each class the same way. He reviews the
assignment, lectures about the new chapter, and explains the next assignment. He gives essay
exams, and they are always based on important lecture topics. Because the topics are predictable,
you know you are not wasting your time when you study. Professor Jira’s grading depends half on
class participation and half on the essay exams. Professor Hirut, on the other hand, has an easy-
going style. Each class is different and seems to reflect whatever she thinks will help us understand
what she is teaching. Her classes are fun because you never know what to expect. Professor Hirut
gives both multiple-choice and essay exams. These are difficult to study for because they are
unpredictable. Our final grade is based entirely on the exams, so each requires a lot of studying
beforehand. Although each professor teaches very differently, I am figuring out how to learn from
each particular style.

II. Point-by-point organization

Point-by-point organization, involves comparing and contrasting each item for both subjects
together: you discuss both of your subjects together for each point of comparison and contrast. For
the paragraph on professors Jira and Hirut, you would talk about how each organizes his or her
class, then what kinds of exams each gives, and then the grading system, and so on. You can
visualize this organization as follows:

Points of comparison/contrast Subjects

a) Class organization 1. Professor Jira

2. Professor Hirut

b) Examination 1. Professor Jira

2. Professor Hirut
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 c) Grading system 1. Professor Jira

2. Professor Hirut

Note: Each method of organization uses different transitions in different places. If you choose a
subject-by-subject organization, you will need the strongest transition in the middle of the
paragraph, when you switch from one subject to another. You will also need a transition
each time you move from one point to another while still on the same subject.
Comparison and Contrast Signal Words
The key to writing successful comparison/contrast paragraphs/essays is the appropriate use of
comparison and contrast signal words. These are words that introduce points of comparison and
points of contrast. It is not sufficient simply to describe each item that you are comparing. You must
refer back and forth to. Of course, you should also use transition signals such as first, second, one .
.. , another . .. , the final . .. , for example, and in conclusion in addition to these special ones.
The following chart lists some of the words and phrases used to discuss similarities.

Comparison Signal Words

Transitional words and phrases: similarly/likewise,
also,
too
Subordinators: as/just as
Coordinators: and,
both…and,
not only….but also,
neither….nor
Others: like (+ noun)/ just like (+ noun)/ similar to (+ noun),
(be) like, (be) similar (to), (be) the same as,
(be) the same,
(be) alike, (be) similar,
to compare (to/with)

Contrast signal words fall into two main groups according to their meaning. The words in the first
group show a relationship that is called concession. The words in the second group show an
opposition relationship.

Contrast Signal Words: Concession (Unexpected Result)

Concession signal words indicate that the information in one clause is not the result you expect
from the information given in the other clause.
E.g. Although, I studied all night, I failed the exam (unexpected result)

My failing the exam is not the result you might expect from the information in the first clause: I
studied all night.

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 Contrast Signal Words: Concession (Unexpected Result)
Transitional words and phrases: however/nevertheless/nonetheless/still
Subordinators: although/even though/though
Coordinators: but/yet
Others: despite (+ noun)/ in spite of (+ noun)

Contrast Signal Words: Direct Opposition

The second group of contrast signal words shows that two things are direct opposites. With direct
opposites, the signal word can introduce either piece of information.
E.g. I am short, whereas my brother is tall. OR My brother is tall, whereas I am short.

Contrast Signal Words: Direct Opposition

Transitional words and phrases: however/in contrast/in(by) comparison/on the other hand
on the contrary
Subordinators: while/whereas
Coordinators: but
Others: differ (from)
Compared (to/with)
(be) different (from)/(be) dissimilar to
(be) unlike

Note: If your paragraph focuses only on similarities or only on differences, then arrange your points
in a least-to-most or most-to-least pattern.

Sample paragraph
Professor Jira and Professor Hirut demonstrate very different teaching styles in how they operate
their classes, how they give exams, and how they grade us. Professor Jira’s classes are highly
organized; we work through the lesson every day in the same order. Professor Hirut uses an
opposite approach. She creates a lesson to fit the material, which enables us to learn most. Their
exams differ too. Professor Jira gives standard, predictable essay exams that are based on his
lectures. Professor Hirut gives both multiple-choice and essay exams, so we never know what to
expect. In addition, each professor grades differently. Professor Jira counts class participation as
half of our grade, so if you talk in class and do reasonably well on the exams, you will probably
pass the course. Professor Hirut, on the other hand, counts the exams 100 percent, so you have to
do well on them to pass the course. Each professor has a unique, enjoyable teaching style, and I am
learning a great deal from each.

F. Process
Process analysis is a rhetorical pattern used to explain the chronological steps involved in how to do
something or how something is done. It is a directed activity in which something undergoes
progressive change. There are two types of process analysis: the directional and the informational.
The first tells ―how to do something”, and the second tells ―how something come or comes about.‖

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E.g. how to change a flat tire (directional), how the human body regulates temperature, how
children acquire speech, or how religious cults evolve or are formed (informational)

Changing a flat tire does not require a great deal of ability and is necessary skill for anyone
drivers. (directional)

Hibernation is a biological process that occurs most frequently in small animals. (informational)

To describe a process you must analyze its stages. The analysis will determine how you organize
the description. In a simple case, such as baking a cake, the process has obvious, prescribed steps;
the writer needs only to observe and record them accurately.
Note: in process paragraph/essay development, always something is happening—work is being
done, a product is being formed, an end of some kind being achieved.

Sample: “Directional” paragraph

In trying to make wise and correct decisions about the ice-cream cone in your hand, you should
always keep the objectives in mind. The main objective, of course, is to get the cone under control.
Secondarily, one will want to eat the cone calmly and with pleasure. Real pleasure lies not simply
in eating the cone but in eating it right. Let’s assume that you have darted to your open space and
made your necessary emergency repairs. The cone is still dangerous-still, so to speak, ―live.‖ But
you can proceed with it in an orderly fashion. First, revolve the cone through the full three hundred
and sixty degrees, snapping at the loose gobs of ice cream; turn the cone by moving the thumb
away from you and the forefinger toward you, so the cone moves counterclockwise. Then, with the
cone still ―wound,‖ which will require the wrist to be bent at the full right angle toward you, apply
pressure with the mouth and tongue to accomplish overall realignment, straightening and settling
the whole mess. Then, unwinding the cone back through the full three hundred sixty degrees,
moving any trickles of ice-cream. From here on, some supplementary repairs may be necessary, but
the cone is now defused.

“Informational” paragraph
Hibernation is a biological process that occurs most frequently in small animals. The process
enables animals to adjust to a diminishing food supply. When the outdoor temperature drops, the
animal’s internal thermostat senses the change. Then the bodily changes begin to occur. First, the
animal’s heartbeat slows, and slowed breathing reduces oxygen intake. Metabolism is the n
reduced. Food requirements become minimal. Finally, the animal falls into sleep-like state during
which it relies on stored body fat to support life functions.
G. Narration
Writing a narration requires, consequently, sequential order and chronology. The events in a
narrative paragraph should usually be arranged in chronological order- the order in which they
happened. Sometimes you may want to rearrange events to emphasize a point. If you do, make sure
the sequence of events is clear enough for the reader to follow. A clear well-written narrative should
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provide sufficient detail to allow your readers to understand fully the situation you are writing
about. Narratives, as stories, should include these story conventions: a plot (the background
information about the character, including setting), and characters; a climax; and an ending. Try
to answer for your reader most of the following questions:

1. When did it happen? 4. What events occurred?

2. Who was involved? 5. Why did they happen?
3. Where did it happen? 6. How did they happen?

Narration in a paragraph advances a topic sentence or main idea. For example, if you had to write a
paragraph on the happiest event in your life, you might choose to narrate the day your team won the
state championship. You would establish your topic sentence-your main point-quickly, and then go
on to tell about the event itself. In short, you would use narration as a means to an end-to make a
significant statement about an important moment in your life.

Normally, narration starts with the beginning and move to the end, or from past to present, or
from old to new. But there are many other ways to relate events in the narrative paragraph, for
example, a story may open with the final episode and then flash back to all that preceded it:- you
could begin a paragraph on the death of someone important to you by detailing the day of the
funeral. For beginners, this flashback technique often causes very confused writing, but skilled
writers know how to ―jump around‖ in time without confusing the reader, blurring the topic
sentence, or destroying the progression of the paragraph.

Writers who use narration usually rely on descriptive details to advance their stories; however, the
paragraph will feature much more action than depiction.

Narrative paragraphs/essays require a careful selection of details to support, explain, and enhance
the story. Certain moments within any time order are more important than others, and these crucial
moments will be emphasized and developed fully by a good writer. Other moments, significant, but
less important than the main moments, will take up less space, while unimportant items will be
eliminated entirely. However, the writer must connect each event in the time span to other events
that come before or after. Here transitions of time words like afterwards, soon, a day later,
suddenly, etc. serve as bridges to connect the various moments in the narrative pattern.

Note: As with so much in composition, the first step in narration is to analyze the story in your own
mind. In the actual telling, the analysis provides the organization. The simplest kind of
narrative is the episode, a single event unified by time and place. But even an episode must
be organized. The writer must break it down into parts and present these in a meaningful
order.

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Sample paragraph
There was a robber who roamed the countryside. He pillaged and killed passers- by. The king, have
heard this, sent out his soldiers. They caught him and brought him in chains to the king who
sentenced him to death. As they took him to the place were to be beheaded, the old father of this
robber was following him in tears. When the robber caught sight of his father, he asked to say a few
words to him before his death. Once he got close to his father, he tried to hit him, but he failed to
do so because his hands were tied together. So, he began to inflict upon him a terrible bite with his
teeth. All the people around him shouted: ―Really this bandit deserve death since he even wanted to
kill his father.‖ But, he told them: ―it is not I who deserves death but my father.‖ When in my
childhood I began stealing corn and grain, he praised me instead of punishing me and accustomed
me to robbery. For this reason, I became a bandit and thus reached this hour of my death. Had my
father punished me at the appropriate time, I would not have come to this end. Having said this, he
was beheaded, but all those who had children understood the seriousness of the matter.

H. Description
Description is writing about the ways things appear, the way they are constructed or the way they
act. Description helps the reader visualize the topic. It creates an impression, and enables your
reader to visualize your topic sentence. All the details in a descriptive paragraph/essay must be
relevant to and helpful in creating your dominant impression.
To write effective descriptions, you have to:
 Establish a dominant impression, and express this impression in your topic sentence;
 Select relevant and sufficient details to support your dominant impression;
 Use exact, colorful and vivid words that appeal to the senses;
 Organize your details logically;
 Use transitional words and phrases to link your details.

The following are some of the words used in descriptive writings:

The following adjectives are words that tell us how things look and how you feel about something.
Shape/size Atmosphere Feeling Appearance
Large/small cozy amazed colorful
Wide/narrow confortable surprised unforgettable
Round/flat warm/cool happy beautiful
Rectangle/triangle cold/hot nostalgic unattractive

Here are some common adjectives for describing people:

Personality physical characteristics
Happy satisfied big, large, tall
Relaxed small, tiny, short
Exciting thin, heavy, strong, weak
Nervous brown-, black-, blond-, red-haired
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 Angry light-, dark-skinned
Serious
Sad, depressed
outgoing

The following prepositions tell us how a space is organized. These are some common and useful
prepositions:
In front of/behind to the right of/to the left of
On top of/on the bottom of in the middle of
Next to between
Above/below, underneath

Sample paragraph
The rent cottage was charming because it was old–fashioned and modern at the same time. The
bedrooms had colorful patchwork quilts on the beds and antique pictures on the walls, but the
mattresses were brand new and extremely comfortable. The reading lights were of the same,
efficient, up-to-date style I have at home. On entering the living room, one’s immediate desire was
to fling oneself on the huge sofa. An old-fashioned radio, hooked rugs, and a handmade
checkerboard combined with the wood-burning fireplace to create a rustic atmosphere. From the
modern redwood deck I had a peaceful view of the quite, secluded lake. The cottage took me back in
time in the best ways.

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 Unit Three
Writing Essays
Definition
An essay is a piece of writing several paragraphs long, relatively short composition. It is about one
topic, just as a paragraph, except the topic of an essay is too complex to discuss in one paragraph,
and you need to divide it into several paragraphs, one for each major point. Then you need to tie the
paragraphs together by adding an introduction and a conclusion. Conventionally, a five-paragraph
essay is a common length for academic writing.

Writing an essay is no more difficult than writing a paragraph except that an essay is longer. The
principles of organization are the same for both, so if you can write a good paragraph, you can write
a good essay. Look at the following comparison between Essay and paragraph:

Paragraph Essay
 deals with a specific topic  deals with a broader subject
 should be unified, coherent, cohesive and  should be unified, coherent, cohesive and
well- developed well-developed
 has a topic sentence that shows focus and  has thesis statement that shows focus and
direction direction
 supporting sentences develop the topic  supporting paragraphs develop the thesis
sentence statement
 has a concluding sentence  has a concluding paragraph
 involves pre-writing, drafting, checking  involves pre-writing, drafting, checking
drafting and improving drafting and improving
 has a definite structure  has a definite structure

Structure of an Essay
An essay has three main parts: an introduction (introductory paragraph), a body (obviously
three paragraphs), and a conclusion (concluding paragraph).

I: Introduction

- General Statements

- Thesis Statement

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 II: Body

A. Topic Sentence B. Topic Sentence C. Topic Sentence

- Support - Support - Support

- Support - Support - Support

- Support - Support - Support

Concluding Sentence Concluding Sentence Concluding Sentence

III: Conclusion

- Restatement or summary of the main points; final comment

The Introductory Paragraph

The introductory paragraph in an essay consists of two parts: a few general statements to attract
your reader's attention and a thesis statement to state the main idea of the essay. An essay
introduction is wide at the top and narrow at the bottom like a funnel. It begins with one or two
very general sentences about the topic. Each subsequent sentence becomes increasingly focused
on the topic until the last sentence, which states very specifically what the essay will be about:
your thesis statement.

The general statements:

 introduce the general topic of the essay.
 capture the reader's attention and interest.
 is usually five to ten sentences,
 gives the general topic of the essay,
 gives background information about the topic, and explains the topic with general ideas,
 it is often organized by giving most general ideas first and then leading to the most
specific idea, which is the thesis statement.

The thesis statement:

A thesis statement for an essay is like a topic sentence for a paragraph: It names the specific topic
of the essay and gives the reader a general idea of the contents of the essay and the specific
topics to be developed in each of the body paragraphs.
 states the specific topic.
 may list subtopics or subdivisions of the main topic or subtopics, i.e. the content of each
of the body paragraph that follows it in the order in which they will be discussed.

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  may indicate the pattern of organization of the essay.
 is normally appear to be the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.

The thesis statement is the most important sentence in the introduction. It states the specific
topic of the essay.
E.g. Females have less freedom than males in Ethiopia.
The large movement of people from rural to urban areas has major effects on cities.

The thesis statement lists the subtopics that will be discussed in the body.
E.g. Females have less freedom than males in Ethiopia in their choice of where they live, whom
they marry, and what their job is.
The large movement of people from rural areas to urban has major effects on a city’s
ability to provide housing, employment, adequate sanitation services.

Sometimes a thesis statement also indicates the pattern of organization that the essay will
follow. Which of the following thesis statements indicates chronological order? logical division
of ideas? comparison/contrast?
E.g. When buying a used car, use these four strategies to get the best price.
There are several differences between a nurse practitioner and a physician's assistant.
My best friend and I spent an entire summer constructing a tree house in my
grandmother's old apple tree.

Activity:
I. Study these thesis statements from two different essays on the topic of the status of women in
Xanadu, an imaginary country. One of the essays uses a comparison/contrast pattern, the
other a time sequence (chronological order) pattern. Which statement indicates which
pattern?
A. Beginning in World War II and continuing through the period of economic boom, the status of
women in Xanadu has changed remarkably.
Pattern of organization: _______________________
B. Although the status of women in Xanadu has improved remarkably in recent years, it is still very
low when compared to the status of women in the countries of the industrial world.
Pattern of organization: _______________________
II. In each of the following two thesis statements, both the method of organization and the major
subdivisions of the topic are indicated. Each subdivision will itself become the topic of a separate
paragraph in the body of the essay. Underline the topics of each paragraph. How many paragraphs
will the body of each essay probably contain?
A. The status of women in Xanadu has changed remarkably in recent years due to increased
educational opportunities and changes in the country's laws.
Probable number of body paragraphs: ___________
B. The status of women in Xanadu has improved remarkably in recent years in the areas of
economic independence, political rights, educational opportunities, and social status.
Probable number of body paragraphs: ____________

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Activity: Analyze the following thesis statements. Locate the main topic and the subtopics in
each of the following thesis statements. Indicate them by underlining.

1. Women generally live longer than men for two main reasons: They tend to take better
care of their health, and they have better resistance to stress.
2. Teenagers declare their separateness from their parents by the way they dress and by the
way they talk.
3. In choosing a major, a student has to consider various factors, such as personal interest,
job opportunities, and the availability of training institutions.

Activity:
Step 1: Read each of the following sets of sentences. When put in the correct order, they will form
introductory paragraphs.
Step 2: Write each paragraph, beginning with the most general statement first. Then add each sentence in
the correct order until the introduction becomes more specific. Write the thesis statement last.

Paragraph 1
1. If done properly, a handshake gives the impression of strength and honesty, and if done improperly, it
conveys weakness and dishonesty.
2. In some cultures, people bow, and in others, they shake hands.
3. In English-speaking countries, shaking hands is the custom.
4. A proper handshake has four ingredients: pressure, pumps, eye contact, and verbal message.
5. The way people greet each other when they meet for the first time varies from culture to culture.
6. How one shakes hands sends an important message about one's character.

Paragraph 2
1. To celebrate the occasion, Mr. X decided to throw a big party at the plant.
2. Mr. X went to Mexico from England to manage a milk pasteurization plant.
3. Then one day an impressive new pasteurization unit arrived and was installed.
4. The employees did most of the planning and draped the new unit with garlands.
5. During the party one of Mr. X's supervisors took him aside and said, "Now we see that you are Buena
gente; from now on I am sure everyone will really try to do their best for you."
6. And so it was-neither punctuality nor quality checks were any longer needed.
7. This story illustrates the need to understand that doing business in a different culture demands an
understanding of the culture.
8. The party was a great success, and everybody had a good time.
9. For eight months, he tried every way possible to convince his workers of the importance of
punctuality and of checking every detail of their work.
10. The response was always, "Yes, yes, we will do our best," but nothing ever changed.

Note: Buena gente: Spanish for "a good person"-someone you can trust and have as a friend

Tips for creating a strong thesis statement

I. A strong thesis statement is an assertion (justifies discussion), not a statement of fact or an
observation.
Fact or observation: Farmers use chemical fertilizers.

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 Thesis: Farmers use chemical fertilizers to increase the fertility of the soil, to yield
surplus products, and to make plants grow successfully.
The latter is a strong thesis because it shows how your experience contradicts a widely accepted
view. A good strategy for creating a strong thesis is to show that the topic is controversial.

II. A strong thesis takes a stand rather than announcing a subject.

Announcement: The thesis of this paper is the difficulty of solving our environmental
problems.
Thesis: Solving our environmental problems is more difficult than many environmentalists
believe.
In other words, avoid using phrases such as "The purpose of this paper is …" or "In this paper, I
will attempt to …"

III. A thesis is the main idea, not the title. It must be a complete sentence that explains in some
detail what you expect to write about.
Title: Social Security and Old Age.
Thesis: Continuing changes in the Social Security System makes it almost impossible to
plan intelligently for one's retirement.

IV. A strong thesis statement is specific rather than vague or general. If the thesis statement is
sufficiently narrow, it can be fully supported.
Vague: Hemingway's war stories are very good.
Specific: Hemingway's stories helped create a new prose style by employing extensive
dialogue, shorter sentences, and strong Anglo-Saxon words.
A thesis statement should show exactly what your paper will be about, and will help you keep
your paper to a manageable topic.

V. A strong thesis statement has one main point rather than several main points. More than one
point may be too difficult for the reader to understand and the writer to support.
More than one main point: Stephen Hawking's physical disability has not prevented him
from becoming a world-renowned physicist, and his book is the subject of a movie.
One Main point: Stephen Hawking's physical disability has not prevented him from
becoming a world renowned physicist.

Body Paragraphs
The body paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting sentences in a paragraph. They develop
your topic and prove your points. You should organize body paragraphs according to some sort
of pattern, such as chronological order or comparison/contrast.

A basic pattern for essays is logical division of ideas. In this pattern, you divide your topic into
subtopics, and then discuss each subtopic in a separate paragraph. Each main idea that you wrote
down in your thesis statement will become one of the body paragraphs. If you had three or four
main ideas, you will have three or four body paragraphs.

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Each body paragraph will have the same basic structure. Start by writing down one of your main
ideas, in sentence form as a topic sentence. Next, write down each of your supporting points for
that main idea. In the space under each point, write down some elaboration for that point.
Elaboration can be further description or explanation or discussion. If you wish, include a
summary sentence for each paragraph.

Each body paragraph may follow a different method of development, so use the one most
appropriate to the subject and purpose.

Thesis statements for logical division of ideas

The thesis statement of a logical division essay often indicates the number of subtopics.
Females have less freedom than males in Ethiopia in their choice of where they live,
whom they marry, and what their job is.

A colon (:) is often useful before lists of two, three, or more subtopics in a thesis statement.
Females have less freedom than males in Ethiopia in their choice of: where they live,
whom they marry, and what their job is.
In most occupations, women are still unequal to men in three areas: salary, power, and
status.

Paired conjunctions (both…and, not only…but also) are an especially effective way to list two
subtopics.
Women generally live longer than men not only because they tend to take better care of
their health but also because they have better resistance to stress.

Note: Notice that subtopics are in parallel form, which means that they have the same
grammatical form.

Here are the three keys to organize a logical division essay

1. Divide your topic into subtopics, and then discuss each subtopic in a separate paragraph.
2. Write a thesis statement that indicates logical division.
3. Use transitions to between paragraphs to guide your reader from one subtopic to the next.

Transition Signals for logical Division of Ideas

Transitional words and phrases: first, first of all, second, third, etc.
next, last, finally
also, in addition, moreover, furthermore
Coordinators: and,
both…and,
not only….but also,
Others: the first cause, reason, factor, etc.
the/a second problem, result, advantage, etc.
one problem, reason, important factor, etc.

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 another way, reason, disadvantage, etc.
an additional problem, result, etc.
in addition to …

Activity: Complete the following thesis statements by adding subtopics to them. Be sure to check
your sentences for parallel form.
1. A computer is necessary for college students for three reasons:
______________________, ___________________,_________________________
2. Students have a difficult time taking notes in class due to
______________________, ___________________,_________________________
Successful politicians have the following qualities:
______________________, ___________________,_________________________
3. Living in a large city has certain advantages over living in a small town:
______________________, ___________________,_________________________
4. Corruption has grown increasingly in government offices in Ethiopia for several
reasons:____________________, ______________________, _______________________

The Concluding Paragraph

The conclusion is the final paragraph in an essay. It has three purposes.

1. It signals the end of the essay. To do so, begin your conclusion with a transition signal.
2. It reminds your reader of your main points, which you can do in one of two ways: You
can
 summarize your subtopics.
 paraphrase your thesis.
3. It leaves your reader with your final thoughts on the topic. This is your opportunity to
convey a strong, effective message that your reader will remember by making a final
comment about the essay’s main idea.

Note: A strong and memorable conclusion usually makes some kind of prediction, or suggests
results/consequence, or suggests a solution, makes a recommendation, and/or calls for
action. However, don’t introduce new ideas in a conclusion,

Topic Sentences and Thesis Statements for student’s assignment:

 To be a successful student, good study habits are more important than intelligence in
many ways (T.S).
 Although there are advantages, group work has disadvantage in resulting dependency
(T.S).
 A vegetarian diet is one of the best ways to live a healthy life (T.S).
 Government should pass a strict measure to protect corruption (T.S).
 Schools and Universities must take a tough line on exam cheating (T.S).

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  As a result of human population growth, deforestation, and hunting, the number of Walia-
Ibex has declined ([Link]).
 Wealth distribution in Ethiopia is unfair mainly for three causes: poor government
governance, illegal contraband system, and weak corruption control ([Link]).
 Corruption hinders the growth of one country economy, bureaucracy, and good-
governance in several ways ([Link]).
 The large movement of people from rural to urban areas has major effects on city‘s
ability to provide housing, employment, and adequate sanitation services ([Link]).
 Although the number of universities has improved remarkably in Ethiopia in recent years,
it is still low in maintaining quality of education due to several reasons: lack of
unequipped laboratories, unqualified instructors, and scarcity of infrastructure ([Link]).

Types of Essay
Like paragraphs essays have four types: Expository, Narrative, Descriptive and Argumentative
Essays. What follows is a discussion of these four types.

Expository Essay
The main concern of an expository essay is explaining an idea, a point of view, a process or a
feeling. Therefore, giving detailed information on a subject is at the heart of this kind of essay.

The expository essay requires the writer to investigate an idea, evaluate evidence, expound on
the idea, and explain that idea in depth. This can be accomplished through the strategies of
definition, exemplification/illustration, classification/division, comparison/contrast, explaining
cause-effect relations and process analysis

An expository essay requires the following:

1. A clear and concise thesis statement that usually occurs in the introductory paragraph of
the essay.
2. Clear and logical transitions between the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.
3. Body paragraphs that include sufficient support, each paragraph explaining one general
idea.
4. A conclusion that does not simply restate the thesis, but readdresses it in light of the
evidence provided.

Narrative Essay
Narrative essays are event-full. When you write a narrative essay, you are telling a story. A
narrative essay is a writing that relates a series of events arranged in chronological/time order.
Effective narrative essays, like other types of essay, are clearly organized, make a central point,
and contain specific details relevant to this main point.

35
Narratives enable readers to follow the sequence of events or experiences by answering the
following questions: What happened? Who was/were involved? When did it happen? Where did
it happen? Why did it happen?

Tips on Writing a Narrative Essay

When writing a narrative essay, remember that you are sharing sensory and emotional details
with the reader.
1. Your words need to be vivid and colorful to help the reader feel the same feelings that
you felt.
2. Elements of the story need to support the point you are making and you need to
remember to make reference to that point in the first sentence.
3. You should make use of conflict and sequence like in any story.
4. You may use flashbacks and flash forwards to help the story build to a climax.
5. It is usually written in the first person, but third person may also be used
6. Remember, a well-written narrative essay tells a story and makes a point.

Descriptive Essay
A descriptive essay is one in which the writer thoroughly conveys an impression of a particular
subject with the help of his own insight and knowledge of the topic. Such an essay intends to
depict an imaginary picture of a particular subject like place, person, memory, experience or an
object. The key to writing the perfect descriptive essay is to provide enough vivid detail to help
the reader create a mental picture of what is being written about.

An effective description provides specific sensory details to paint a vivid picture of the thing
being described. This is realized through the use of concrete descriptive words and expressions
that appeal to the senses. Descriptive essays often combine objective description, observable
details and sensations, and subjective description, meaning, the impression the details and
sensations create on the writer. Descriptive writing, in the main, uses spatial order to organize
details logically.

Argumentative/Persuasive Essay
The underlying purpose of persuasive/argumentative essays is to convince the reader to agree
with the writer‘s viewpoints, facts, values, conclusions or outlook. These essays try to persuade
the reader to wear the writer‘s hat and view things the way the writer views them.

The topic in a persuasive essay must be one that can be seen from more than one angle, leading
to a debate or dispute. Debatable topics raise two conflicting viewpoints: the viewpoint the writer
supports and the one disfavored by the writer. As a result, the arguer tries to strengthen the view
he/she is for and to downplay the opposite view as roughly represented below:

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To make persuasive essays effective, you should consider the following tips:
I) Find a good topic: If the topic is not given, find one that will lead to conflicting points of
view. Then, generate information you can use as evidence to argue for or against the motion.

II) Consider both sides of the issue and take a position: In an argument, you should present
both sides of the controversy, making a critical assessment on the main aspects of this
controversy. Also, you need to show clearly your own stance.

III) Gather further evidence: The act of arguing involves providing proof to back up your
claim. Therefore, you should gather sufficient sound evidences which lead to a strong logical
conclusion.

IV) Write the essay: Once you have established a foundation with evidences, you can begin to
develop the essay. Like other essays, an argumentative essay has three parts: the introduction,
the body and the conclusion. Thus, the following steps are taken into account in crafting a
persuasive essay:
1. Introduce the topic and take a stance: The first paragraph should contain a brief
orientation into the topic, some background information and a thesis statement which
shows the writer‘s position about the particular motion.
2. Present both sides of the controversial point: In the body of the essay, the writer must
provide enough details about both sides of the controversy. Here, the writer strengthens
the view he/she supports and strongly refutes the opposite view through the presentation
of strong evidences.
3. In the conclusion, re-estate your position as the most important one.

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