LASER

Dr. Rohini Sandip Chhatrala

Unit 3 Laser Physics
• Introduction to laser
• Laser and ordinary light
• Laser beam characteristics
• Spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiations
• Thermal equilibrium,
• Condition for Light amplification,
• Population inversion,
• Pumping (Three level and four level pumping),
• Optical resonator,
• Ruby laser,
• He-Ne Laser,
• Semiconductor Laser,
• Nd-YAG Laser,
• Engineering applications of Laser (Fiber optics, Laser material
interaction).
Introduction
• A laser is an unusual light source.
• It is coherent source of radiation
• LIGHT AMPLIFICATION by STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION
• A laser is different. Lasers do not occur in nature. However, we have
figured ways to artificially create this special type of light. Lasers
produce a narrow beam of light in which all of the light waves have
very similar wavelengths. The laser’s light waves travel together with
their peaks all lined up, or in phase. This is why laser beams are very
narrow, very bright, and can be focused into a very tiny spot.
• Lasers have many uses.
• They are used in precision tools and can cut through diamonds or thick
metal.
• They can also be designed to help in delicate surgeries.
• Lasers are used for recording and retrieving information. They are used
in communications and in carrying TV and internet signals.
• We also find them in laser printers, bar code scanners, and DVD players.
• They also help to make parts for computers and other electronics.
• Lasers are also used in instruments called spectrometers. Spectrometers
can help scientists figure out what things are made of. For example,
the Curiosity rover uses a laser spectrometer to see what kinds of
chemicals are in certain rocks on Mars.
 Laser beam characteristics
Laser light has four unique characteristics that differentiate it from ordinary
light: these are
• Coherence
• Directionality
• Monochromatic
• High intensity
 Coherence

IR = N Io
Lcoherence ~ 0.3 mm for monochromatic Na IR = N2 Io = N2 Eo2

Lcoherence ~ 100 m for He-Ne laser beam

Directionality
Angular divergence
ɸ = D2 –D1
L2 - L1
Where D2 and D1 are
beam diameter at
length L2 and L1
respectively
 Monochromatic
• Monochromatic light means a light containing a single color or
wavelength. The photons emitted from ordinary light sources
have different energies, frequencies, wavelengths, or colors.
Hence, the light waves of ordinary light sources have many
wavelengths or colors. Therefore, ordinary light is a mixture of
waves having different frequencies or wavelengths.
• On the other hand, in laser, all the emitted photons have the
same energy, frequency, or wavelength. Hence, the light waves
of laser have single wavelength or color. Therefore, laser light
covers a very narrow range of frequencies or wavelengths.

Light from traditional monochromatic source spreads over a wavelength range 100 – 1000 å
On the other hand light spread < 10 å in case of laser
High intensity
I = P/A= {[10/]2 P})

• Intensity of a wave is the energy per unit time flowing through a unit
normal area.
• A 100 Watt lamp filament from a distance of 30 cm, the power
entering your eye is less than 1/1000 of a watt.
• Thus, even a 1 Watt laser would appear many thousand times more
intense than 100 Watt ordinary lamp.
• Calculate the divergence of He-Ne laser beam, which produces spot
diameter of 4 mm and 6 mm at 1 m and 2 m distances respectively.

• Beam divergence,

ɸ = D2 –D1 = (6-4) x 10-3 m = 2 x 10-3 radian = 0.1147 degree

L2 - L1 (2 – 1 ) m
• A 10 mW laser has a beam diameter of 1.6 mm. what is the intensity
of light assuming that it is uniform across the beam?

I = P/A = 10 x 10-3
3.14 x (0.8 x 10-3 m)2
= 4.97 kW/m2
 E= hν=hc/λ=E2-E1
α

K L

R
()
Spectral
density
A +hνA
P12  ()

P12  N1

P12abs = B12 N1() Rate of absorption Rabs = -dN1/dt= dN2/dt

B12 = Einstein’s co-efficient of
stimulated absorption
E2
E2
Upper energy level
Upper energy level
Or Excited state
Or Excited state
N2-no of atoms in E2

E1
E1
Lower energy level
Lower energy level
Or Ground state
Or Ground state
N1 – no of atoms in E1
Before absorption
After absorption
 A  A +hν Rate of spontaneous emission Rspt = -dN2/dt= dN1/dt
• Incident and emitted photons are out of
P21  ()
phase or random phase
• Plane of polarization for incident and
P21  N2
Emitted photons are not same
• The resultant radiation is incoherent
P21spt = A21 N2
• Iavg = N I0
• 1/ A21 - represents average life time of
A21= Einstein’s co-efficient of
spontaneous emission 10-8 to 10-9 excited state
sec
E2 E2
Upper energy level Upper energy level
Or Excited state Or Excited state
E= hν=hc/λ=E2-E1

E1 E1
Lower energy level Lower energy level
Or Ground state Or Ground state

Before spontaneous emission After spontaneous emission

 A +hν  A +2hν
• Incident and emitted photons are in-phase
P21stimulated emission  ()
• Plane of polarization for incident and
Emitted photons are same
P21stimulated emission  N2
• The resultant radiation is coherent
• I = N2 I0
P21stimulated emission = B21 N2 ()
•
B21= Einstein’s co-efficient of
stimulated emission
Rate of stimulated emission Rstimulated = -dN2/dt= dN1/dt
E2 E2
Upper energy level Upper energy level
Or Excited state Or Excited state

E1 E1
Lower energy level Lower energy level
Or Ground state Or Ground state
Stimulated Emission
Characterized by some very important features:
Emitted and incident photon is identical in all
respects as Frequency, Phase, Direction
The process is controllable from outside
Multiplication of photons takes place
The number of photons builds up in avalanch-
like manner
It suggests that electromagnetic waves of
extremely high amplitude could be generated by
the combined stimulated emmisions from a large
samples of atoms leading to amplification of light
The process of stimulated emission is the key to
the operation of a laser.
Thermal equilibrium
Rate of absorption = Rate of emission

Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

P12abs = P21 spt +P21stimulated

B12 N1 () = A21N2 + B21 N2 ()

E2
Upper energy level E2
Or Excited state Upper energy level
Or Excited state

E1 E1
Lower energy level Lower energy level
Or Ground state Or Ground state
I = I0exp(-αx)

For light amplification, α is -ve

Thermal equilibrium, α is positive

1. Absorption
2. Scattering
Conditions for light amplification
1. Stimulated emission to dominate the spontaneous emission
• R1 = Rate of stimulated emission >>1
Rate of spontaneous emission
• R1= B21 N2 () = B21 ()
A21 N2 A21

1. Spectral density must be large: optical resonator

2. Average life time of excited state should be large:
metastable states
Conditions for light amplification
2. stimulated emission to dominate the stimulated absorption
• R2 = Rate of stimulated emission
Rate of stimulated absorption
• R2= B21 N2 () = B21 N2 = N2
B12 N1 () B12 N1 N1
From quantum mechanics, B12 = B21

3. N2 > > N1: Population Inversion

• Population of state E1, N1 = exp (-E1/kBT)
• Population of state E2, N2= exp (-E2/kBT)

• Relative population, N2 = exp [-(E2-E1)/kBT)]

N1
• N2 = exp [-(E2-E1/kBT)]=exp (-hν/kBT)= exp (-hc/λkBT)
N1
Calculate the relative population for H2 atom at 300 K and at 6000K

Given: E1 = -13.6 eV
E2 = -3.39 eV
k= 1.38 x 10-23 J/K or 8.625 x 10-5 eV/K
kT = 8.625 x 10-5 x 6000 = 0.5172 eV

N2/N1 = exp [-(E2-E1)/kT] N2/N1 = exp [-(E2-E1)/kT]

= exp[-(-3.39+13.6)/0.026] = exp[-(-3.39+13.6)/0.5172]

= exp [-10.21/0.026] = exp [-10.21/ 0.5172]

= exp [-392.7] = exp [-19.741]

=2.83 x 10-171 =2.67 x 10-9

N2/N1 = 2/10171 N2/N1 = 2/109

The ground state is highly populated and The ground state is highly populated and
there is almost negligible no of atoms in state there is almost negligible no of atoms in state
E2. E2.
N2/N1 = exp [-(E2-E1)/kT]
• Relative, population depends on
1. T= absolute temperature
2. Energy difference E=E2-E1
• If T , N2/N1  1???
• If E=E2-E1 0, N2/N1  1???
• In either case, N1 N2 but not possible to get N2 > N1 in thermal equilibrium or
Normal state.

What if T is NEGATIVE??
• The state having –ve temperature means its Non-equilibrium state. Population
inversion (N2>N1) is Non-equilibrium state.
• It can achieve for momentarily or certain fraction of time.
 Metastable states In order to establish the condition of
population inversion, the excited atoms
are required to ‘wait’ at the upper
energy level till a large number of
atoms accumulate at that level, it is
necessary that the excited state has a
longer lifetime. A metastable state is
such a state.
There could be no population inversion and
hence no laser action, if metastable states do not
exists

1/A21 – average life time of excited state should be large

Pumping

Pumping is a process of exciting and lifting atoms from lower

energy state to higher energy state by means of external
energy given to the particles
1) Optical pumping : Solid State Laser: Ruby & Nd:YAG LASER
2) Electrical pumping: Gas laser: He-Ne LASER
3) Direct conversion: Diode laser
The principal Pumping Schemes: Laser
Operation
Three level system

E3
Fast transition

E2

Laser action
E1
Possible Transitions
• E1E3 Pumping
• E3E2 Spontaneous emission.
• E2E1 Stimulated emission.
• Population inversion between states E2 and E1
• State E2 is a metastable state

27
The principal Pumping Schemes: Laser
Operation
Four level system

Possible Transitions
• E1E4 Pumping
• E4E3 , E2E1 spontaneous
emission.
• E3E2 Stimulated
emission.
• Population inversion
between states E3 and E2
• State E3 is a metastable
state

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 E.t ~ h

t ~ h/ E ~ 

N2/N1 = exp [-(E2-E1)/kT]

 Radiation density should be large: Optical Resonator

A medium in which light gets amplified is called and active medium.

Medium – Solid, Liquid or a Gas
Active Centres: A small fraction of atoms of a particular species are responsible for
stimulated emission and consequent light amplification.
Remaining atoms plays a role of host and supports active centres
Optical resonator
 L

()2L = nn  = n+1 - n =

2 = Standing
wave
amplitude
n = 

( )
n+1 =

()2L = nn n=1, 2L = nn

2 = 2L = (1)1
n=2, L

n = 2L = (2)2
 = n+1 - n =
( ) L = 2
n+1 =
Standing
n=3, wave
amplitude
2L = (3)3 


Ruby LASER Solid state laser
Three level pumping scheme
Optical pumping
Al2O3 (Host) + Cr3+ (active centers ~0.05%)
Al3+ is replaced by Cr3+ is active centers

 The active laser medium (laser gain/amplification medium) is a synthetic ruby

rod. Ruby is an aluminum oxide crystal in which some of the aluminum atoms
have been replaced with chromium atoms(0.05% by weight).
 Chromium gives ruby its characteristic red color and is responsible for the lasing
behavior of the crystal. Chromium atoms absorb green and blue light and emit
only red light.
 For a ruby laser, a crystal of ruby is formed into a cylinder.
 The laser requires high pumping power because the laser
transition terminates at the ground state and more than half
of ground state atoms must be pumped to higher state to
achieve population inversion.
 The efficiency of ruby laser is very low because only green
component of the pumping light is used while the rest of
components are left unused.
 The laser output is not continuous but occurs in the form of
pulses of microseconds duration.
 The defects due to crystalline imperfection are also present
in this laser.
GAS LASER: HELIUM-NEON LASER
• The setup consists of a discharge tube of length 80 cm and bore
diameter of 1.5cm.
• The gain medium of the laser is a mixture of helium and neon gases,
in a 10:1 ratio, contained at low pressure (an average 50 Pa per cm of
cavity length ) in a glass container.
• The energy or pump source of the laser is provided by an electrical
discharge of around 1000 volts through an anode and cathode at
each end of the glass tube. A current of 5 to 100 mA is typical for
operation.
• The optical cavity of the laser typically consists of a plane, high-
reflecting mirror at one end of the laser tube, and a concave output
coupler mirror of approximately 10% transmission at the other end.
• HeNe lasers are normally small, with cavity lengths of around 15 cm
up to 0.5 m, and optical output powers ranging from 1 mW to 100
mW.

36
 Energy Level diagram of He-Ne laser

• The Narrow red beam of He-Ne laser is used in supermarkets to read bar codes.
• The He- Ne Laser is used in Holography in producing the 3D images of objects.
37
• He-Ne lasers have many industrial and scientific uses, and are often used in laboratory demonstrations of optics.
Nd:YAG laser: solid state laser
Nd:YAG = Nd:Y3Al5O12 (yttrium aluminum garnet)
It is a four level laser with high fluorescence efficiency
optical pumping is used to excite the active centers
Y3+ is replaced by Nd3+ (~0.725 %) atoms
Nd3+ are act as active centers and YAG is the host
 The most studied of all the solid state lasers, Nd:YAG was invented in 1964.
 It is the classical choice for 1064 nm, but also usable at 946 nm and 1320 nm
(and a few other lines)

38
Nd-YAG LASER

• Pumping:Krypton arc flash lamp in the infrared region of the absorption bands of Nd-
YAG. (5000 to 8000 A)
• Active material:Nd3+ in the form of Nd-YAG.
• Length of Nd-YAG rod is around 5 to 10 cm and diameter is about 6 to 9 mm.
• Active rod and flash lamp are located at the foci of the ellipse of an elliptical reflector
cavity.
• Air or water is used as a coolant to avoid the overheating the apparatus. 39
Energy level diagram
• Applications:
• Welding
• Cutting, hole drilling
• High quality machining
• In surgery without any
operations

Nd-YAG Laser wavelength: 1.06 micrometer (In IR region)

Output power: 1-5 kW
 Semiconductor Diode Laser

Figure shows schematic of diode laser.

The diode is extremely small in size. Typical diode chips are 500 micrometer long and 100
micrometer wide and thick. Metal contacts are provided to pass the current through the diode.
The front and rear faces are polished parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of
the junction.
The polished faces constitute the Fabry Perot resonator.
The two remaining sides of the diode are roughened to eliminate lasing action in that direction.
41
 ● On P-side EF is in the valence band (VB)
● On the N-side EF is in the conduction band (CB).
● Energy levels up to the fermi level are occupied
by electrons.
● When there is no applied voltage the fermi level is
continuous across the diode.

An adequate forward bias is required to develop injection carriers across a junction to initiate

a population inversion between energies at VB and energies at CB.

 Laser Diode (intrinsics)
● Space charge layer (SCL) is very narrow ~ .

● Vo (built in voltage) prevents electrons in CB of n-side from diffusing into CB of p-side.

● There is a similar barrier preventing hole diffusion from p to n sides.

● Assuming an applied voltage (eV) greater than the bandgap energy are now separated by eV.

● eV diminishes barrier potential to 0 allowing electrons to flow into SCL and over to p side to
establish diode current.

44
Density of States

More electrons in the CB at energies near Ec than electrons in VB near Ev.

This is the result of a Population Inversion in energies near EC and EV.

The region where the population inversion occurs develops a layer along
the junction called an inversion layer or active region.

45
EX.1.
Find the relative population of two states in He-Ne
laser that produces light of wavelength 632.8 nm.
T ~ 300 K
EX.2.
Find the relative population of two states in Ruby
laser that produces light of wavelength 694.3 nm
at room temperature.
EX.3.
Find the relative population of two states in
NdYAG laser that produces light of wavelength
1.06 m. T ~ 300 K
In He-Ne laser, the two mirrors forming cavity are distanced at 0.5 m. what is the mode separation in terms of
cavity?
A typical He-Ne laser emits radiation of 632.8 nm how many photons per second are emitted by 1 mW He-Ne
laser?