Judaism

Judaism, monotheistic religion developed among the ancient Hebrews. Judaism is characterized by a
belief in one transcendent God who revealed himself to Abraham, Moses, and the Hebrew prophets and
by a religious life in accordance with Scriptures and rabbinic traditions. Judaism is the complex
phenomenon of a total way of life for the Jewish people, comprising theology, law, and innumerable cultural
traditions.

The History Of Judaism

It is history that provides the key to an understanding of Judaism, for its primal affirmations appear in early
historical narratives. Thus, the Bible reports contemporary events and activities for essentially religious
reasons. The biblical authors believed that the divine presence is encountered primarily within history.
God’s presence is also experienced within the natural realm, but the more immediate or intimate disclosure
occurs in human actions. Although other ancient communities also perceived a divine presence in history,
the understanding of the ancient Israelites proved to be the most lasting and influential. It is this particular
claim—to have experienced God’s presence in human events—and its subsequent development that is the
differentiating factor in Jewish thought.

Moreover, the ancient Israelites’ entire mode of existence was affected by their belief that throughout history
they stood in a unique relationship with the divine. The people of Israel believed that their response to the
divine presence in history was central not only for themselves but for all humankind. Furthermore, God—
as person—had revealed in a particular encounter the pattern and structure of communal and individual life
to this people. Claiming sovereignty over the people because of his continuing action in history on their
behalf, he had established a covenant (berit) with them and required from them obedience to his teaching,
or law (Torah). This obedience was a further means by which the divine presence was made manifest—
expressed in concrete human existence. The corporate life of the chosen community was thus a summons
to the rest of humankind to recognize God’s presence, sovereignty, and purpose—the establishment of
peace and well-being in the universe and in humankind.

History, moreover, disclosed not only God’s purpose but also humankind’s inability to live in accord with it.
Even the chosen community failed in its obligation and had to be summoned back, time and again, to its
responsibility by the prophets—the divinely called spokespersons who warned of retribution within history
and argued and reargued the case for affirmative human response. Israel’s role in the divine economy and
thus Israel’s particular culpability were dominant themes sounded against the motif of fulfillment, the
ultimate triumph of the divine purpose, and the establishment of divine sovereignty over all humankind.

Nature and characteristics

In nearly 4,000 years of historical development, the Jewish people and their religion have displayed a
remarkable adaptability and continuity. In their encounter with the great civilizations, from
ancient Babylonia and Egypt to Western Christendom and modern secular culture, they have assimilated
foreign elements and integrated them into their own social and religious systems, thus maintaining an
unbroken religious and cultural tradition. Furthermore, each period of Jewish history has left behind it a
specific element of a Judaic heritage that continued to influence subsequent developments, so that the total
Jewish heritage at any given time is a combination of all these successive elements along with whatever
adjustments and accretions have occurred in each new age.

The various teachings of Judaism have often been regarded as specifications of the central idea
of monotheism. One God, the creator of the world, has freely elected the Jewish people for a unique
covenantal relationship with himself. This one and only God has been affirmed by virtually all professing
Jews in a variety of ways throughout the ages.

Jewish monotheism has had both universalistic and particularistic features. Along universal lines, it has
affirmed a God who created and rules the entire world and who at the end of history will redeem all Israel
(the classical name for the Jewish people), all humankind, and indeed the whole world. The ultimate goal
of all nature and history is an unending reign of cosmic intimacy with God, entailing universal justice and
peace. Between creation and redemption lies the particularistic designation of the Jewish people as the
locus of God’s activity in the world, as the people chosen by God to be “a kingdom of priests and a holy
nation” (Exodus 19:6). This arrangement is designated a covenant and is structured by an elaborate and
intricate law. Thus, the Jewish people are both entitled to special privileges and burdened with special
responsibilities from God. As the prophet Amos (8th century BCE) expressed it: “You alone have I intimately
known of all the families of the earth; therefore I will punish you for all your iniquities” (Amos 3:2). The
universal goal of the Jewish people has frequently expressed itself in messianism—the idea of a universal,
political realm of justice and peace. In one form or another, messianism has permeated Jewish thinking
and action throughout the ages, and it has strongly influenced the outlook of many secular-minded Jews
(see also eschatology).

Law embraces practically all domains of Jewish life, and it became the principle means by which Judaism
was to bring about the reign of God on earth. It is a total guide to religious and ethical conduct, involving
ritualistic observance as well as individual and social ethics. It is a liturgical and ethical way constantly
expatiated on by the prophets and priests, by rabbinic sages, and by philosophers. Such conduct was to
be performed in the service of God, the transcendent and immanent ruler of the universe, the Creator and
the propelling force of nature, and the one giving guidance and purpose to history. According to Judaic
belief, this divine guidance is manifested through the history of the Jewish people, which will culminate in
the messianic age. Judaism, whether in its “normative” form or in its sectarian deviations, never completely
departed from this basic ethical and historical monotheism.

One God
Judaism, the first and oldest of the three great monotheistic faiths, is the religion and way of life of the
Jewish people. The basic laws and tenets of Judaism are derived from the Torah, the first five books of the
Bible.
The most important teaching and tenet of Judaism is that there is one God, incorporeal and eternal, who
wants all people to do what is just and merciful. All people are created in the image of God and deserve to
be treated with dignity and respect.

A Covenanted People
The Jewish people serve God by study, prayer and by the observance of the commandments set forth in
the Torah. This faithfulness to the biblical Covenant can be understood as the “vocation,” “witness” and
“mission” of the Jewish people.
Unlike some religions, Judaism does not believe that other peoples must adopt its own religious beliefs and
practices in order to be redeemed. It is by deeds, not creed, that the world is judged; the righteous of all
nations have a share in the “world to come.”
For this reason, Judaism is not an active missionary religion. The community does accept converts, but this
is at the decision of competent Jewish religious authorities. It is not simply a matter of personal self-
identification.

Sacred and Religious Writings

The most important Jewish religious text is the Bible itself (what some Christians call the “Old Testament”),
consisting of the books of the Torah, the Prophets and the Writings.
Following the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in the year 70 CE, Jewish religious
scholars in the Land of Israel compiled the six volumes of the Mishnah in order to record and preserve the
canon of Jewish religious legislation, laws and customs. During the next five centuries, this was
supplemented by the Gemara, recorded commentaries, discussions, and debates contributed by rabbinical
scholars in the Land and in Babylon. Together these two texts comprise the Talmud which remains a living
source of religious study, thought and commentary.

Religious Life
Much of Jewish religious observance is centered in the home. This includes daily prayers which are said
three times each day - in the morning, the afternoon, and after sunset.
Congregational prayers usually take place in a synagogue, a Jewish house of prayer and study. On
Mondays, Thursdays, the Sabbath, festivals and High Holy Days, the synagogue service includes readings
in Hebrew from the Torah and the Prophets.
The synagogue service can be led by any knowledgeable member of the congregation. In most synagogues
this function is performed by a cantor or by a rabbi, an ordained religious teacher, who has studied in
a yeshiva, a Jewish religious seminary.
Among his professional duties, a rabbi is expected to conduct weekly or daily study sessions for members
of the congregation. The rabbi can also be called upon to give informed decisions concerning application
of Jewish religious law and tradition to daily life. This may include adjudication of personal disputes. More
serious matters, such as religious divorce, are referred to a beit din, a local Jewish religious court.
Brit Milah
Health permitting, all Jewish boys are circumcised on the eighth day after birth. Practiced since the days of
Abraham, the Brit Milah is a physical sign of the Covenant.

Bar and Bat Mitzvah

When a Jewish girl is 12, and a Jewish boy is 13, they come of age in terms of their religious duties and
responsibilities. On this occasion, the Bar Mitzvah boy is for the first time called up to read the Torah portion
and the reading from the Prophets. In congregations where women participate in conducting the
service, Bat Mitzvah girls are also called up to read from the Torah and the Prophets.

Dietary Laws
Traditional Jews observe the dietary laws derived from the Book of Leviticus. These laws include
prohibitions against the eating of meat and dairy products at the same meal, humane ritual slaughter of
animals, and total prohibition against the eating of blood, pork, shell-fish and other proscribed foods.
Though the dietary laws may be of hygienic benefit, the principal motivation seems to have been a desire
to instill morality, self-control and self-abnegation in the personal lives of a people expected to observe the
laws of the Torah even in the worst of circumstances.
However, in this, as in other matters of Jewish religious law and custom, the degree and manner of
observance differs among the three major contemporary trends in Judaism - Orthodox, Conservative and
Reform.

Festivals and Days of Remembrance

The seventh day of the week is the Sabbath, a biblically ordained day of rest. No work is permitted, except
that connected with worship or the preservation of life and health. Central to the observance of the Sabbath
is the morning reading in synagogue of the week’s portion of the Torah. The High Holy Days (observed in
September - October) are a time of prayer and solemn introspection. The two days of Rosh Hashana, the
Jewish New Year, mark the beginning of the Ten Days of Awe that end with the fast of Yom Kippur, the
Day of Atonement.
The three major festivals of the Jewish religious year are also biblically ordained. Pesach (Passover)
commemorates the biblical Passover and Exodus from Egypt: Shavuot (Pentecost, the “Festival of Weeks”)
commemorates the giving of the Law on Mount Sinai; and Sukkot (Tabernacles) commemorates the
Sojourn in the Wilderness.
Today, as in ancient times, these three festivals are occasions of pilgrimage up to Jerusalem, with prayer
at the Western Wall, a remnant of the outer retaining wall of the Temple Mount. The destruction of the
Temple is mourned on the fast of Tisha B’av (the ninth day of the Jewish month of Av). Other Jewish
holidays include Hanukkah, commemorating the victory of the Maccabees and the re-dedication of the
Temple in Jerusalem; Purim, commemorating the rescue of the Jewish people in the days of Queen
Esther; Holocaust Martyrs’ and Heroes’ Remembrance Day, honoring the
memory of the six million Jews murdered by the Nazis; and Israel Independence Day, on which the
restoration of Israel to national sovereignty is celebrated.

Centrality of Israel
The Land of Israel is central to the history, life, hopes and aspirations of the Jewish people. It is toward
Jerusalem that observant Jews turn in prayer, and it is here, in the Land promised in the Bible, that Jewish
custom and tradition, as well as the identity of the Jewish people, can be most fully realized.

Messianic Age
Traditionally, the Jewish people live in expectation of the coming of a Messianic Age in which universal
peace will be established on earth according to the vision of the prophets of Israel.

Jewish Sacred Texts

The importance of Judaism's sacred texts extends far beyond their religious significance. These ancient
documents embody not only Judaism's religious precepts, but also the historical, cultural and social heritage
of the Jewish people. In Israel, where attitudes towards tradition range from the ultra-orthodox to the
secular, sacred texts carry a variety of meanings - from a spiritual, moral and practical guide to everyday
life, to a historical and cultural wealth which is critically examined and studied.

The stories, ideas and philosophies of the sacred texts, encompassing millenia of Jewish study and thought,
are evident in much of Israel's modern culture, which draws on the legacies of the past even as it gives
voice to the issues and concerns of the present.
The Torah
At the basis of all Jewish sacred texts is the Torah. In its most basic sense, the Torah is the Pentateuch -
the five books of Moses, which tell the story of the Creation of the world, God's covenant with Abraham and
his descendants, the Exodus from Egypt, the revelation at Mt. Sinai (where God enunciated the Ten
Commandments), the wanderings of the Israelites in the desert, and a recapitulation of that experience
shortly before the entrance to the Promised Land.
The principal message of the Torah is the absolute unity of God, His creation of the world and His concern
for it, and His everlasting covenant with the people of Israel. The Pentateuch both embodies the heritage
of the Jewish people - retelling its history, setting forth its guiding precepts and foretelling its destiny - and
carries universal messages of monotheism and social conduct, which have had tremendous impact on
western civilization. Thus, the Torah is also the origin of certain non-Jewish traditions, among them the
recognition of the Sabbath as a day of rest.
Torah also signifies teaching. The Pentateuch itself uses the word Torah to denote a specific body of
statutes; in this sense, Torah means "law," and is often so translated generally.
While Jewish tradition has throughout the centuries ascribed divine authorship to the Torah, many scholars
and modern Jewish thinkers hold that the Torah was compiled incrementally by various authors over a long
period of time, making it not only the shaper of Jewish history but also its product.

The Bible
The Jewish Bible is known in Hebrew as the Tanakh, an acronym of the three sets of books which comprise
it: the Pentateuch (Torah), the Prophets (Nevi'im) and the Writings (Ketuvim). The latter two include
nineteen compilations, largely in Hebrew but with certain books of the Ketuvim also containing extensive
portions in Aramaic, which were composed over a period of centuries - from shortly before the Israelite
conquest of the Land of Israel (13th century BCE) to shortly after the return to Judah and Jerusalem from
the Babylonian exile (6th century BCE).
The books of the Prophets contain historical writings covering the period between the settlement of the
Jewish people in the Land of Israel and their exile to Babylon, as well as the moral and religious exhortations
of the Prophets (among them Jeremiah, Isaiah and Ezekiel). The Writings, also known as the Hagiographa,
are a mixture of liturgical and secular poetry, wisdom literature and historical writings.
The Tanakh is the Jewish canon, which assumed its final shape between the Babylonian exile and the first
century CE. The sages who took part in the finalization of the canon excluded certain texts, known as the
Apocrypha and the Pseudepigrapha, which they did not consider divinely inspired. The Jewish canon is
distinguished from the Christian canon in the non-inclusion of the New Testament and a slightly different
order of presentation of the Prophets. Diacritical marks (for vocalization, pronunciation and cantillation)
were finalized by the tenth century CE.
Copyists of canon literature for ritual use in synagogues work with ancient tools (parchment and quill pens)
and take the greatest care to avoid modifying the text in any way. The oldest known parchments (the Dead
Sea Scrolls, produced shortly before the Common Era) are virtually identical to those produced today.
The Bible is the most translated book in the world. It has been rendered into more than 200 languages in
its entirety, and individual books have been retold in nearly a thousand tongues for and by non-Jewish
peoples. Its translation began with the Septuagint (a translation into Greek rendered for Jewish use in
Egypt) in the early third century BCE.
Although canon texts are never amended or edited within the context of their religious use, Biblical criticism
- an academic discipline that takes a historical and critical approach to the canon - has compiled a massive

The Oral Law

The Mishna
According to tradition, the oral law - a hermeneutic, interpretive, and analytic exegesis of the Torah, the
written law - was given to Moses at Mt. Sinai and handed down by a succession of lay and clerical elites.
By the second century BCE, and especially after the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE), the
rabbinical leadership, faced with a proliferation of traditions and interpretations, began to arrange and edit
the material. The final result was a document redacted and arranged by Rabbi Judah Hanasi (second
century CE) and called the Mishna, a word signifying "repetition" and "teaching." Sages whose teachings
are mentioned in the Mishna are known as Tanna'im. The Tannaitic period, during which the Mishna was
compiled, lasted from the destruction of the Second Temple to the early part of the third century CE.
The Mishna is divided into six orders, each comprised of tractates, ordinarily reckoned at 63 in number.
Each tractate is divided into chapters, which in turn contain various numbers of teachings, each also known
as a Mishna (pl.: Mishnayot). Other material from this period, which was not included in the Mishna, can be
found in the Tosefta or in additional teachings, known as Baraitot, found in the two Talmudim (see below).
The Mishna as well as this supplementary material are written almost exclusively in Hebrew. The Mishna is
also an important source with regard to matters of the Temple rite and lay customs of the time.
TheTalmud
With the advent of the Mishna, a class of rabbis known as Amora'im (third century CE through the sixth
century) discussed this document, elaborated on it, performed emendations and reconciled ostensible
contradictions. The totality of their endeavor is the Gemara. The Gemara and the Mishna together form
the Talmud (pl. Talmudim) - a word that refers to the act of study.
There are in fact two Talmudim, Jerusalem (compiled in the Land of Israel) and Babylonian. The
Babylonian Talmud covers 37 of the 63 standard tractates and includes several later works - 2.5 million
words on 4,894 folio pages in all. The Jerusalem Talmud is structured differently - shorter, more succinct,
at times cryptic, and more focused on legal matters. The Babylonian Talmud contains more Biblical
homiletics and exegesis, and its argumentation is easier to follow. The Gemara generally adheres to the
structure of the Mishna, but branches associatively into other matters, creating a free-form admixture of
remarks - legalistic, anecdotal and ethical.
Unlike the Mishna, much Talmudic discourse is in Aramaic. Because of the Talmud's special nature and its
role as the basis for religious rulings, many of them applying to daily life, the commentaries on this work
are especially copious. The Talmudic style is often either conversational or elliptic, in the manner of "lecture
notes." Unlike biblical texts, Talmudic passages have innumerable variant readings and abound with
copyists' errors, erroneous insertions, and euphemisms meant to circumvent hostile censors.
Aside from their primary religious purpose, both Talmudim contain important information regarding the
events, customs and language of their time. As such, they have been studied at length by modern scholars
of history, religion and linguistics. The systematizing of the Talmud began several generations before its
final version was produced in the early sixth century CE. The earliest fragmentary manuscripts of
the Talmud extant today may date from the ninth century. The first complete printed Talmud was produced
in 1520-1523 by Daniel Bomberg, a Christian. His edition created an external form of the Talmud that has
survived without change ever since, including pagination and the layout of the major commentaries.
Alongside the Mishna and the Talmud grew a corpus of texts dedicated to the exegesis of the Bible, known
as the Midrash (pl. midrashim). The earliest texts of Midrash contain exegetical traditions of the Sages from
the period of the Tannai'm. These texts are dedicated to both Halakhic (legal) and Aggadic (homiletical)
exegesis. During the period of the Amorai'm, the exegesis of the Bible was mainly limited to homiletical
matters (Aggadah). The main collection of Amoraic exegesis is the Midrash Rabbah, ordered according to
the books of the Bible and containing both line-by-line exegesis (e.g., Bereshith Rabbah - on Genesis) and
more developed sermonic material (e.g., Vayikrah Rabbah - on Leviticus).

Jewish Festivals

Shabbat, (the Sabbath - the weekly day of rest) on Saturday, is marked in Israel with most people spending
the day together with family and friends. Public transport is suspended, businesses are closed, essential
services are at skeleton-staff strength, and leave is granted to as many soldiers as possible. The secular
majority take advantage of their weekly day of rest for leisure time at the seashore, places of entertainment
and excursions in outdoor settings. The observant devote many hours to festive family feasts and services
in synagogue, desist from travel, and refrain from working or using electrical appliances.

Rosh Hashanah marks the beginning of the Jewish new year. Its origin is Biblical (Lev. 23:23-25): “a sacred
occasion commemorated with loud blasts [of the shofar, the ram’s horn].” The term Rosh Hashanah,
“beginning of the year,” is rabbinical, as are the formidable themes of the festival: repentance, preparation
for the day of Divine judgment, and prayer for a fruitful year. The two-day festival falls on 1-2 Tishrei in
the Jewish calendar, usually September in the Gregorian calendar, and starts at sundown of the preceding
evening, as do all Jewish observances. Major customs of Rosh Hashanah include the sounding of the
shofar in the middle of a lengthy synagogue service that focuses on the festival themes, and elaborate
meals at home to inaugurate the new year. The prayer liturgy is augmented with prayers of repentance.
In many senses, Israel begins its year on Rosh Hashanah. Government correspondence, newspapers and
most broadcasts carry the “Jewish date” first. Felicitations for the new year are generally tendered
before Rosh Hashanah.

Yom Kippur, eight days after Rosh Hashanah, is the day of atonement, of Divine judgment, and of
“affliction of souls” (Lev. 23:26-32) so that the individual may be cleansed of sins. The only fast day decreed
in the Bible, it is a time to enumerate one’s misdeeds and contemplate one’s faults. The Jew is expected,
on this day, to pray for forgiveness for sins between man and God and correct his wrongful actions against
his fellow man. The major precepts of Yom Kippur - lengthy devotional services and a 25-hour fast - are
observed even by much of the otherwise secular population. The level of public solemnity on Yom
Kippur surpasses that of any other festival, including Rosh Hashanah. The country comes to a complete
halt for 25 hours on this day; places of entertainment are closed, there are no television and radio
broadcasts (not even the news), public transport is suspended, and even the roads are completely
closed. Yom Kippur in Israel has special meaning due to memories of the 1973 war, a surprise attack
launched by Egypt and Syria against Israel on that very day.
Sukkot, described in the Bible (Lev.23:34) as the “Feast of Tabernacles” begins five days after Yom
Kippur). Sukkot is one of the three festivals that were celebrated (until 70 CE) with mass pilgrimage to the
Temple in Jerusalem and are therefore known as the “pilgrimage festivals.” On Sukkot, Jews commemorate
the Exodus from Egypt (c. 13th century BCE) and give thanks for a bountiful harvest. At some
kibbutzim, Sukkot is celebrated as Chag Ha’asif (the harvest festival), with the themes of the gathering of
the second grain crop and the autumn fruit, the start of the agricultural year, and the first rains.
In the five days between Yom Kippur and Sukkot, tens of thousands of householders and businesses
erect sukkot - booths for temporary dwelling, resembling the booths in which the Israelites lived in the
desert, after their exodus from Egypt - and acquire the palm frond, citron, myrtle sprigs and willow branches
with which the festive prayer rite is augmented. All around the country, sukkot line parking lots, balconies,
rooftops, lawns, and public spaces. No army base lacks one. Some spend the festival and the next six days
literally living in their sukkot, while most observers just eat their meals there.
In Israel, the “holy day” portion of Sukkot (and the other two pilgrimage festivals, Passover and Shavuot) is
celebrated for one day. Diaspora communities celebrate it for two days, commemorating the time in
antiquity when calendation was performed at the Temple and its results reported to the Diaspora using a
tenuous network of signal fires and couriers.
The prayer liturgy is augmented with additional prayers, including the Hallel, a collection of blessings and
psalms, recited on Rosh Hodesh (the beginning of each lunar month) and on the pilgrimage festivals.
After the festive day, Sukkot continues at a lesser level of sanctity, as mandated by the Torah (Lev. 23:36).
During this intermediate week - half festival, half ordinary - schools are closed and many workplaces shut
down or shorten their hours. Most Israelis spend the interim days of Sukkot and Passover at recreation
sites throughout the country. The intermediate week and the holiday season end on Shemini Atseret, the
“sacred occasion of the eighth day” (Lev. 23:36), with which Simhat Torah is combined. Celebration
of Shemini Atseret/Simhat Torah focuses on the Torah and is noted for public dancing with a Torah scroll
in one’s arms and with recitation of the concluding and beginning chapters of the Torah, renewing the yearly
cycle of Torah reading. After dark, many communities sponsor further festivities, often outdoors, that are
not limited by the ritual restrictions that apply on the holy day itself.

Hanukkah, beginning on 25 Kislev (usually in December), commemorates the triumph of the Jews, under
the Maccabees, over the Greek rulers (164 BCE) - both the physical victory of the small Jewish nation
against mighty Greece and the spiritual victory of the Jewish faith against the Hellenism of the Greeks. Its
sanctity derives from this spiritual aspect of the victory, and the miracle of the flask of oil, when a portion of
sacramental olive oil meant to keep the Temple candelabrum lit for one day lasted for eight days, the time
it took for the Temple to be rededicated.
Hanukkah is observed in Israel, as in the Diaspora, for eight days. The central feature of this holiday is the
lighting of candles each evening - one on the first night, two on the second, and so on - in commemoration
of the miracle at the Temple. The Hanukkah message in Israel focuses strongly on aspects of restored
sovereignty; customs widely practiced in the Diaspora, such as giftgiving and the dreidl (spinning top -
sevivon in Hebrew), are also in evidence. The dreidl’s sides are marked with Hebrew initials representing
the message “A great miracle occurred here”; in the Diaspora, the initials stand for “A great miracle occurred
there.” Schools are closed during this week; workplaces are not.

Tu B'Shevat, the fifteenth of Shevat (January-February), cited in rabbinical sources as the new year of fruit
trees for sabbatical, tithing, and other purposes, has almost no ritual impact. But it has acquired secular
connotations as a day when trees are planted by individuals, especially by schoolchildren and it serves as
the time when intensive afforestation is undertaken by the Jewish National Fund and local authorities.
During this month, although it is still cold, the fruit trees begin to flower, starting with the almond tree.

Purim, another rabbinical festival in early spring, occurs on 14 Adar (15 Adar in walled cities),
commemorating the deliverance of beleaguered Jewry in the Persian Empire under Artaxerxes, as
recounted in the Scroll of Esther. This festival compensates for the solemnity of many other Jewish
observances by mandating merriment. Schools are closed, public festivities abound, newspapers run hoax
items reminiscent of April Fools’ Day, children (and adults) don costumes, and a festive reading of the Scroll
of Esther is marked by noisemakers sounded whenever the villain Haman’s name is recited. The Orthodox
indulge in inebriation, within limits, and carry out an exacting list of duties: giving of alms, evening and
morning readings of the Scroll of Esther, exchange of delicacies and a full-fledged holiday feast.

Passover (Pessah), is celebrated in the spring, beginning on 15 Nisan. Passover is the festival celebrating
the Exodus from Egypt (c. 13th century BCE) and liberation from bondage. Freedom is, indeed, the festival’s
dominant theme. The rites of Passover begin long before the festival, as families and businesses cleanse
their premises of hametz - leaven and anything containing it - as prescribed in the Bible (Ex. 12:15-20). The
day before the festival is devoted to preparatory rituals including ceremonial burning of the forbidden
foodstuff. On the holiday evening, the seder is recited: an elaborate retelling of the enslavement and
redemption. At this festive meal, the extended family gathers to read the Haggadah and enjoy traditional
foods, particularly matza (unleavened bread). The following day’s observances resemble those of the other
pilgrimage festivals. Passover is probably second only to Yom Kippur in traditional observance by the
generally nonobservant. In addition, a secular Passover rite based on the festival’s agricultural connotations
is practiced in some kibbutzim. It serves as a spring festival, a festival of freedom, and the date of the
harvesting of the first ripe grain. Passover also includes the second “intermediate” week - five half-sacred,
half-ordinary days devoted to extended prayer and leisure - and it concludes with another festival day.

Shavuot, the last of the pilgrimage festivals, when enumerated from the beginning of the Jewish year, falls
seven weeks after Passover (6 Sivan), at the end of the barley harvest and the beginning of the wheat
harvest. The Bible (Deut. 16:10) describes this occasion as the festival of weeks (Heb. shavuot), for so is
it counted from Passover, and as the occasion on which new grain and new fruits are offered to the priests
in the Temple. Its additional definition - the anniversary of the giving of the Torah at Mt. Sinai - is of rabbinical
origin. Shavuot is observed among the Orthodox with marathon religious study and, in Jerusalem, with a
mass convocation of festive worship at the Western Wall. In the kibbutzim, it marks the peak of the new
grain harvest and the ripening of the first fruits, including the seven species mentioned in the Bible (wheat,
barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates).

The Ninth of Av (Tisha B’Av, falling in July or early August), commemorates the anniversary of the
destruction of the First and Second Temples. On the day itself, numerous rules of bereavement and the
Yom Kippur measures of “self-denial,” including a full-day fast, are in effect.

Jewish Ceremonial Objects

The Mezuza
The Bible twice enjoins Jews (Deut. 6:9 and 11:20) to "write [the words of God] upon the doorposts of your
house and on your gates." The Hebrew word for doorpost, mezuza, has come to designate the object itself,
the mezuza (pl. mezuzot), a parchment rectangle inscribed with the relevant Biblical passages (Deut. 6:4-
9 and 11:13-21). Appearing on its reverse side is the word Shadai, one of the Names of God and an
acronym for shomer dlatot yisrael - "protector of the doors of Israel." The parchment is rolled tightly and
mounted diagonally on the right-hand doorpost of all rooms except for bathrooms.
To protect the parchment, it is placed in a slot engraved in the doorpost, which is covered with glass, or in
a case, which may be of simple plastic, although artistic forms and materials are also used. Examples of
doorpost slots can be observed in old Jewish neighborhoods in Israel, such as the Old Cities of Jerusalem
and Hebron. Jews have also been known to wear mezuzot around their necks.
The earliest material evidence is a mezuza parchment found at Qumran, where a Jewish sect lived in the
first century BCE. Today, mezuzot can be found on most doorposts in Israel. Among observant Jews,
various beliefs about the protective properties of mezuzot have developed. Some habitually touch it as they
pass it and kiss their fingers. Mezuzot are checked twice every seven years for wear and tear, and many
Jews inspect or replace their mezuzot when afflicted with personal or collective woe.

The Sabbath Meal

Although observed to a different degree by each family, the Sabbath (Saturday) is Israel's official day of
rest. For observant Jews, the Sabbath involves a variety of rituals relating to the special holiness of the day,
which have given rise to a collection of ceremonial objects.
In many homes, the day of rest is greeted shortly before sundown on Fridays with the lighting of candles
by the woman of the house. Two candles or more are lit in candlesticks or a candelabra, which in some
cases are extremely ornate and often valuable. They are placed within sight of the Sabbath dinner table.
The Sabbath evening meal is preceded by the kiddush (sanctification over wine), for which goblets with or
without matching saucers are used. "Kiddush cups" are prized gifts and heirlooms; they are often engraved
with the recipient's name, as well as the occasion that prompted the gift.
The meal itself is consecrated with two Sabbath loaves (hallah, pl. hallot), that are covered as the kiddush is
recited. This has resulted in beautifully embroidered hallah covers. The knife used for slicing
the hallah often has an engraved handle with inscriptions such as "Reserved for the Holy Sabbath."
At the end of the Sabbath, for havdala ("division" in Hebrew, a short ceremony that marks the end of the
Sabbath and the beginning of the new week), three ceremonial objects are used: a multi-wick candle, a
container of spices and a goblet. The kiddush goblet may be used, but many homes have separate havdala
sets, with spice holders shaped as miniature towers with removable lids or hinged
doors. Kiddush and havdala objects are often of gold and silver.