Introduction to

Statistics and Data

Analysis
DR. KAVITA
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS, TIET PATIALA
WHAT IS STATISTICS?

 Statistics deals with the collection, analysis,

interpretation, and the presentation of the scientific data.
 The Japanese industrial miracle which began in the middle
of 19th century is mostly because of use of statistical
methods and statistical thinking among the management.
 In current days we can say ‘DATA is SUPREME’. Its like a
mine and you can dig information as valuable as gold out of
it.
TYPES Of STATISTICS.

 Statistics can be classified into two different categories. The two

different types of Statistics are:
 Descriptive Statistics
 Inferential Statistics
 In Statistics, descriptive statistics describes the data,
whereas inferential statistics helps you make predictions from
the data.
 Comparison Chart
Basis for comparison Descriptive statistics Inferential statistics

Meaning Descriptive Statistics is that Inferential Statistics is a type of

branch of statistics which is statistics, that focuses on drawing
concerned with describing the conclusions about the population, on
population under study. the basis of sample analysis and
observation.

What it does? Organize, analyze and present Compares, test and predicts data.
data in a meaningful way.

Form of final Result Charts, Graphs and Tables Probability

Usage To describe a situation. To explain the chances of occurrence

of an event.

Function It explains the data, which is It attempts to reach the conclusion

already known, to summarize to learn about the population, that
sample. extends beyond the data available.
 Population and Sample
 A population is entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.
 A sample is the specific group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample
is always less than the total size of the population.
 You want to study political attitudes in young people. Your population is the 300,000
undergraduate students (POPULATION). Because it’s not practical to collect data
from all of them, you use a sample of 300 undergraduate volunteers (SAMPLE) from
three different universities– this is the group who will complete your online survey.
Population parameter vs. sample statistic

 When you collect data from a population or a sample, there are various
measurements and numbers you can calculate from the data.
 A parameter is a measure that describes the whole population.
 A statistic is a measure that describes the sample.
 You can use estimation or hypothesis testing to estimate how likely it
is that a sample statistic differs from the population parameter.
 Sampling error: A sampling error is the difference between a
population parameter and a sample statistic
Experimental design
 Data for statistical studies are obtained by conducting either experiments
or surveys.
 Experimental design is the branch of statistics that deals with the design
and analysis of experiments.
 In an experimental study, variables of interest are identified. One or more
of these variables, referred to as the factors of the study, are controlled
so that data may be obtained about how the factors influence another
variable referred to as the response variable, or simply the response.
 consider an experiment designed to determine the effect of three different
exercise programs on the cholesterol level of patients with elevated
cholesterol. Each patient is referred to as an experimental unit, the
response variable is the cholesterol level of the patient at the completion of
the program, and the exercise program is the factor whose effect on
cholesterol level is being investigated. Each of the three exercise programs
is referred to as a treatment.
Collection of Data: Sampling
 Sampling is the process of selecting a group of individuals (called sample) from a
population to study them and characterize the population as a whole.
 A good sample should satisfy the below conditions-
 Representativeness: The sample should be the best representative of the population
under study.
 Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample.
An accurate (unbiased) sample is one that exactly represents the population.
 Size: A good sample must be adequate in size and reliability.
 Different types of Sampling techniques: Probability sampling and Non-
probability sampling.
 Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make statistical
inferences about the whole group.
 Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect initial data.
Collection of Data: Sampling
 There are four types of probability sampling
techniques:
Simple random sampling
Cluster sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified random sampling
Collection of Data: Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling: Simple random sampling requires using randomly generated
numbers to choose a sample. More specifically, it initially requires a sampling frame, a
list or database of all members of a population. You can then randomly generate a
number for each element and take the first n samples that you require.
Collection of Data: Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling: Stratified random sampling starts off by dividing a
population into groups with similar attributes. Then a random sample is taken from
each group.

 This method is used to ensure that different segments in a population are equally
represented. To give an example, imagine a survey is conducted at a school to
determine overall satisfaction. It might make sense here to use stratified random
sampling to equally represent the opinions of students in each department.
Collection of Data: Sampling
 Cluster Random Sampling: Cluster sampling starts by dividing a population into
groups, or clusters. What makes this different that stratified sampling is that each
cluster must be representative of the population. Then, you randomly selecting entire
clusters to sample.
Collection of Data: Sampling
 Systematic Random Sampling: is a very common technique in which you sample every
k’th element. For example, if you were conducting surveys at a mall, you might survey
every 100th person that walks in, for example.
 If you have a sampling frame then you would divide the size of the frame, N, by the
desired sample size, n, to get the index number, k. You would then choose every k’th
element in the frame to create your sample.
Measures of location and variability
 Measures of location describe the central tendency of the data. They include
the mean, median and mode.
 The (arithmetic) mean, or average, of n observations is simply the sum of the
observations divided by the number of observations.
 The major advantage of the mean is that it uses all the data values, and is, in a
statistical sense, efficient.
 The main disadvantage of the mean is that it is vulnerable to outliers. Outliers
are single observations which, if excluded from the calculations, have noticeable
influence on the results. or example, if we had entered '21' instead of '2.1' in
the calculation of the mean of the data 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 2.1, then 21 is the
outlier. It will change the mean from 1.50kg to 7.98kg.
 It does not necessarily follow, however, that outliers should be excluded from
the final data summary, or that they always result from an erroneous
measurement.
 Measures of location and variability

 The median is defined as the middle point of the ordered data. It is estimated
by first ordering the data from smallest to largest, and then counting upwards
for half the observations. The estimate of the median is either the observation
at the center of the ordering in the case of an odd number of observations, or
the simple average of the middle two observations if the total number of
observations is even.
 The median has the advantage that it is not affected by outliers, so for example
the median for the data ‘1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 2.1’ would be unaffected by replacing
'2.1' with '21'. However, it is not statistically efficient, as it does not make use
of all the individual data values.
 Measures of location and variability

 A third measure of location is the mode. This is the value that occurs most
frequently, or, if the data are grouped, the grouping with the highest frequency.
 For example, in the data 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, the mode is 2 as it is occurring the
maximum number of times.
 It is not used much in statistical analysis, since its value depends on the accuracy
with which the data are measured; although it may be useful for categorical data
to describe the most frequent category.
 The expression 'bimodal' distribution is used to describe a distribution with two
peaks in it. This can be caused by mixing populations. For example, height might
appear bimodal if one had men and women on the population.
 If there is a single peak, then the data is called a unimodal data.
 Measures of location and variability
 Measures of dispersion describe the spread of the data. They include the range,
interquartile range, standard deviation and variance.
 The range is given as the smallest and largest observations. This is the simplest
measure of variability.
 Suppose we have the data 1, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10,11, 11, 15
 The range here is [1-15]
 If outliers are present it may give a distorted impression of the variability of
the data, since only two observations are included in the estimate.
Measures of location and variability
 The quartiles, namely the lower quartile, the median and the
upper quartile, divide the data into four equal parts
 The quartiles are calculated in a similar way to the median;
first arrange the data in size order and determine the
median.
 Now split the data in two (the lower half and upper half,
based on the median).
 The first quartile is the middle observation of the lower
half, and the third quartile is the middle observation of the
upper half.
 The interquartile range is a useful measure of variability and
is given by the lower and upper quartiles. In this case it is
[3-11].
 The interquartile range is not vulnerable to outliers and,
whatever the distribution of the data, we know that 50% of
observations lie within the interquartile range.
Measures of location and variability
 The estimated average of the deviations (from mean) squared is called the variance.

å ( x - m)
2

s 2
=
N
 Standard deviation is the square root of the variance. It is is the average distance
from the center(mean).

å( x - m )
2

s=
N
 Measures of location and variability
 Note that we use 𝜇 for the population mean and 𝑥ҧ for the sample mean.
 𝜎 for the standard deviation of the population and ‘s’ for the standard deviation
of the sample.
2
2  (x − x )
s =
n −1

 When calculating sample variance, we use (n – 1) in the denominator instead of n

because this tends to produce better estimates.
 Reason: The sample mean encapsulates exactly one bit of information from the
sample set, while the population mean does not. Thus, the sample mean gives one
less degree of freedom to the sample set.
For the following sample of 6 fishes’ length caught from
the lake , Find the variance of the length of fish.

x (x - x) (x - x)2 First calculate the

3 -3 9
mean which is 6.
4 -2 4
5 -1 1
6 0 0
8 2 4 Divide this by 5.
10 4 16
Sum 0 34
s2 = 6.8
Graphical representation of data
Graphical representation of data
Graphical representation of data
Graphical representation of data
Graphical representation of data
Graphical representation of data
Graphical representation of data