Unit 1 – Mathematical Principles

“Stoicheion” means element

“metron” means measure

Process (from engineering perspectivse)

Industrial and environmental processes involve a sequence of operations and events that require
time, space, expertise, or other resources, ultimately leading to the production of a specific
outcome.
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Unit operations
Unit operations are operations in which changes are primarily caused by the transfer of energy.
They involve the physical separation of products obtained during various unit processes,
without any chemical change taking place. Examples include screening, distillation,
evaporation, decantation, and crystallization of sugar from sugar solutions.
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Types of Unit Operations in Chemical Engineering

1) Mass Transfer Operations

Operation in which mass is transferred by using chemical potential difference as driving
force. e.g., gas absorption, extraction, drying etc.
2) Fluid flow operations/Momentum transfer operations
Operations which involve fluid transportation, filtration, and solid fluidization
3) Heat Transfer Operation
Operations in which temperature difference is the driving force, e.g., Heat transfer,
Evaporation
4) Mechanical Operations
Operations in which external mechanical force is used as a driving force, e.g., Crushing,
Screening etc.
5) Thermodynamic Operations
Operation in which energy is transferred from one place to another so that we get desired
output. e.g., Refrigeration, Liquefication etc.
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Unit process
Unit processes involves chemical changes and implies commercialization of chemical reactions
under economically profitable conditions. e.g., sulfonation, oxidation, hydrolysis, alkylation,
reduction reaction, halogenation, production of ethanol from a sugar solution.

Unit processes in chemical Industry

Combustion, Sulfonation, Oxidation, Hydrolysis, Alkylation, Condensation, Polymerization,
Double decomposition, Nitration, Reduction, Halogenation, Esterification, Ion exchange, etc.

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Types of process

Batch and semi-batch, continuous: Based on how the process is designed to operate
Steady, unsteady, lumped, distributed: Based on how the process varies with time and spatial
coordinates.
Multiphase contact: Based on how the process is operated with phase contact.
Steady State Process: Process variable (i.e., T, P, V, flow rates, etc.) do not change with time.
Unsteady state or transient state process: Process variables (i.e., T, P, V, flow rates, etc.)
change with time.
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Atomic Weight (or Atomic mass)
It is defined as the average weight of an element with respect to all its isotopes and their
relative abundances.

OR

It is also defined as mass of the atom of the element based on the scale that assigns carbon a
mass of exactly twelve. Atomic weight is measured in units of atomic mass (usually
abbreviated to AMU), also known as Daltons.

Molecular Weight (or molecular mass or molar mass)

Molecular weight is a measure of the sum of the atomic weight values of the atoms in a
molecule.

eg.,

1) Molecular weight of Methane (CH4)

Atomic weight of C = 12

Atomic weight of H = 1

Molecular weight of CH4 = 12 + 4 x 1 = 16

2) Molecular weight of Potassium dichromate (K2CR2O7)?
Atomic weight of K = 39

Atomic weight of Cr = 52

Atomic weight of O = 16

Molecular weight of K2CR2O7 = 2 x (39) + 2 x (52) + 7 x (16)

= 78 + 104 +112 = 294

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Gram Atom

Gram atom is defined as the atomic weight of an element in grams.

E.g., One gram atom of sodium (Na) is 23 grams. and
One gram atom of sulphur (S) is 32 grams

What is a Mole?

A mole is defined as the amount of a substance that contains exactly 6.02214076 x

1023 ‘elementary entities’ of the given substance.
The number 6.02214076 x 1023 is popularly known as the Avogadro constant and is often
denoted by the symbol ‘NA’. For example, one mole of a pure carbon-12 (12C) sample will
have a mass of exactly 12 grams and will contain 6.02214076 x 1023 (NA) number of 12C
atoms. The number of moles of a substance in a given pure sample can be represented by the
following formula:
𝑁
𝑛= ;
𝑁𝐴

where n is the number of moles of the substance (or elementary entity), N is the total number
of elementary entities in the sample, and NA is the Avogadro constant.

OR

A mole is defined as the amount of substance equal to molecular weight

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Mole Fraction

Number of moles of a particular substance in a mixture or solution divided by the total

number of moles present in the mixture or solution.
𝑛𝐴
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 + 𝑛𝐶

Example:
Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass in CCl4?

Basis: Take total mass of the solution as 100 g.

∴ Mass of benzene = 30 g
∴ Mass of CCl4 = (100 – 30) g = 70 g
Benzene’s molar mass (C6H6) = (6 × 12 + 6 × 1) g mol–1 = 78 g mol–1

Hence, C6H6’s number of moles =30/78 mol = 0.3846 mol

Molar mass of CCl4 = 1 × 12 + 4 × 355 = 154 g mol–1

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∴ CCl4’s number of moles = 70/154 mol = 0.4545 mol

Mole fraction of C6H6 = [number of moles of C6H6 / number of moles of C6H6 + number of
moles of (CCl4) ] X 100%

= 0.3846/ 0.3846 + 0.4545 = 0.458

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Mass (weight) Fraction

Mass (weight) of the substance divided by the total mass (weight) of all of the substances
present in the mixture or solution.

Standard Temperature and Pressure Normal Temperature and Pressure

(S.T.P) (N.T.P)

Pressure = 1.01325 x 105 N/m2, (or Pa) Pressure = 1.01325 x 105 N/m2, (or Pa)

T = 273 K, (0 °C) T = 293 K or 297 K, (20 °C or 25 °C)

At this condition for an ideal gas, At this condition for an ideal gas,

V = 22.4 m3/mol V = 22.4 m3/mol

Uses of STP Uses of NTP

STP is mostly used as a reference point for NTP (Normal Temperature and Pressure) is
measuring and comparing substances, fluid used in physics for calibration of
mechanics, acoustics, astrophysics etc. instruments, comparison of data, prediction
of behaviour, thermodynamic calculation
etc.

Molarity (M) is defined as the number of gmol of solute dissolved in 1 litre of solution.

Normality (N) is defined as the number of gram equivalents dissolved in 1 litre of

solution.

Concentration in g/lit = Normality (N) x equivalent weight

Equivalent weight is the mass of a substance in grams that would react with or replace one
gram of hydrogen.
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
e.g., 1. The equivalent weight of H2SO4 is given by the equation
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 =
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒

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 98
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 = = 49 𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡
2
2. The equivalent weight of NaOH is given by the equation
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 =
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
40
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = = 40 𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡
1
Molality is defined as the number of gmol of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram of solvent.

Limiting reactant

In most chemical reactions, the reactants are not used in stoichiometric proportions or
quantities. One of the reactants is usually present in excess and remains unreacted even after
the other reactant has completely reacted. The reactant in excess is called the excess reactant,
while the reactant present in a lesser quantity, which cannot fully react with the excess reactant,
is called the limiting reactant.

The limiting reactant is the one that would be depleted or consumed first if the reaction
proceeded to completion. A reactant is considered limiting if it is present in less than its
stoichiometric proportion relative to the other reactants.

Identifying the limiting reactant

The limiting reactant is the reactant or ingredient in a chemical reaction that is exhausted or
consumed first as the reaction proceeds. It can be determined by knowing the molecular
weights of the reactants and products and comparing the amounts of reactants to the balanced
chemical equation.

Conversion is the ratio of amount of material actually converted to that present initially.
It is based on limiting reactant.
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒

Yield is the amount of desired product actually formed compared to that which can be formed
theoretically. It is based on product formed.
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑒𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 100% 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣. ) =
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
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Boyle’s Law

According to Boyle’s law, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the
pressure at a constant pressure.

1
𝑉∝𝑃 @ constant T and P

V 𝜶 1/P at constant T V1 and V2 – initial and final volume

Or V = 1/P*constant P1 and P2 – initial and final pressure

Or PV = constant P1V1 = P2V2

Or PV = k (constant)
Charle’s Law
According to Charle’s law, volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to the
temperature at a constant pressure.
𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 @ constant pressure and closed system

Given V 𝜶 T at constant P V1 and V2 – initial and final volume

Or V = T*constant T1 and T2 – initial and final temperature

Or V/T = constant 𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Or V/T = m (constant)

Ideal Gas Laws

Why do we need to study laws related to GAS differently?

a) Gases assume the shape and volume of a container.
b) Gases are the most compressible of all the states of matter.
c) Gases will mix evenly and completely when confined to the same container.
d) Gases have lower densities than liquids or solids.
It was discovered by Émile Clapeyron a French physicist and engineer. An ideal gas is one
which obeys both Boyle’s law and Charle’s law and combining these two laws we get ideal gas
law. The ideal gas law is an equation that describes the relationship between pressure, volume,
temperature, and number of moles of gas.

• Ideal gas Law: PV = nRT

• Components of Ideal Gas Laws

Pressure (P): the force exerted by the gas per unit area (Pa or atm)
Volume (V): The space occupied by the gas (lit or cc)
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Temperature (T): Temperature of gas (K)

Number of moles (n): the amount of gas present (in moles)

Universal Gas Constant (R): R = 8.314 J/(K⋅mol) or 0.082057 L⋅atm/(K⋅mol)

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Partial Pressure

Partial pressure is the pressure that a single gas in a mixture would exert if it occupied the
entire volume of the mixture on its own, at the same temperature. It is a measure of the
contribution of that particular gas to the total pressure of the gas mixture.

Dalton’s Law
The sum of the partial pressures of the gases in a mixture is equal to the total pressure or P T =
PA + PB + PC + ...where Pi = the partial pressure of component i. It can also be represented as:

𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝛴𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑖 – no. of moles of component i.
𝑃𝑖 =
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 – Total no. of moles
𝑃𝑖 𝑉 = 𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑇 …In terms of Ideal Gas Laws
𝑃𝑖 𝑉 𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑇
=
𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑉 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑇
𝑛𝑖 …𝑦𝑖 = mole fraction of component i.
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
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Amagat’s Law
A law that states that for an ideal gas, the total volume occupied by a gaseous mixture is equal
to the sum of the pure component volumes (PVC).

Pure Component Volumes (PVC)

The PCV of a component gas that is present in a mixture of gases is the volume that would be
occupied by that component gas if it alone were present at the same pressure and temperature
as the mixture.

𝑉 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝐶 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
𝑉𝐴 – partial volume of component A or pure component volumes
Note: Unless otherwise specified, when a percentage or fraction is given for a gas, it is assumed
that it refers to a mole percentage or a mole fraction. When a percentage or fraction is given
for a liquid or a solid, it is assumed that it refers to a weight percentage or a weight fraction.
___________________________________________________________________________

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Henry’s Law

It states that at a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas that dissolves in a given type
and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium
with that liquid.

An equivalent way of stating the law is that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid:

𝐶 = 𝑘𝐻 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑠
where,
C is the solubility of a gas at a fixed temperature in a particular solvent (mol/L)
kH is Henry’s law constant (mol/[Link])
Pgas is the partial pressure of the gas (atm)

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Vapor Pressure: At the particular temperature, the pressure acted over the substance (solid or
liquid) at which the vapors are formed then that pressure is called vapor Pressure.

Raoult’s Law
The partial pressure of each component of an ideal mixture of liquids is equal to the vapor
pressure of the pure component (liquid or solid) multiplied by its mole fraction in the mixture.
𝑝1 = 𝑝10 𝑥1
𝑝2 = 𝑝20 𝑥2
𝑝3 = 𝑝30 𝑥3
𝑝0 − 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑝𝑇 = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + 𝑝3

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Problem 1: What is Henry's constant for neon dissolved in water given, CNe = 23.5 mL/L,
CNe = 23.5mL/L solution and STP (22414 mL/mole gas) and pressure (1 atm)?
Solution
Given:
Concentration of Neon in water (𝐶𝑁𝑒 ): 23.5 mL/L of solution
STP condition: 1 atm pressure, 22414 mL/mol for gas volume
Henry's law states that the concentration of a gas dissolved in a liquid is directly proportional
to the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid:
C = kH P
The concentration 𝐶𝑁𝑒 is given as 23.5 mL of neon per litre of solution (mL/L), but this needs
to be converted to mol/L. To do this we use the fact that at STP, 1 mole of neon occupies 22414
mL. Therefore, to convert 23.5 mL of neon to moles, we use the following conversion
We need C in terms of Molarity (M). Since Ne is a gas, we can the following equation as,
23.5 𝑚𝐿/𝐿
𝐶= ≈ 0.001048 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
22414 𝑚𝐿/𝑚𝑜𝑙
Apply Henry’s law,
Given that the pressure P is 1 atm at STP, Henry’s constant kH can be calculated using:
𝐶
𝑘𝐻 =
𝑃
Since, P = 1 atm, Henry’s constant kH is simply;
0.001048 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
𝑘𝐻 = = 0.001048 𝑚𝑜𝑙/(𝐿 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚)
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
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Problem 2. A solution of caustic soda contains 20% NaOH by weight. The density of the
solution is 1.196 kg/l. Find the Normality, Molarity and Molality of the solution.
Solution:
Given, Weight percentage of NaOH = 20%
Density of the solution = 1.196 kg/L
Molar mass of NaOH (M) = 40 g/mol
Molarity (M): Number of moles of solute per litre of solution.
Normality (N): Number of equivalents of solute per litre of solution.
Molality (m): Number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
Calculate the Molarity (M)
Determine the mass of the solution per litre:
Density of the solution = 1.196 kg/L
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Mass of the solution per litre = 1.196 kg = 1196 g
Calculate the mass of NaOH in 1 litre of solution:
20% by weight means 20 grams of NaOH per 100 grams of solution.
Therefore, in 1196 grams of solution
20
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 = × 1196 = 239.2 𝑔
100
Calculate the mass of NaOH in 1 litre of solution:
Molar mass of NaOH = 40 g/mol
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 239.2
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 = = = 5.98 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 40

Now, Molarity (M) is moles of solute per litre of solution

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 5.98 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 = = 5.98 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
1𝐿

Calculate the Normality (N)

Understand the relationship between Molarity and Normality:
For NaOH, which is a strong base, Normality (N) is equal to Molarity (M) because it provides
1 equivalent of OH− per mole of NaOH. Since 1 mole of NaOH provides 1 of OH–.
N = M = 5.98 N
Calculate the Molality
Determine the mass of the solvent:
Mass of the solution = 1196 g
Mass of NaOH = 239.2 g
Mass of the solvent (water) = 1196 g - 239.2 g = 956.8 g = 0.9568 kg
Calculate the Molality:
Molality (m) is moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 5.98
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 (𝒎) = = ≈ 6.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 0.9568
___________________________________________________________________________

Problem 3. Chimney gas has the following composition: CO2: 9.5%, CO: 0.2%, O2: 9.6%
and N2: 80.7% Using ideal gas law calculate,

a) its weight percentage

b) volume occupied by 0.5 kg of gas at 30 °C and 760 mm Hg.
c) density of the gas in kg/m3 at condition of b).
d)specific gravity of gas mixture. (Density of air may be taken as 1.3 g/cc) Take basis of
100 kmole of chimney gas.

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
10 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
Solution: a)

Component Mol. Weight Weight (kmole) Weight, kg Weight %

CO2 44 9.5 9.5 x 44 = 418 13.978
CO 28 0.2 0.2 x 28 = 5.6 0.187
O2 32 9.6 9.6 x 32 = 307.2 10.283
N2 28 80.7 80.7 x 28 = 2259.6 75.562
Total 100.00 2990.4 kg 100.00

b) Volume occupied by 0.5 kg of Gas

Using Ideal gas laws
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
R = 8.314 J/mol.K
Convert Pressure: P = 760 mm Hg = 101325 Pa
Find the molar volume Vm of the gas at the given conditions:
𝑅𝑇 8.314 × 303 3
𝑉𝑚 = = 𝑚 /𝑚𝑜𝑙 ≈ 0.02469 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑃 101325

Calculate the moles corresponding to 0.5 kg

2990.4 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = = 29.904 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
100 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.5 𝑘𝑔
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 0.5 𝑘𝑔 = ≈ 0.01673 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 16.73 𝑚𝑜𝑙
29.904 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

Volume occupied by 0.5 kg

𝑚3
𝑉 = 16.73 𝑚𝑜𝑙 × 0.02469 ≈ 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟑 𝒎𝟑
𝑚𝑜𝑙
c) Calculate the Density of the Gas
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 0.5 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = ≈ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 0.413 𝑚3
d) Specific Gravity of the Gas Mixture
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 1.21 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = ≈ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑖𝑟 1.3 𝑔/𝑐𝑐 × 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
___________________________________________________________________________

Problem 4: How many moles of CO2 (g) is in a 5.6 L sample of CO2 measured at STP?

Moles of CO2 is in a 5.6 L at STP?

Solution : P = 101.325 kPa, V = 5.6 L, T = 273 K
PV = nRT
(101.3 kPa)(5.6 L) = n (8.31 kPa·L/K·mol)(273 K)
(101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎) ∙ (5.6𝐿)
𝑛= = 0.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙
(8.314 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝐿/𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(273 𝐾)
Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
11 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 5: How many grams of Cl2 (g) can be stored in a 10.0 L container at 1000 kPa
and 30 °C?
Solution : P = 1000 kPa, V = 10.0 L, T = 303 K
PV = nRT
(1000 𝑘𝑃𝑎)(10.0 𝐿)
𝑛= = 3.79 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝐿
(8.314 ) (303 𝐾)
𝐾 ∙ 𝑚𝑜𝑙
grams of Cl2 = 3.79 x 70.9 ≈ 282 g
___________________________________________________________________________

Problem 6: 98 mL of an unknown gas weighs 0.081 g at NTP. Calculate the molar mass
of the gas. Can you determine the identity of this unknown gas?
Solution : P = 101.325 kPa, V = 0.098 L, T = 298 K
(101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎)(0.098 𝐿)
𝑛= = 0.00400 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑃𝑎. 𝐿
(8.314 )(298 𝐾)
𝐾. 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molar mass of gas = 0.081 g/0.00400 mol = 20.25 g/mol
It’s probably neon (since, neon has a molar mass of 20.25 g/mol)
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 7: Calculate the weight of 200 cu ft. of water vapour at 15.5 mm Hg and 23 °C.
Given: V = 200 ft3; P = 15.5 mm Hg; T = 23 °C
Convert volume from ft3 to liters:
V = 200 ft3 x 28.3168 L/ft3 = 5663.36 L
Convert Pressure from mm Hg to atm:
15.5 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
P = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔/𝑎𝑡𝑚 ≈ 0.0204 𝑎𝑡𝑚

Convert Temperature from Celsius to Kelvin:

T = 23 °C + 273 = 296 K
Calculate the number of moles using Ideal Gas Law:
𝑃𝑉 (0.0204 𝑎𝑡𝑚)×(5663.36 𝐿)
𝑛= = 𝑎𝑡𝑚 ≈4.77 moles
𝑅𝑇 (0.0821 𝐿.𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐾)×(296 𝐾)

Weight of water vapor

Weight = n x Mol. wt. H2O
= 4.77 x 18 ≈ 85.9 g
___________________________________________________________________________

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
12 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
Problem 8: A gas mixture contains 0.274 kmole of HCl, 0.337 kmole of N 2, and 0.089
kmole of O2. Calculate a) Average molecular weight of gas mixture b) Volume occupied
by this mixture at 405.3 KPa and 303 K.
Solution: Moles of HCl = 0.274 kmol Mol weight of HCl = 36.5 g/mol
Moles of N₂ = 0.337 kmol Mol weight of N₂ = 28 g/mol
Moles of O₂ = 0.089 kmol Mol weight of O₂ = 32 g/mol
Total pressure P = 405.3 kPa
Temperature T = 303 K
A) Calculate the Avg. Molecular Weight of Gas mixture
∑(𝑛𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖)
𝑀𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∑𝑛𝑖
𝑛𝑖 = number of moles of each component
Mi = molecular weight of each component
∑𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.274 + 0.337 + 0.089 = 0.7 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
∑(𝑛𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖 ) = (0.274 × 36.5) + (0.337 × 28) + (0.089 × 32)
= 9.991 + 9.436 + 2.848 = 22.275 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
∑(𝑛𝑖 × 𝑀𝑖 ) 22.275 𝑘𝑔/𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑴𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = ≈ 31.82 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
∑𝑛𝑖 0.7𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
B) Calculate volume occupied by the gas mixture by using Ideal Gas Law (PV = nRT)
𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉=
𝑃
(0.7 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙) × (8.314 𝑘𝑃𝑎. 𝑚3 /𝐾 ∙ 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙) × (303𝐾)
𝑉=
405.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎
(1765.0594)
𝑉≈ ≈ 𝟒. 𝟑𝟓 𝒎𝟑
405.3
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 9: Calculate the weight of 1 m3 of Chlorine gas at a temperature of 25 °C and a
pressure of 1 atm.
Given: T = 25 °C = 298 K; P = 1 atm; V = 1 m3
Ideal gas constant, R=0.0821 [Link]/(mol.K) or R = 8.314 m3⋅Pa/(mol⋅K)
Mol. wt. of Cl2 gas = 35.5 g/mol × 2
= 71 g/mol
Ideal Gas Law to Calculate the Number of Moles of Cl2
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑃𝑉
𝑛=
𝑅𝑇

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
13 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
 (101325 𝑃𝑎) × (1 𝑚3) 1
𝑛= × ≈ 40.88 𝑚𝑜𝑙
8.314 𝑚3 ⋅ 𝑃𝑎/(𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⋅ 𝐾) 298𝐾
Calculate the Mass of Cl2
Mass = n x Mol. wt. of Cl2 = 40.88 mol x 71 g/mol ≈ 2902.48 g = 2.902 kg
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 10: 100 kmol of gas contains 30% ethanol vapor and 70% other gases. What is
the percentage of ethanol in the gas after 45% vapor condensation?
Basis: Initial amount of gas: 100 kmol
Ethanol vapor: 30% of the total gas
Other Gases: 70% of the total gas
Condensation: 45% ethanol vapor condenses
A) Determine the Initial Moles of Ethanol and Other Gases
Moles of ethanol vapor initially = 0.30 x 100 kmol = 30 kmol
Moles of other gases = 0.70 x 100 kmol = 70 kmol
B) Calculate the Moles of Ethanol After Condensation
Moles of ethanol condensed = 0.45 x 30 kmol = 13.5 mol
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
= 30 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 13.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 16.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
C) Calculate the Total Moles of Gas After Condensation
Total moles of gas after condensation = Moles of remaining ethanol vapor + Moles of
other gases
Total moles of gas after condensation = = 16.5 kmol + 70 kmol = 86.5 kmol
D) Calculate the Percentage of Ethanol in the Gas After Condensation
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔
= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 × 100
𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙
𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 16.5
= × 100 ≈ 𝟏𝟗. 𝟎𝟖%
𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑙 86.5
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 11: The available nitrogen in a urea sample is found to be 45% (by mass). Find
the actual urea content in the sample.
Solution: Compare the % of N2 in the pure Urea (CO(NH2)2) with the % of N2 found in the
sample.
Molar Mass (CO(NH2)2) = 12 + 16 + 2 x (14 + 2 x 1) = 60 g/mol
28 𝑔 (𝑁 )
2
% nitrogen content in pure urea = 60 𝑔 (𝑈𝑟𝑒𝑎) ∗ 100

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
14 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
 = 46.67%
Let the mass of the sample be 100 g
Mass of N in the sample = 100 x 0.45 = 45 g
Relate the given nitrogen content to actual urea content.
Let 𝑥 be the actual urea content in the sample.
45 𝑥
=
46.67 100
𝑥 = 96.42%
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 12: Assuming air to contain 79% N2 and 21% O2 by volume, calculate the
density of air at 273 K and 101.325 kPa. (Previous Year Question)

Solution : First calculate the molar mass of air

Mair = 0.79 × MN2 + 0.21 × MO2
(∵ MN2 = 28 g/mol; MO2 = 32 g/mol)
𝑔
Mair = 0.79 × 28 + 0.21 × 32 = 28.85 = 0.02885 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛.𝑀 𝑛.𝑀
We know, 𝜌 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = ,⇒𝑉 =
𝑉 𝜌

where, Mair is molar mass of air; n is no. of moles; V is volume

We also know, PV = nRT
Substitute the value of V from above equation in Ideal gas law
𝑛𝑀 𝑃𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑃 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 𝜌 =
𝜌 𝑅𝑇

101325 × 0.0028850335
𝜌= ≈ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖𝟕 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
8.314 × 273
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 13: Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution made by dissolving 50.0 g of
glucose (C6H12O6) in 500 g of water. The vapor pressure of pure water is 47.1 torr at 37
°C.
Solution: We need to calculate the mole fraction of water (the solvent) in this sugar water
solution.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑥𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑥𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
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 Molar mass of glucose (C6H12O6) = 12 × 6 + 1 × 12 + 16 × 6 = 180 g/mol
Molar mass of H2O = 2 × 1 + 16 = 18 g/mol
50 𝑔
𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 = = 0.277 𝑚𝑜𝑙
180 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
500 𝑔
𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = = 27.77
18 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙

Substituting the values of 𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 and 𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 in 𝑥𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 , we get

27.7
𝑥𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = = 0.99
0.277 + 27.7
𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0.99 × 47.1 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟔𝟑 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒓
___________________________________________________________________________

Problem 14: Vapour pressure of pure A is 100 mm of Hg and vapor pressure of pure
liquid is 150 mm Hg. Two mole of liquid A & three moles of liquid B are mixed to form
an ideal solution. What is the vapor pressure of the solution?

Solution : 𝑝𝐴0 = 100 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔; 𝑝𝐵0 = 150 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔; 𝑛𝐴 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠; 𝑛𝐵 = 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

0
𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 𝑝𝐴0 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑝𝐵0 𝑥𝐵

0 𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐵
𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 𝑝𝐴0 + 𝑝𝐵0
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵

0 2 3
𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 100 × + 150 × = 130 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
5 5
0
𝑝𝑠𝑜𝑙 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈

___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 15: What are the partial pressure of benzene & toluene in a solution in which
the mole fraction of benzene is 0.6? What is the total pressure? The vapor pressure of
pure benzene is 95.1 mm Hg and the vapour pressure of pure toluene is 28.4 mm Hg at
25 °C.
0 0
Solution: Given 𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 95.1 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔; 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 28.4 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 0.6,
Since the solution is made up of two components only, therefore the mole fraction of toluene
can be calculated by the formula;
𝑥𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 1 − 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 1 − 0.6 = 0.4
The relation between mole fraction and vapour pressure for the given system can be written
as;

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
16 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
 0
𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 𝑥𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 0.6 × 95.1 = 57.1 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
0
𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 𝑥𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 0.4 × 28.4 = 11.4 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
Total pressure is the sum of partial pressure
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑧𝑒𝑛𝑒 + 𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒 = 57.1 + 11.4 = 68.5 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
𝑃𝑇 = 𝟔𝟖. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 16: What is the vapor pressure of a solution at 25 °C containing 78.0 grams of
glucose (C6H12O6 ; MW = 180 g/mol) in 500 grams of water? The vapour pressure of pure
water at this temperature is 23.8 mm Hg?

Solution: Given, 𝑝𝐻02𝑂 = 23.8 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔

500 𝑔
Moles of H2O = 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 = 18 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 27.7 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
78 𝑔
Moles of C6H12O6 = 𝑛𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 = 180 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 0.433 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑛𝐻2𝑂 27.7
𝑥𝐻2𝑂 = = = 0.985
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 + 𝑛𝐶6 𝐻12𝑂6 (27.7 + 0.433)
𝑝𝐻2𝑂 = 𝑥𝐻2𝑂 𝑝𝐻02𝑂 = 0.985 × 23.8 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟒 𝒎𝒎 𝑯𝒈
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 17: 150 kg solution containing 30% salt in water is diluted by adding 50 kg of
water. Find the concentration of salt in the final solution.
Basis: Initial mass of solution = 150 kg
Initial concentration of salt = 30%
Mass of water added = 50 kg
A) Calculate the Initial Mass of Salt and Water
Mass of salt in initial solution = 0.30 x 150 = 45 kg
Mass of water in initial sol = 150 kg – 45 kg = 105 kg
B) Calculate the Total Mass After Adding 50 kg Water
= 150 kg + 50 kg = 200 kg
C) Calculate the Final concentration of salt
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 = × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
45 𝑘𝑔
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 = × 100
200 𝑘𝑔
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟓%

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
17 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
___________________________________________________________________________
Problem 18: What will be the % Na2O content of the lye containing 73% caustic soda?
Basis: 100 g of solution
A) First establish a relation between Na2O and NaOH
The chemical reaction that shows the formation of Na2O from NaOH is:
2 NaOH → Na2O + H2O
(80 g) → (62 g)
2 moles → 1 mole Na2O

B) Calculate the percentage of Na2O in Lye solution

Since, Lye contains 73% NaOH by weight
Weight of Na2O formed from 73 g of NaOH:
Weight of Na2O = (62/80) × 73 g ≈ 56.58 g
C) Calculate the % of Na2O content
56.58 𝑔
Percentage of Na2O = 100 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 100 ≈ 𝟓𝟔. 𝟓𝟖 %

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Problem 19: 24.0 L of Nitrogen at 1 atm and 12.0 L of Oxygen at 1 atm are added to a
10.0 L container at 273 K. Find the partial pressure of Nitrogen and Oxygen? Find the
total pressure as well?
Solution: First, find the number of moles of O2 and N2 using PV=nRT,
𝑃𝑉
𝑛=
𝑅𝑇
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(12 𝐿)
𝑛𝑂2 = = 0.536
𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝐿
(0.08206 )(273 𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(24 𝐿)
𝑛𝑁2 = = 1.07
𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝐿
(0.08206 )(273 𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑛 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑂2 + 𝑛𝑁2 = 0.536 + 1.07 = 1.61
Again using Ideal gas law (PV = nRT) for V = 10 L,
𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝐿
𝑃𝑇 × 10 𝐿 = 1.61 × 0.08206 × 273𝐾
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
𝑃𝑇 = 3.61 𝑎𝑡𝑚
We also know that from Ideal gas law relation,
𝑝𝑂2 𝑛𝑂2
=
𝑃𝑇 𝑛𝑇

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
18 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
 𝑝𝑂2 0.536
=
3.61 1.61
𝑝𝑂2 = 1.20 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑝𝑁2 = 3.61 − 1.20 = 𝟐. 𝟒𝟏 𝒂𝒕𝒎
_________________________________________________________________________
Problem 20: What is the weight of one litre of methane CH4 at standard conditions?
Solution:
Temperature = 0 °C (273 K)
Pressure = 1 atm (101.325 kPa)
At STP, one mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.414 litres.
1) Calculate the molar mass of methane
Carbon (C): 12 g/mol
Hydrogen (H): 1 g/mol x 4 = 4 g/mol
Molar mass of CH4 = 12 + 4 = 16 g/mol.
Mass of 1 litre of CH4
2) Since 1 mole of CH4 (i.e., 16 g/mol) occupies 22.414 litres at STP. Therefore, the mass of
1 litre of methane is given as:
16
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝐻4 =
= 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟑𝟖 𝒈
22.414
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Problem 21: An analysis of a glass sample yields the following data. Find the mole%.
Na2O: 7.8%, MgO: 7.0%, ZnO: 9.7%, Al2O3: 2.0%, B2O3:8.5% and rest SiO2.
Solution:
Basis 100 g of glass sample
1) Calculate molar masses of each component
2) Convert weight percent to moles
Component Weight, g Molecular Weight g mole mole %
Na2O 7.8 62 0.1258 7.665
MgO 7 40.3 0.1737 10.583
ZnO 9.7 81.4 0.1192 7.262
Al2O3 2 102 0.0196 1.194
B2O3 8.5 69.6 0.1221 7.439
SiO2 65 60.1 1.0815 65.857
Total 100 -- 1.6419 100.0
Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
19 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
Problem 22: In an evaporator a dilute solution of 4% NaOH is concentrated to 25%
NaOH. Calculate the evaporation of water per kg of feed.
Solution:
Basis: 1 kg of feed.
NaOH present is 0.04 kg, which appears 25 % in the thick liquor formed.
Weight of thick liquor formed = 0.04/0.25 = 0.16 kg
Weight of the water evaporated = (1 − 0.16) = 0.84 kg
Water evaporated per kg of feed = 0.84 kg
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Problem 23. SO2 is produced by the reaction between copper and sulphuric acid. How
much Cu must be used to get 10 kg of SO2?
Cu + 2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O
63.54 64
Given: Mass of copper (Cu): 63.54 g/mol; mass of Sulphur (S): 32
Solution:
1) Molar mass of SO2 = 32 + 2 x 16 = 64 g/mol
2) Calculate moles of SO2 required
First, convert 10 kg of SO2 to grams
10 kg = 10000 g
∴ Moles of SO2 = Mass/Mol. wt. = 10000/64 = 156 mol
4) From the balanced equation, 1 mole of Cu produces 1 mole of SO₂. Therefore, the moles
of Cu required are the same as the moles of SO₂
Moles of Cu required = 156 mol
5) Calculate the mass of Cu repaired, convert moles of Cu to grams:
Mass of Cu = Moles of Cu x Molar mass of Cu = 156 x 64 = 9984 g
Convert grams to kilogram:
Mass of Cu ≈ 9.984 kg
To produce 10 kg of SO₂, you must use approximately 9.984 kg of copper (Cu).
_________________________________________________________________________

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
20 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
Problem 24: The molar composition of a gas is 10% H2, 10% O2, 30% CO2, and balance
H2O. If 50% condenses, what will be the final mole percent of H2 in the dry gas.
(Gate 2000)
Solution:
For dry gas analysis H2O amount should not be considered.
Therefore, H2 in the dry gas = 100 x [0.1/ (0.1+0.10.3)] = 20%
_________________________________________________________________________

Problem 25. Methane is completely burned in air. What will be the maximum possible
volume percent of CO2 (on dry basis) in the flue gas? (Gate 1993)
Solution:
Basis: 1 mole of CH4
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
Flue gas contains:
CO2 = 1 mole
N2 = 2 x 79/21 = 7.524 mole
Volume % of CO2 (on dry basis) in flue gas = 100 x 1/(1+7.524) = 11.7
This amount is the maximum possible, since stochiometric air is used.
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Problem 26. Pure carbon is completely burnt in O2. The flue gas analysis is 70% CO2,
20% CO and 10% O2. What is the percent excess oxygen used? (Gate 1997)
Solution:
Basis: 1 mole of flue gas
The possible reactions are:
C + O2 → CO2
C + ½ O2 → CO
O2 used up = O2 used for (CO2 + CO) + O2 in flue gas
= (0.7 + 0.2/2) + 0.1 = 0.9 mole
O2 required = 0.7 + 0.2 = 0.9 mole (for complete conversion)
Excess O2 = 0.9 – 0.9 = 0 mole
_________________________________________________________________________

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
21 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
Problem 27: How much super phosphate fertilizer can be made from One Ton of
calcium phosphate 93.5% pure?
Solution:
Atomic weights are: Ca : 40, P : 31, O : 16, S : 32
1) Understand the chemical reaction
Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 → CaH4(PO4)2 + 2CaSO4
2) Calculate the mass of pure calcium phosphate
The calcium phosphate rock is 93.5% pure, so from one ton (1,000 kg) of rock, the mass of
pure calcium phosphate is:
Mass of pure Ca3(PO4)2 = 1000 kg x 93.5/100 = 935 kg
3) Calculate the theoretical yield of super phosphate
In the reaction, one mole of calcium phosphate produces one mole of super phosphate. The
molar masses are as follows:
Molar mass of Ca₃(PO₄)₂ = 3 x 40 g/mol (Ca) + 2 x 31 g/mol (P) + 8 x16 (O)
= 310 g/mol
Molar mass of CaH4(PO4)2 = 40 g/mol (Ca) + 2 x 1 g/mol (H) + 2 x 31 g/mol (P)
8 x 16 g/mol (O)
= 232 g/mol
To find out how much super phosphate can be produced from 935 kg of pure calcium
phosphate:
Theoretical yield of super phosphate = 935 kg x 232/310 = 699.74 kg
Thus, From one ton (1,000 kg) of calcium phosphate that is 93.5% pure, you can
theoretically produce approximately 699.74 kg of super phosphate fertilizer.
___________________________________________________________________

Problem 28: How many kilograms of charcoal is required to reduce 3 kg of arsenic

trioxide?
As2O3 + 3C → 3CO + 2As
Solution: To determine how many kilograms of charcoal (carbon, C) are required to
reduce 3 kg of arsenic trioxide (As₂O₃), we need to use stoichiometry based on the
balanced chemical equation:
As2O3 + 3C → 3CO + 2As

1) Calculate the Molar Masses

Molar mass of As₂O₃ (Arsenic trioxide): 2 x 74.92 + 3 x 16 = 197.84 g/mol
Molar mass of carbon (C): 12 g/mol
Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
22 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
2) Convert the Mass of As₂O₃ to Moles
Given mass of As₂O₃ is 3 kg (or 3000 g):
Moles of As2O3 = 3000/197.84 = 15.16 mol

3) Use Stoichiometry to Find the Moles of Carbon Required

According to the balanced equation, 1 mole of As₂O₃ reacts with 3 moles of C. Therefore,
the moles of carbon required are:
Moles of C required = 45.48 x 12 ≈ 546 g
Convert grams to kilograms:
Mass of C required ≈ 0.546 kg
You would need approximately 0.546 kg of charcoal to reduce 3 kg of arsenic trioxide
(As₂O₃)
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Problem 29: How many pound moles of NaNO3 are there in 100 lb?

Solution:
1) Calculate the Molar Mass of NaNO₃
Molar mass of NaNO₃ = 23 + 14 + 48 = 85 g/mol
2) Convert the Molar Mass to Pound Moles
1 mole of NaNO₃ weighs 85.00 g, which is equivalent to:
1 pound mole of NaNO₃ = 85 lb
3) Calculate the Number of Pound Moles in 100 lb of NaNO₃
To find the number of pound moles in 100 lb of NaNO₃:
Pound moles of NaNO₃ = 100 / 85 ≈ 1.176 pound moles
There are approximately 1.176 pound moles of NaNO₃ in 100 pounds
_________________________________________________________________________

Problem 30: How many kilograms of silver nitrate are there in 55.0 g mole silver
nitrate?
Solution:
Molar Mass of AgNO3 = 108 +14 + 16x3 = 170 g/mol
Mass of AgNO3 = 55 x 170 = 9350 g
Convert grams to kilograms
Mass of AgNO3 in kilograms = 9350/1000 = 9.350 kg
There are approximately 9.343 kg of silver nitrate (AgNO₃) in 55.0 gram moles.
_________________________________________________________________________

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
23 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade
Problem 31: Sulphur dioxide may be produced by the reaction
Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
Find how much copper and how much 94% sulphuric acid must be used to obtain 32
kg of SO2.
Solution:
Calculate the molar masses:
Molar mass of Cu = 63.55 g/mol
Molar mass of H2SO4 = 98 g/mol
Molar mass of SO2 = 64 g/mol
Calculate the Moles of SO₂ Required
Given mass of SO₂ is 32 kg (or 32,000 g):
Moles of SO2 = 32000 g /(64 g/mol) ≈ 500 mol
From the balanced equation:
• 1 mole of Cu produces 1 mole of SO₂.
• 2 moles of H₂SO₄ produce 1 mole of SO₂.
Therefore, the moles of Cu and H₂SO₄ required are:
• Moles of Cu = Moles of SO₂ = 499.45 mol
• Moles of H₂SO₄ = 2 × Moles of SO₂ = 2 × 499.45 = 998.90 mol
Convert Moles of Cu and H₂SO₄ to Mass
Mass of Cu = 500 mol x 63.55 g/mol ≈ 31775 g ≈ 31.775 kg
Mass of H₂SO₄ = 998 mol x 98 g/mol ≈ 97804 g ≈ 97.804 kg
Adjust for the Purity of Sulfuric Acid
Since the sulfuric acid is 94% pure, the actual mass of sulfuric acid needed is:
= 97.804/0.94 = 104.06 kg
Copper (Cu) required: 31.71 kg
94% Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) required: 104.06 kg
_________________________________________________________________________

Process Calculation
Chemical Engineering (SE)
24 Course Instructor : Dr. Shailesh Ravi Varade