MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION
Module Rationale:
This module deals with the different properties of materials and the
concept of material stress (the normal, tensile and compressive stresses) which
will serve as introductory concepts in studying strength of materials.
Module Outcomes:
At the end of the module, you are expected to:
1. Understand the different properties of materials.
2. Evaluate the value of the axial stress experienced by a material given
the different parameters and condition/s.
Lesson 1: Properties of Materials
Estimated Time: 3 hours
Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Familiarize the different properties of materials.
2. Explain why a material is used for a specific application.
LESSON CONTENTS:
Activate:
Consider a car – it has approximately 15,000 parts; or a Boeing 747-400
plane, with over 6 million parts! Consider your PC; it probably has an Intel Core
i9 10th gen processor, which has millions of tiny electronic components, the
feature size, i.e. the separation between the components is around 10
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nanometers. What unique properties of those materials made it possible to be
used on those applications?
In order to understand how things are made, we must first understand how
they behave. This understanding is crucial in deciding whether they are good for
a particular design and whether they are capable of handling the varying
environmental conditions.
Acquire:
In this lesson shall concern ourselves with two types of issues:
(a) Mechanical properties of materials (strength, toughness, hardness, ductility,
elasticity, fatigue creep, etc.).
(b) Physical properties (density, specific heat, melting and boiling point,
thermal expansion and conductivity, electrical and magnetic properties)
Mechanical properties are useful to estimate how parts will behave when
they are subjected to mechanical loads (forces, moments etc.). In particular, we
are interested to know the property of a materials under different conditions.
These include loading under: tension, compression, torsion, bending, repeated
cyclical loading, constant loading over long time, impact, etc. We shall now
discuss these properties below:
1) Strength (or Static Strength) – It is the ability of a material to resist the
externally applied forces without breaking or yielding. The internal
resistance offered by a material to an externally applied force is called
stress.
2) Toughness – It is an estimate of how much energy is consumed before
the material fractures. The toughness of a material decreases when it is
heated. It is measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the
material has absorbed after being stressed up to the point of fracture. This
property is desirable in parts subjected to shock and impact.
3) Hardness – The resistance to permanent deformation in the form of
penetration or indentation. It is measured by the permanent deformation
on the surface of the material being tested when subjected to a standard
loading. Good hardness generally means that the material is resistant to
scratching and wear. Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard for
scratch and wear resistant.
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4) Ductility – It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire
with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both
strong and plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the terms-
percentage elongation and percentage reduction in area.
5) Elasticity – The property of a material to regain its original size and shape
after deformation when the external forces are removed. This property of a
material is desirable for materials used in tools and machines.
6) Fatigue - It is the fracture/failure of a material that is subjected to repeating
cyclical loading, or cyclic stresses. The failure is caused by means of a
progressive crack formation which are usually fine and microscopic in
size. This property is considered in designing shafts, connecting rods,
springs, gears, etc.
7) Creep – If a material is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature
for a long period of time, it will undergo a slow, permanent deformation
called creep. This property is considered in designing internal combustion
engines, boilers and turbines.
8) Resilience – It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist
shock and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed
per unit volume with inelastic limit. This property is essential for spring
materials.
9) Stiffness – It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress.
The modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus) is the measure of the
stiffness.
10)Plasticity – The property of a material which retains the deformation
produced under load permanently. This property of the material is
necessary for forgings, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental
work.
11)Malleability – It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be
rolled or hammered into sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but
it is not essential to be so strong.
12)Brittleness – It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the
property of breaking the material with little permanent distortion. Brittle
materials when subjected to tensile loads snap off without giving any
sensible elongation.
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Physical Properties. Some important physical properties include: Density,
Melting point, Specific heat, Thermal conductivity, Coefficient of thermal
expansion, Electrical conductivity, Magnetic properties and Corrosion
Resistance. It is extremely important to be familiar with these during product
design, since choice of material affects all aspects of a product from cost,
function during its expected life, aesthetics, size, shape, manufacturability etc.
We shall now discuss these properties.
1. Density – The density of a material is defined as the mass per unit
mass
volume. ρ=
volume
2. Melting point - This is the temperature at which the material changes
phase from solid to liquid.
3. Specific Heat - The amount of heat energy that will raise the temperature
of a unit mass of the material by 1°C.
4. Thermal Conductivity - The thermal conductivity of a material is the
quantity of heat that passes in unit time through unit area of a plate, when
its opposite faces are subject to unit temperature gradient (e.g. one
degree temperature difference across a thickness of one unit).
Thermal conductivity = Heat flow rate / (Area × Temperature gradient)
5. Thermal Expansion - The linear coefficient of thermal expansion is defined
as the proportional change in a material’s length when its temperature
changes by 1°C. (This will be discussed in detail in the next modules.)
6. Electrical Conductivity - Electrical conductivity is the reciprocal of the
specific resistance. Most metals are good conductors, while many plastics,
ceramics, rubbers etc. are very poor conductors.
7. Magnetic Properties - Ferro-magnetic materials have high magnetic
permeability, and therefore can be magnetized by induction.
8. Corrosion Resistance – It refers to how well a material can withstand the
damage caused by oxidation or other chemical reactions.
Sometimes one or more materials are combined to form another in
order to meet the necessary properties. When two or more metals are
combined it forms an alloy.
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Apply:
The following materials are commonly used in different industries and their
vast applications contributed a lot in shaping the modern world.
`
a) Aluminum
Aluminum is a strongly electro-negative metal and possesses a
strong affinity for oxygen; this is apparent from the high heat of formation of its
oxide. The three main properties of aluminum to which its applications are
based are its low density (app. 2.7), the high mechanical strength achieved by
suitable alloying and heat treatments, and the relatively high corrosion
resistance of the pure metal. Other valuable properties include high thermal
and electrical conductance, its reflectivity (luster), its high ductility, its magnetic
neutrality and the non-poisonous and colorless nature of its corrosion products
which facilitates its use in the chemical and food-processing industries.
Aluminum alloys for production, in particular the bodywork of motor
vehicles, have only recently been used. However, this type of material has
gained very high popularity and presence in a large number of motor vehicle
manufacturers, primarily because of its low mass and because it practically
does not exhibit a tendency to corrosion. In addition to the vehicle body itself,
certain parts of the ICE, as well as other power units (electric motors, etc.) are
made of these alloys, as well as individual assemblies and parts of other
systems on vehicles.
In aerospace applications, materials with high strength to weight
ratios along with properties such as excellent corrosion resistance, light
weight, creep resistance and high thermal strength are needed. Thus,
aluminum alloys are suitable for such applications. The high strength to weight
ratio of aluminum favors the selection of aluminum alloys in critical weight
applications. Aluminum alloys are the prime choice for fuselages, wings and
support structure of commercial airlines and military cargo. The first
superplastic aluminum production aircraft parts were made from aluminum
alloy 2004 and the produced parts were seat ejector components. The 2000,
6000, 7000 and 8000 Aluminum series are extensively used in aircraft
structures.
b) Stainless Steel
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Stainless Steels are iron-base alloys that contain a minimum of
about 12% Cr, the amount needed to prevent the formation of rust in
unpolluted atmospheres (hence the designation stainless).
Stainless steels are used in a wide variety of applications. Most of
the structural applications occur in the chemical and power engineering
industries, which account for more than a third of the market for stainless
steel products. These applications include an extremely diversified range of
uses, including nuclear reactor vessels, heat exchangers, oil industry
tubulars, components for chemical processing and pulp and paper industries,
furnace parts, and boilers used in fossil fuel electric power plants.
The physical and mechanical properties of stainless steels are quite
different from those of commonly used nonferrous alloys such as aluminum
and copper alloys. The density of stainless steels is ~8.0 g/cm3, which is
approximately three times greater than that of aluminum alloys (2.7 g/cm3).
Stainless steels have a high modulus of elasticity (200 MPa, or 30 ksi) that is
nearly twice that of copper alloys (115 MPa, or 17 ksi) and nearly three times
that of aluminum alloys (70 MPa, or 10 ksi). Stainless steels have also high
electrical resistivity.
c) Silicon
The ability to fabricate tens of millions of individual components
(diodes, transistors etc.) on a minute silicon chip has enabled the modern
information age. Now a days the essence of this silicon IC technology is
almost a household word. It was first discovered as an element by a Swedish
chemist named Jacob Berzelius in 1824. He prepared amorphous (non-
crystalline) silicon through the heating of sodium (Na) and silicon-tetrafluoride
(SiF4). The first crystalline silicon was prepared by Henry Sainte-Claire
Deville in 1854. But the popularity of silicon blossomed with the invention of
the silicon Integrated Circuit (IC) – a revolutionary concept in the field of
electronics.
Silicon gained popularity and mass recognition with the advent of
the Integrated Circuit (IC) industry. IC is a miniaturized electronic circuit
consisting of numerous transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors built on a
common substrate and interconnected to perform desired functions. In most of
the cases silicon is chosen as the basic semiconductor substrate because of
many technological advantages. Currently, about 88% of the IC market is
MOS (Metal-Oxide- Semiconductor) based and about 8% is BJT (Bipolar
Junction Transistor) based. Remaining 4% is based on compound
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semiconductor for high frequency applications [Source: Solid State Electronic
Devices, 5th Ed., by [Link] & S. Banerjee].
The second largest application of pure silicon is as a raw material in
the production of silicone (about 40% of the world consumption of silicon). It is
a durable synthetic resin with a structure based on chains of silicon and
oxygen atoms with organic side [Link] is also used in mold making
material to create rubber molds that can be used for production casting of
resins, foams, rubber and low-temp alloys. Multiple layers of silicone often
insulate automotive spark plug wires. Electronic components are sometimes
protected from environmental influence by enclosing them in silicone. This
increases the stability against mechanical shock, radiation, vibration and
especially the electrical insulation.
Lastly, Silica, as sand, is a principal ingredient of glass, one of the
most inexpensive of materials with excellent mechanical, optical, thermal and
electrical properties.
Assess:
A) For each of the following materials below, list down one specific application
and determine what property of that material makes it appropriate to be used on
the said application.
1. Copper
2. Cast Iron
3. Titanium
4. Wood
5. Bamboo
6. Concrete
7. Steel
8. Carbon
B) Online Short Quiz
C) Summative Test
Reflection:
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In your field of study, why is it important to study the properties of materials?
(Write an essay in no less than 150 words.)
Teaching Delivery:
a. Lecture (Video Conferencing)
b. Social Media Interactive Discussion/ Q & A Sessions (thru Messenger,
SMS, Google Meet, Zoom and Facebook Social Learning Group)
Lesson 2: Simple Stress
Estimated Time: 1.5 hours
LESSON OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. Explain the concept of simple stresses.
2. Determine the value of the axial stress experienced by a material given
the different parameters and condition/s.
Lesson Contents:
Activate:
Have you ever wondered why a suspension bridge is capable of handling
the weight of different vehicles as they pass through it?
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[Photo Courtesy of Joseph Barrientos]
The bridge is composed of different materials which hand in hand support
each other to be able to carry the weight of the vehicles including its own weight.
The weight of the vehicles are carried by the bridge deck and passes the force to
the stringers (vertical cables), which in turn, supported by the main suspension
cables. The suspension cables then transferred the force into bridge towers. As
the vehicles passes by the bridge, these materials experiences stress.
Acquire:
Simple stresses are expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by
the resisting area or
Force
S=
Area
It is the expression of force per unit area to structural members that are
subjected to external forces and/or induced forces (just like the suspension
bridge). The value of stress is essential to accurately describe and predict the
elastic deformation of a body.
There are three types of simple stress namely; normal stress, shearing
stress, and bearing stress.
In this lesson we will only deal with the normal stress. (Shearing and
Bearing Stresses will be discussed in the next module)
Normal Stress (also called Axial Stress)
- is the stress developed under the action of the forces acting axially or
perpendicular to the resisting area.
- If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile
stress and compressive stress develops when the material is being
compressed by two opposing forces.
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P
S N= where: SN = normal stress
A
P = force applied
A = resisting area
(perpendicular to the
force)
Table 1. Reference Table of Units for Computation
STRESSES (S) FORCE (P) AREA (A)
1. psi or pounds/in2 Pound (lb) sq. inch (in2)
2. Pa or Pascal Newton (N) sq. meter(m2)
3. MPa or Megapascal Newton (N) sq. mm (mm2)
Apply:
Example 1] A steel bar is 10 mm in diameter and 2 m long. It is stretched with a
force of 20 kN. Calculate the stress carried.
Given:
d=10 mm; l=2 m; P=20 kN
Req’d: S N
Solution:
P π 2
Formulas: S N= ; A= d , circular area
A 4
a) for the Area A,
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π 2 π 2 2
A= d = (10 mm) =78.54 mm
4 4
b) for S N ,
Before we solve for the stress, we shall look first on the units of the
quantities given. For the Force (P) the unit is in kN while the Area (A) is in mm 2.
Referring to Table 1 (Reference Table of Units for Computation) above, we shall
identify the proper units to be used to be consistent althroughout our computation
and to eliminate confusion. In this case, column 3 units are the most appropriate
to use. There is only one problem, the Force P must be in N (Newtons).
Therefore we need to convert 20kN to N. That is, 20kN equals 20,000 N or 20 x
103 N (Using the Greek Prefix kilo). Everything is now is all set. We have Force P
in N, Area A in mm2 and we expect SN to be in MPa.
P 20,000 N
S N= = =254.64 MPa
A 78.54 mm2
(Note: Please review the values of your Greek Prefixes)
Example 2] A hollow cast-iron cylinder 4 m long, 300 mm outer diameter, and
thickness of metal 50 mm is subjected to a central load on the top when standing
straight. The stress produced is 75 MPa. Find the magnitude of the load.
Given:
D = 300mm; t = 50 mm
d = D – 2t = 200 mm
Req’d: P [Source: Rojas, 2017]
Solution: [Source: Rojas, 2017]
P π 2 2
Formulas: S N= ; A= ( D −d )
A 4
Looking at the units given and based on Table 1, we can conclude that
Column 3 units are the most appropriate to use and we can expect that the Force
P is in Newtons(N).
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P P P
S N= ;S = 75=
A N π 2 2 π
( D −d ) (300 2−2002 )
4 4
P=2 , 945 , 243.11 N
Assess:
A) Exercises: Solve each problem. Write the given, the required and your
complete solution.
1. A steel bar of length 5m is stretched with a force of 35kN. The diameter of
the bar is 15mm. Find the stress carried by the bar.
2. The elastic limit of aluminum is 130 MPa. What is the maximum mass that
an aluminum wire 3 mm in diameter can support without exceeding its
elastic limit? (Use g = 9.81 m/s2; W=mg)
3. A brass cylinder 6 m long with an inside diameter of 250mm and an
outside diameter of 400mm is subjected to a central load of 3,000 kN.
Calculate the stress in the cylinder.
4. Determine the outside diameter of a hollow steel tube that will carry a
tensile load of 500kN at a stress of 140 MPa. Assume the wall thickness
to be one-tenth of the outside diameter.
B) Online Short Quiz
C) Summative Test
Teaching Delivery:
a. Lecture (Video Conferencing)
b. Social Media Interactive Discussion/ Q & A Sessions (thru Messenger,
SMS, Google Meet, Zoom and Facebook Social Learning Group)
Bibliography:
Alloy Digest Sourcebook: Stainless Steel (2001). Chapter 1. Introduction to
Stainless Steel. ASM International
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Dutta S. & Datta P. (2014). Silicon: A Versatile Material! Published Online:
[Link] , Retrieved: July 29, 2020)
Singer F. & Pytel A. (1987). Strength of Materials, 4th Edition. Pearson Company
Rojas R. (2017). ESAS Pocket Reviewer (Problem Solving Type) First Edition.
Yashpal, Jawalker C. S. & Kant S (2015). A Review On Use Of Aluminum Alloys
in Aircraft Components. Journal of Material Science 2015
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