Evolution
Evolution
Evolution
EVOLUTION –
1. Concept of Evolution
● Evolution = “unfolding or unrolling” of life; Gradual change from one form to another.
● Reveals hidden characters of organisms through generations.
● Organic evolution = formation of more complex organisms from simpler ones.
● Evolutionary Biology = study of history of life forms on Earth.
● Evolution Characteristics : slow, continuous, irreversible, adaptive.
2. Origin of Life
2.1 Theories
1. Special Creation Theory – Father Suarez (Supported by Milton and Carl Linnaeus)
○ Life created by supernatural power.
○ Bible: Adam & Eve; Hindu mythology: Manu & Shradha.
○ Not scientifically accepted.
Evolution
2. Abiogenesis / Spontaneous Generation – Aristotle, Epicurus, Von Helmont
○ Life arises from non-living matter.
○ Aristotle : Life arises spontaneously from non-living matter (e.g., worms from dung, frogs from mud)
○ Epicurus; living beings could arise naturally from earth, air, warmth, and moisture through atomic combinations.
○ Von Helmont: wheat + sweaty cloth → rats in 21 days.
○ Disproved experimentally:
■ Francesco Redi → meat + jars → maggots appear only in uncovered jar.
■ Lazzaro Spallanzani → boiled hay infusion → growth only after exposure to air.
■ Louis Pasteur → Swan-neck flask → microbes trapped; disproved abiogenesis.
Evolution
3. Biogenesis – Louis Pasteur (1864)
○ Life arises only from pre-existing life (Omnis vivum ex vivo).
4. Panspermia / Cosmozoic Theory – Richter, Arrhenius
○ Life came to Earth as spores from space.
○ Criticism: spores may not survive extreme conditions of outer space.
5. Modern Chemical Evolution (Oparin–Haldane Hypothesis) – Oparin, Haldane, 1920s
○ Life originated via chemical evolution in reducing atmosphere.
○ Early Earth: CH₄, NH₃, H₂, H₂O, high temperature, no free O₂.
○ Energy sources: UV radiation, lightning, volcanic heat.
○ Formation of amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, nucleotides.
○ Aggregates → Coacervates / Protocells (Eobionts) → first living forms.
○ Early life: anaerobic heterotrophs → later photosynthetic organisms → O₂ → aerobic life.
○ Retrogressive evolution → viruses (simpler from complex).
2.2 Miller–Urey Experiment (1953)
● Scientists: Stanley Miller & Harold Urey.
● Simulated primitive Earth atmosphere (CH₄, NH₃, H₂, H₂O vapour) + electric discharge.
● After one week, obtained: amino acids, urea, lactic acid, acetic acid.
● Evidence for abiotic synthesis of organic molecules.
Evolution
Big Bang Theory
Proposed by: Lemaitre.
● Universe originated about 15 billion years ago from a thermonuclear
explosion of a dense matter → called the Big Bang.
● Universe expanded → temperature decreased.
● Hydrogen (H) & Helium (He) formed later.
Formation of Galaxies & Earth
● Gases condensed under gravity → formed galaxies.
● Our Milky Way Galaxy formed.
● In this galaxy, the solar system developed.
● Earth formed ~4.5 billion years ago.
● Early Earth had no atmosphere.
Evolution
Early Atmosphere of the Earth
● Gases released from molten Earth: H₂O vapour, CH₄, CO₂, NH₃.
● O₂ reacted with CH₄ and NH₃ → formed H₂O, CO₂, other compounds.
● UV rays from Sun split water → H₂ + O₂.
○ H₂ escaped (being lighter).
○ O₂ remained.
Cooling & Oceans
● As Earth cooled → water vapour condensed → rainfall.
● Rain filled depressions → oceans formed.
Appearance of Life
● Life appeared ~500 million years after Earth formed (≈ 4 billion years ago).
● Organic Evolution: The gradual process by which living organisms change over generations,
leading to the development of new species from common ancestors.
Evolution
3. Evidences of Evolution
3.1 Morphological & Anatomical Evidence
1. Homologous Organs – same origin, different function → divergent evolution.
○ Examples: Forelimbs of man, whale, bat, horse; Thorns of Bougainvillea vs tendrils of Cucurbita.
2. Analogous Organs – different origin, same function → convergent evolution.
○ Examples: Wings of insects & birds; Flippers of dolphins & fins of fish; Stings of honeybee & scorpion.
3. Vestigial Organs – degenerate/non-functional organs.
○ Humans: Appendix, coccyx, wisdom teeth, nictitating membrane, auricular muscles, male nipples, body hair.
○ Birds: Wings of ostrich, kiwi, emu, cassowary, rhea, dodo.
4. Connecting Links – organisms with features of two groups.
○ Examples:
■ Archaeopteryx: reptiles + birds
■ Latimeria (Coelacanth): fish + amphibians
■ Peripatus: annelid + arthropod
■ Neopilina: mollusc + annelid
■ Balanoglossus: chordates + non-chordates
■ Platypus: reptiles + mammals
■ Euglena: plants + animals
■ Sphenodon: amphibians + reptiles
5. Atavism – reappearance of ancestral traits.
○ Examples: Human tail, thick body hair, extra nipples, Darwin’s tubercle.
Evolution
3.2 Embryological Evidence
● Early embryos of vertebrates (fish, salamander, tortoise, chick, man) resemble each other.
● Features: gill-slits, notochord, tail.
● Haeckel’s Biogenetic Law: Ontogeny recapitulates Phylogeny.
● Supports common ancestry.
3.3 Palaeontological Evidence
● Study of fossils = direct evidence of evolution.
● Older rocks → simple organisms; newer rocks → complex.
● Fossils trace evolutionary lineage:
○ Archaeopteryx: bird + reptile
○ Horse evolution: Eohippus → Equus
○ Elephant evolution: Moeritherium → Mastodon → Elephas
3.4 Biogeographical Evidence
● Proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace.
● Geographical isolation → adaptive radiation.
● Examples: Darwin’s finches, Australian marsupials, Galápagos tortoises.
Evolution
3.5 Molecular Evidence
● Universality of:
○ DNA/RNA, ATP, ribosomes, 20–22 amino acids.
● Sequence similarity of proteins & nucleic acids → relatedness.
● Molecular clock → estimates divergence time.
Evolution
4. Theories of Evolution
4.1 Lamarckism / Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characters (me Jean-Baptiste Lamarck,
1809)
● Internal vital force: Organisms constantly develop parts.
● Effect of environment & new needs: Change in environment → new needs → new structures (Appetency).
● Use & Disuse:
○ Organs used → develop; organs unused → degenerate.
○ Example: Giraffe’s long neck.
● Inheritance of acquired characters: Changes passed to next generations → new species.
● Criticism:
○ No vital force exists.
○ Acquired characters usually not inherited (e.g., muscles of wrestlers).
4.2 Neo-Lamarckism
● Modified form of Lamarckism.
● Environment influences heredity; only changes affecting germ cells passed to offspring.
● Internal vital force & appetency → not considered.
Evolution
4.3 Darwinism / Natural Selection (Charles Darwin, 1859)
● Key concepts:
○ Overproduction → struggle for existence.
○ Variation exists in population.
○ Survival of fittest → advantageous traits preserved.
○ Nature selects best-suited organisms.
● Alfred Wallace: Similar ideas, common ancestry.
● Example: Industrial melanism → Peppered moth (Biston betularia)
○ Light-colored moths → Pre-industrial
○ Dark-colored moths → post-industrial (soot)
4.4 Adaptive Radiation / Divergent Evolution
● Evolution of different species from common ancestor in a geographical area.
● Example: Darwin’s Finches (Galápagos)
○ 13 species with varied beak shapes → adapted to seeds, insects, vegetation.
Evolution
4.5 Mutation Theory (Hugo de Vries, 1901)
● Sudden, heritable mutations → new traits.
● Example: Evening Primrose (Oenothera lamarckiana).
4.6 Modern Synthetic Theory / Neo-Darwinism
● Combines Darwin’s natural selection + Mendelian genetics.
● Factors:
○ Mutations → source of variation
○ Genetic recombination → gamete formation
○ Gene flow → migration between populations
○ Genetic drift → random change in small populations
○ Natural selection → differential survival/reproduction
Evolution
5. Mechanisms of Evolution
1. Variation → natural differences in population.
2. Mutation → sudden change in gene/DNA → raw material for evolution.
3. Recombination → new gene combinations during meiosis.
4. Genetic Drift → random changes in small populations.
5. Gene Flow → mixing of genes between populations.
6. Natural Selection → survival & reproduction of best-adapted.
Evolution
6. Speciation
● Formation of new species from existing species.
6.1 Types
1. Allopatric Speciation → geographical isolation → new species.
2. Sympatric Speciation → reproductive isolation without geographical barrier.
3. Polyploidy (plants) → chromosome doubling → instant speciation.
Evolution
7. Human Evolution
7.1 Anthropology
● Study of human evolution, culture, fossils, and prehistoric man.
● Genealogy = sequential arrangement of evolutionary stages.
Lineage
Dryopithecus → Ramapithecus → Australopithecus → Homo habilis → Homo erectus → Neanderthal man → Cro-Magnon → Homo sapiens.
Features
● Dryopithecus (15 mya): ape-like, arboreal, ancestor of apes & man.
● Ramapithecus (14–15 mya): smaller canines, large molars.
● Australopithecus (5 mya): bipedal, brain 500 cc.
● Homo habilis (2 mya): tool maker, 650–800 cc brain.
● Homo erectus (1.5 mya): upright, 900 cc brain, used fire, tools.
● Neanderthal man (100k–40k ya): 1400 cc, hides, burial culture.
● Cro-Magnon (40k ya): advanced culture, cave paintings, 1600 cc.
● Homo sapiens sapiens (25k ya → present): modern man; agriculture ~10k ya
Evolution
7.2 Human Classification
● Phylum → Chordata
● Subphylum → Vertebrata
● Class → Mammalia
● Order → Primates
● Family → Hominidae
● Genus → Homo
● Species → sapiens
7.3 Stages of Human Evolution
Species Time Period Features Special features
Dryopithecus 15 mya Ape-like, arboreal, hairy, knuckle-walker, soft fruits Common ancestor of apes & humans
Ramapithecus 14–15 mya More man-like, small canines, large molars Ate hard nuts & seeds
Australopithecus 5 mya Bipedal, ape brain (~500 cc), no chin Omnivorous, human-like teeth
Homo habilis 2.5–1.5 mya 650–800 cc brain, tool maker “Handy man”
Homo erectus 1.5 mya 900 cc brain, tall (1.5–1.8 m), fire, big game hunter Erect man
Neanderthal 1,00,000–40,000 ya 1400 cc brain, buried dead, used hides Central Asia & Near East
Cro-Magnon 40,000–10,000 ya Painter, advanced tools Direct ancestor of modern humans
Homo sapiens 25,000 ya Modern man, agriculture (~10,000 ya) Thinner skull bones, vertebral curves formed
sapiens