MODULE 2: Limits and Continuity

MODULE RATIONALE:

This module deals with the fundamental concept of a limit, the limit theorems,
one-sided limits, indeterminate forms and the concept of continuity. It is essential to
master these topics in order to have deeper understanding of the Calculus concepts
in the next modules.

MODULE OUTCOMES:

At the end of the module, you are expected to:

1. Understand the concepts of limit and continuity.

2. Identify the indeterminate forms in evaluating the limit of a function.
3. Discuss the continuity of a given function.
4. Apply the limit theorems in evaluating the limit of a function.

LESSON 1: Limit: Definition, Theorems and Indeterminate Forms

Estimated Time: 2.5 hours

LESSON OUTCOMES:

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define the concept of a limit.

2. Identify the indeterminate forms in evaluating the limit of a function.
3. Solve for the limit of a function using the limit theorems.

LESSON CONTENTS:

Activate:

Calculus is used in modeling numerous real-life phenomena, particularly

situations that involve change or motion. For example, to find the area of region with
curved sides, we approximate the area by inscribing polygons in the region. If we let
An be the area of the inscribed polygon with n sides, then we see that as n increases,
An gets closer and closer to the area A of the circle. In other words, the area A is
the limit of the areas An . Figure 1 on the next page illustrates how it is done.

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 Figure 1 (Source: Stewart, Redlin & Watson, 2012)

Acquire:

Familiarity with the limit concept is absolutely essential for a deeper

understanding of the calculus. Here, we will begin our discussion of the limit of a
function but we emphasize that our treatment here will appeal more to our intuition
than to rigor. And since our approach is non-rigorous one, I therefore, expect you to
grasp this idea with ease.

Consider the function,

2
f ( x )=x +1

and assign some values to x near, but not equal, to a specific number, say 2. For
each value of x in the neighborhood of 2, we compute the corresponding value f (x) .
The table below will show how the values will vary as we make the values near as
possible to 2.

x f (x) x f (x)
1.5 3.25 3 10
1.8 4.24 2.75 8.5625
1.85 4.4225 2.5 7.25
1.92 4.6864 2.2 5.84
1.95 4.8025 2.1 5.41
1.97 4.8809 2.02 5.0804
1.992 4.96806 2.015 5.06022
4 5
1.999 4.99600 2.003 5.01200
1 9

From the table we see that when x is close to 2 (on either side of 2), f (x) is
close to 5. In fact, it appears that we can make the values of f (x) as close as we like
to 5 by taking x sufficiently close to 2. We express this by saying “the limit of the
function f ( x )=x 2 +1 as x approaches 2 is equal to 5.”
In mathematical symbols we write this as,

lim ¿ x→ 2 ( x 2 +1 )=5 ¿

From our intuitive discussion above, we may formulate the following definition
of the limit of a function.

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Definition. Let f (x) be any function and let a and L be the numbers. If we can make
the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L as we please by taking x sufficiently close to a
, then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L or in symbols, that is,
lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=L¿

Roughly speaking, this says that the values of f (x) get closer and closer to
the number L as x gets closer and closer to the number a (from either side of a ), but
x ≠ a.
Note: This definition is based only on an intuitive approach (This is done to simplify
the discussion). For a rigorous one, you may refer to other Calculus texts.

Limit Theorems

Here is the list of limit theorems used to evaluate the limit of a function.

1. lim ¿ x →a [cf ( x ) ]=c lim ¿ x→ a f ( x ) ¿ ¿ ` Limit of a Constant

Multiple

2. lim ¿ x → a [f ( x ) + g ( x ) ]=lim ¿ x →a f ( x ) +lim ¿ x → a g ( x ) ¿ ¿ ¿ Limit of a Sum

3. lim ¿ x →a [f ( x ) −g ( x ) ]=lim ¿ x → a f ( x )−lim ¿ x →a g ( x ) ¿ ¿ ¿ Limit of a Difference

4. lim ¿ x→ a [f ( x ) g ( x ) ]=lim ¿ x →a f ( x ) ∙ lim ¿ x→ a g ( x ) ¿ ¿ ¿ Limit of a

Product

f (x ) lim ¿x → a f ( x )
5. lim ¿ x →a = ¿¿ Limit of a Quotient
g (x) lim ¿ x → a g ( x ) ¿

n
6. lim ¿ x → a [f ( x ) ] =¿ ¿ ¿ Limit of a Power

7. lim ¿ x →a √ f ( x)= √ lim ¿ x→ a f ( x ); wheren is a positve integer ¿ ¿

n n
Limit of a Root

[If n is even, we assume that lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )> 0 ¿.]

In stating the above theorems, we assume that f (x) and g(x ) are defined for
all values of x in some interval containing a except possibly a itself. These theorems
may be stated briefly in words. For example, Theorem #4, maybe stated as “the limit
of the sum is the sum of the limits.”

Special Limits

In applying the limit theorems, we need to use four special limits.

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1. lim ¿ x →a c=c ¿ ; c = any constant

2. lim ¿ x → a x=a¿ ; a = any real number

n n
3. lim ¿ x →a x =a . ¿ ; where n is a positive integer

4. lim ¿ x→ a √ x= √a ¿ ; where n is a positive integer and a> 0

n n

(Note: Special Limits 3 and 4 are special cases of limit theorems 6 and 7.)

Indeterminate Forms

Consider the function defined by

g( x )
f ( x )= , where h ( x ) ≠ 0 .
h( x)

Suppose at ¿ a , g ( a ) =h ( a ) =0

0
Then, f ( a )= which is undefined.
0

Now we will state that at x=a , the function f (x) assumes the indeterminate
0 ∞
form . (The other indeterminate form that we will encounter here is , which will
0 ∞
be discussed in the next lesson ). Obtaining any of these forms by using limit
theorems does not necessarily mean that f (x) has no limit. We shall see in the Apply
0
section that even if f (x) assumes the indeterminate form at ¿ a , the limit can
0
exist. The limit is usually found by changing the expression (algebraic remedies) of
f (x) into a form to which the limit theorems can be applied.

Limit at Infinity

A function f may have a finite limit even when the independent variable x
becomes infinite. This statement “ x becomes infinite is customarily expressed as “
x→∞ .

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 1
Consider again the function f ( x )= . It can be shown (intuitively or formally)
x
1
that approaches a finite limit (zero) as x increases without bound . That is,
x
1 1
→0 as x → ∞ . The table below shows how the approaches 0 as x approaches ∞ .
x x
x 10 100 1000 10000 →∞
1 0.1000 0.0100 0.0010 0.0001 →0
f ( x )=
x

Thus another special limit theorem arises, that is,

1
lim ¿ x→ ∞ =0 ¿
x

Apply:

Example 1] Using the Limit Theorems

Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.

2
a ¿ lim ¿ x→ 2 ( x +3 x +4 )¿

3
x + 2 x−1
b ¿ lim ¿ x→ 5 ¿
5−3 x

Solution:

a ¿ lim ¿ x→ 2 ( x 2 +3 x+ 4 )=lim ¿ x→ 2 x 2 +lim ¿x → 2 3 x+ lim ¿ x →2 4 ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

Limit of a Difference∧∑ ¿
2
¿ lim ¿x → 2 x + 3 lim ¿ x →2 x+ lim ¿ x→ 2 4 ¿ ¿ ¿
Limit of a Constant Multiple

¿ [2] +3 [ 2 ] +4
2
Special Limits 3 ,2∧1

¿ 14
3
x + 2 x−1 lim ¿ x →5 (x 3 +2 x−1)
b ¿ lim ¿ x→ 5 ¿ ¿ ¿ Limit of a Quotient
5−3 x lim ¿ x→ 5 (5−3 x )¿

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 lim ¿ x →5 x−lim ¿x → 5 1 ¿
3
¿ lim ¿x → 5 x +2 ¿¿
lim ¿ x→ 5 5−3 lim ¿ x →5 x ¿ ¿
Limit of Sums , Differences∧Constant Multiple
¿¿¿ Special Limits 3 ,2∧1

−67
¿
5

Example 2] Limit by Direct Substitution

If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f ,

then

lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=f (a)¿

Evaluate the following limits.

a ¿ lim ¿ x→ 2 ( 2 x 2−3 x+ 4 ) ¿

sin 2 x
b ¿ lim ¿ π ¿
x→
3
sin x

Solution:

a ¿ lim ¿ x→ 2 ( 2 x 2−3 x+ 4 )=2(2)2−3 ( 2 ) + 4=6 ¿

π 2 π √3
sin 2( ) sin
sin 2 x 3 3 2
b ¿ lim ¿ = ¿ ¿ = =1
x→
π
3
sin x
sin
π
sin
π √3
3 3 2

Example 3] Indeterminate Forms

Evaluate the limit of the following.

2
x −4
a ¿ lim ¿ x→ 2 ¿
x−2

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 2
(3+ h) −9
b ¿ lim ¿h → 0 ¿
h

Solution:

a) This cannot be evaluated by straight substitution since when x = 2, we will

0
have an indeterminate form of . Therefore we need to find an algebraic remedy to
0
so as to avoid this scenario. In this case, we can factor the numerator as a difference
of squares.

x −4 (x−2)( x+2)
2
=
x −2 x−2
we can now cancel the common factor between the numerator∧the denominator

We can now proceed in evaluating the limit as follows:

2
x −4 (x−2)(x+ 2)
lim ¿ x→ 2 =lim ¿ x →2 ¿¿ Factor
x−2 x−2
¿ lim ¿x → 2 (x+2) ¿ Cancel

=2+2 Substitute

¿4

b) We can’t use direct substitution to evaluate this limit, because the limit of
the denominator is 0. So we first simplify the limit algebraically.
2 2
(3+ h) −9 (9+6 h+h )−9
lim ¿h → 0 =lim ¿h →0 ¿¿ Expand
h h
2
6 h+h
¿ lim ¿h →0 ¿ Simplify
h
= lim ¿h → 0(6+h)¿ Cancel h

¿6

Example 4] Limit at Infinity

Evaluate the following limits.

3 2
1 4 4 x +3 x −6
a ¿ lim ¿ x→ ∞ 3
¿ b ¿ lim ¿ x→ ∞ 2
¿ c ¿ lim ¿ x →∞ 3
¿
x x 2 x +5 x +3

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Solution:

a ¿ lim ¿ x→ ∞
1
x
3 (
1 1 1 1
) 1 1
=lim ¿x → ∞ ∙ ∙ =lim ¿ x→ ∞ ∙ lim ¿x → ∞ ∙ lim ¿ x →∞ ¿ ¿ ¿¿ ¿
x x x x x x
by Limit of a Product

¿0

4 1
b ¿ lim ¿ x→ ∞ 2
=4 lim ¿ x →∞ 2 ¿ ¿ by Limit of a
x x
Constant Multiple

= 4 lim ¿ x → ∞ ( 1x ∙ 1x )=4 lim ¿ x →∞

1
x
1
∙ lim ¿ x→ ∞ ¿ ¿ ¿
x
by Limit

of a Product

¿0

From these examples, we can intuitively arrive in another special limit as a

consequence of the preceding special limit, that for any positive n ,

1
lim ¿ x→ ∞ n
=0 ¿
x
3 2
4 x +3 x −6
c ¿ lim ¿ x →∞ 3
¿
2 x +5 x +3

∞
The function assumes the indeterminate form . Dividing both the
∞
numerator and the denominator by x 3, we get

3 6
4+ − 3
3
4 x +3 x −6 2
x x 5+0−0
lim ¿ x→ ∞ 3
=lim ¿ x →∞ = =2 ¿ ¿
2 x + 5 x +3 5 3 2+0+ 0
2+ 2 + 3
x x

Assess:

A) Exercises:

I. Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit
theorem/s.

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 3 2
6 x + 4 x +5
a ¿ lim ¿ x→ 4 ¿-2x+3) e ¿ lim ¿ x →∞ 3
¿
8 x +7 x−3

8 x−5
3
b ¿ lim ¿ x→ 3 ( x + 2)(x −5 x)¿
2 f ¿ lim ¿ x→ ∞
√ 4 x 2+3
x−2
c ¿ lim ¿ x →1 2
x +4 x −3
4 2
x + x −6
d ¿ lim ¿ x →1 ( 4
)¿
x +2 x+ 3

II. Evaluate the limit of the following if it exists.

3 2
a ¿ lim ¿ ¿¿ x −x −x−2
x→
π d ¿ lim ¿ x →2 3 2
4 2 x −5 x + 5 x−6
3
sin x
b ¿ lim ¿ x→ 0
sin x−tan x
e ¿ lim ¿ x →7 √ x +2−3
¿
x−7

c ¿ lim ¿ t → 0 √
t 2 +9−3 √3 x−2 ¿
¿ f ¿ lim ¿ x→ 8
t2 x−8

B) Formative Assessment

C) Online Short Quiz

D) Summative Test

Teaching Delivery:

a. Lecture (Video Conferencing, F2F)

b. Multimedia Presentation
c. Social Media Interactive Discussion/ Q & A Sessions (thru Messenger, SMS,
Google Meet, Zoom and Facebook Social Learning Group)

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LESSON 2: One-Sided Limits and Types of Discontinuity

Estimated Time: 2.5 hours

LESSON OUTCOMES:

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. Define the concept of continuity.

2. Discuss the continuity of a given function applying the concept of one-
sided limits.

LESSON CONTENTS:

Activate:

The limit and the value of a function are two different notions. In fact, when
we discussed the meaning of lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=L¿ , we deliberately ignored the actual
value of f (x) at x=a . However, it is possible that the limit of a function f (x) as x → a
may turn out to be just the value of f (x) at x=a . That is, lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=f ( a ) . ¿ Now
when this case happens, a significant mathematical concept arises. That is, the
function f ¿ )is said to be continuous at x=a .

Acquire:

Definition. A function f ( x ) is continuous at x=a if lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=f ( a ) . ¿

Note that the condition lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=f ( a ) ¿ in the definition above implies
three conditions,
1. f ( a ) ∃(defined );
2. lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=L ,∃; ¿
3. L=f (a)
If any one, or more, of conditions 1,2,3 is/are not satisfied, the function f (x)
is said to be discontinuous at x=a or to have discontinuity at x=a .

When f ( a ) exists and lim ¿ x→ a+¿ f ( x ) =f ( a) ¿ ¿ the function is said to have

¿−hand continuity at x=a . On the other hand, if f ( a ) exists and lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )= f (a ) ¿ ¿,
−¿

then f ( x ) is said to have ¿ hand continuity at x=a . These would lead to an intuitive
definition of One-Sided Limits. That is,

The limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left (or right) is L.

If the values of f (x) get closer and closer to L as the values of x get closer
and closer to a , but are less [or greater] than a .

lim ¿ x→ a f ( x )=lim ¿x → a
−¿
f ( x ) =lim ¿ x→ a +¿
f ( x )=L ¿ ¿¿
¿¿

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 (this must be satisfied so that condition2 above will also be satisfied )

Types of Discontinuity

1. Removable Discontinuity (or Missing-Point Discontinuity)

- is characterized by the fact that the limit exists (Condition 2 above is
satisfied) but the value of the function f ( a ) assumes an indeterminate
form or does not exist (Condition 1 above is not satisfied).
2. Jump Discontinuity
- It happens when both of the one-sided limits exist (left and right hand
limits), but they have different values.
3. Infinite Discontinuity
- It happens when both of the one-sided limits are infinite. The function
increases numerically without bound as x approaches a. This means
that the curve becomes asymptotic to the line x=a at the same time
receding from the x-axis.
4. Endpoint Discontinuity
- It happens when only one of one-sided limits exists (either the left or
the right hand limit).

Apply:

Example 1] One-Sided Limits

{5 x−3 ,∧x ≥ 1
2
Evaluate the one-sided limits of f ( x )=
3−4 x ,∧x <1 .

Solution: The transition point here is @ x=1

a) for the left hand limit (the function to the left of 1 must be evaluated),
lim ¿ x→ 1
+¿
(3−4 x 2)=−1 ¿
¿
b) for the right hand limit (the function to the right of 1 must be
evaluated),
lim ¿ x→ 1 −¿
( 5 x−3) =2 ¿ ¿
c) since the left and the right hand side limits are not equal,
lim ¿ x→ 1 f ( x )=dne ¿ (does not exist)

Example 2] Removable Discontinuity

3
Investigate the continuity of f ( x )=
x −9 x +10 at
x=2 and identify the
x −2
type of discontinuity if any exists.
Solution:
We need first to evaluate whether the function satisfies the conditions for
continuity.

a) for condition 1,

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 3
2 −9(2)+10 0
@ x =2, f (2 )= = , the value of the function is indeterminate
2−2 0
(does not exist). Therefore, condition 1 is not satisfied.

b) for condition 2,

3
x −9 x+ 10
lim ¿ x→ 2 =lim ¿ 3
x −9 x+10
¿¿
x−2 x →2 +¿
x−2
=lim ¿
x→ 2
−¿
3
x −9x+ 10
¿
¿¿
x−2

(Both the left and right side limits are equal since the function involved
only a single expression). Here we will find a remedy to find the limit of the
function.

2
x3 −9 x+ 10 (x−2)(x + 2 x−5)
lim ¿ x→ 2 =lim ¿ x →2 =lim ¿x → 2 ( x 2 +2 x −5 )=3 ¿ ¿ ¿
x−2 x−2
Therefore, condition 2 is satisfied.

c) for condition 3,
3
0
Since, ≠ 3. Therefore, lim ¿ x→ 2 x −9 x+ 10 ≠ f (2)¿. Condition 3 is not
0 x−2
also satisfied.
(Note that if any of the conditions 1 and 2 are not satisfied, consequently,
condition 3 will not also be satisfied.)

d) Conclusion:
Since the limit of the function exists @ x=2 (condition 2 satisfied) but
the value of the function does not exist @ x=2, the function is said to have
a removable discontinuity @ x=2.

Example 3] Jump Discontinuity

{
2
Investigate the continuity of f ( x )=
x ,∧x ≤ 1 and identify the type of
x +3 ,∧x >1
discontinuity if any exists.

Solution:

1) Identify the point(s) of transition.

In this case, the point of transition is @ x=1, since it is where the
formula shifts from one to another.

2) Determine the left and the right hand side limits of the function at the
transition point.

lim ¿ x→ 1 +¿
f ( x ) =lim ¿ x →1
¿
+¿
( x 2 )=12 =1¿ ¿¿

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 lim ¿ x→ 1 −¿
f ( x ) =lim ¿ x→ 1
−¿
( x+ 3)=1+3 =4 ¿ ¿¿
¿
Since, the left and the right hand side limits are different, the function is
said to have a jump discontinuity.

Example 4] Infinite Discontinuity

2
x + 2 x−15
Investigate the continuity of f ( x )= 2
@ x=−1 and identify the
x −2 x −3
type of discontinuity if any exists.

Solution:

2
x + 2 x−15
1) Evaluate the limit of f ( x )= 2
@ x=−1
x −2 x −3
2
2
x +2 x−15 (−1) + 2 (−1 )−15 1−2−15 −16
lim ¿ x→−1 ¿= = = =∞
2
x −2 x−3 (−1)2−2 (−1 )−3 1+ 2−3 0

Since we have a division by zero, the limit of the function does not exist at
n
x=−1 . But, the form suggests that the function is becoming infinitely large as x
0
approaches -1. As such the curve becomes asymptotic to the line x=−1.

Therefore the function has an infinite discontinuity at x=−1.

Example 5] Endpoint Discontinuity

Examine the continuity of f ( x )= √ x @ x = 0 and identify the type of

discontinuity if there is any.

Solution:

Here ( 0 )=0(condition 1) . But f ( x )= √ x is not defined (we deal only with

real values) for x <0, that is, lim ¿ x→−0−¿ √ x ¿ ¿ does not exist. However,

lim ¿ x→−0 +¿
√ x=0 ¿ ¿

Since lim ¿ x→−0−¿ √ x ≠lim ¿ x→−0 +¿

¿ ¿¿
¿ . Condition 2 is not satisfied. Therefore, it has
a discontinuity.

If we dig in further, the function has a left hand discontinuity since the
function doesn’t have real values to the left of x = 0. But the function has a right-
hand continuity. Since, f ( 0 )=0 is defined (condition 1) and lim ¿ x→−0+¿ √ x=0 ¿ ¿

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(condition 2, only for right hand limit) and f ( 0 )=lim ¿ x→ 0+¿ f (x)(condition 3)¿ ¿ . Note that x =
0 is the left endpoint of the function. Thus, the function has an endpoint discontinuity
at x = 0.

Assess:

A) Exercises:

Investigate the continuity of the following functions and identify the type of
discontinuity if any exists.

{
a ¿ f ( x ) = 3 x +1 ,∧x ≤ 11
4 x−2 ,∧x >11

b ¿ f (x )=
{√ x +6 ,∧x ≤−2
−x 2 ,∧x>−2

{
c ¿ f ( x )= | x|,∧x< 3
4 x +2 ,∧x >3

d ¿ f ( x )=
{ sin ( π8 x) , x < 4
2 , x =4
cos ( x−4 ) , x >4

{
e ¿ f ( x )= cot x ,∧x< 0
ln x ,∧x >0

f ¿ f ( x) =
{xx+−93 ,∧x
2
<4
,∧x ≥ 4

{
g ¿ f ( x )= 2 x +5 ,∧ x←1
2−x ,∧x ≥−1

B) Formative Assessment

C) Online Short Quiz

D) Summative Test

Teaching Delivery:

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 a. Lecture (Video Conferencing, F2F)
b. Multimedia Presentation
c. Social Media Interactive Discussion/ Q & A Sessions (thru Messenger, SMS,
Google Meet, Zoom and Facebook Social Learning Group)

Bibliography:

Feliciano F., Uy F. (1983) Differential and Integral Calculus. Merriam & Webster
Bookstore, Inc. Manila, Philippines

Love C., Rainville E. (1981) Differential and Integral Calculus, Sixth Edition.
Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.

Stewart J., Redlin L. Watson S. (2012) Precalculus: Mathematics for Calculus, Sixth
Edition. Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning

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