This comprehensive, structured course covers the fundamentals of computer networking—from low-
level physical transmission up to modern web protocols and network security.
Module 1: Core Fundamentals & Network Models
Networking is all about transmitting data reliably between systems. To manage this complexity,
networking is abstracted into layered models where each layer handles a specific task and serves the
layer above it.
The Models: OSI vs. TCP/IP
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a 7-layer theoretical framework, while the TCP/IP
Model is a 4-layer practical framework used by the modern internet.
Layer Protocol Data Unit
Layer Name Core Responsibilities & Protocol Examples
(OSI) (PDU)
End-user processes, APIs, protocols like HTTP, SSH,
7 Application Data
DNS, FTP.
Data translation, encryption/decryption,
6 Presentation Data
compression (SSL/TLS, JPEG, ASCII).
Establishing, managing, and terminating sessions
5 Session Data
between apps (RPC, Sockets).
Segment (TCP) / End-to-end communication, error recovery, flow
4 Transport
Datagram (UDP) control (TCP, UDP).
Path determination, logical addressing, routing
3 Network Packet
(IPv4, IPv6, ICMP, BGP).
Physical addressing (MAC), error detection,
2 Data Link Frame
switching (Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP).
Physical transmission media, electrical signals,
1 Physical Bits
cables, fiber (RJ45, Optics).
Encapsulation & Decapsulation: As data moves down the stack (Encapsulation), each layer
prepends its own header (e.g., Transport adds TCP ports, Network adds IP addresses, Data Link
adds MAC addresses). Upon arrival, the receiving host strips headers layer-by-layer
(Decapsulation).
Module 2: The Physical & Data Link Layers (Layers 1 & 2)
Ethernet & Media
Media Types: Twisted Pair (Cat5e/Cat6/Cat6a using RJ45 connectors), Fiber Optics (Single-Mode
for long distance, Multi-Mode for short high-bandwidth links).
Duplexing: Full-duplex allows simultaneous transmitting and receiving; Half-duplex requires
collision handling (historically using CSMA/CD).
Layer 2 Addressing & Switching
MAC Addresses: A unique 48-bit identifier burned into hardware interfaces (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E ).
Switches & CAM Tables: Switches maintain a Content Addressable Memory (CAM) table
mapping MAC addresses to physical ports. Incoming frames are forwarded based on their
destination MAC.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Translates a Layer 3 IP address to a Layer 2 MAC address
using broadcast requests ( Who has [Link]? ) and unicast responses.
Module 3: Network Layer & Addressing (Layer 3)
IPv4 vs. IPv6
IPv4: 32-bit addresses formatted as dotted-decimal (e.g., [Link] ), providing ~4.29
billion addresses.
IPv6: 128-bit addresses formatted in hexadecimal (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334 ), offering effectively unlimited address space.
Subnetting & CIDR Notation
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) defines how many bits of an IP address represent the network
vs. the host.
Example: [Link]/24
Subnet Mask: [Link] (24 ones in binary followed by 8 zeros)
Network Address: [Link]
Usable Host Range: [Link] to [Link]
Broadcast Address: [Link]
Total Hosts: $2^{(32 - 24)} - 2 = 254$ usable hosts.
Routing & Gateways
Routers operate at Layer 3 to move packets between different networks. They maintain Routing Tables
configured via:
Static Routes: Manually configured routes.
Dynamic Routing Protocols:
IGP (Interior Gateway Protocols): OSPF (Link-State) or EIGRP used within an organization.
EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocols): BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) used to route traffic between
Autonomous Systems (AS) across the global internet.
Module 4: Transport Layer Protocols (Layer 4)
Layer 4 provides transport services for applications using Ports (ranging from 0 to 65535 ).
TCP vs. UDP Comparison
Feature TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Connection
Connection-oriented (Handshake required) Connectionless ("Fire and forget")
Type
Best-effort (packets can drop or
Reliability High (ACKs, retransmissions, ordered delivery)
arrive out of order)
Overhead Higher (20-byte header, state tracking) Lower (8-byte header)
Web traffic (HTTP/HTTPS), File transfers (SSH, Video streaming, Gaming, DNS
Use Cases
FTP), Email (SMTP) queries, VoIP
TCP Mechanics
1. Three-Way Handshake:
$$\text{Client} \xrightarrow{\text{SYN}} \text{Server} \xrightarrow{\text{SYN-ACK}} \text{Client}
\xrightarrow{\text{ACK}} \text{Server}$$
2. Four-Way Teardown: FIN $\rightarrow$ ACK $\rightarrow$ FIN $\rightarrow$ ACK .
3. Flow & Congestion Control: Uses Sliding Windows and algorithms like TCP Tahoe/Reno to prevent
overwhelming the receiver or network.
Module 5: Application Layer Protocols & Infrastructure
(Layers 5–7)
Domain Name System (DNS)
Translates human-readable names to IP addresses (e.g., [Link] $\rightarrow$
[Link] ).
Resolution Hierarchy: Root Servers ( . ) $\rightarrow$ TLD Servers ( .com ) $\rightarrow$
Authoritative Name Servers.
Key Record Types:
A : Maps domain to IPv4.
AAAA : Maps domain to IPv6.
CNAME : Alias for another domain name.
MX : Mail server records.
HTTP & Web Architecture
HTTP/1.1: Text-based protocol using persistent TCP connections.
HTTP/2: Binary protocol introducing multiplexing over a single TCP connection.
HTTP/3: Replaces TCP with QUIC (built on UDP) to reduce latency and eliminate head-of-line
blocking.
NAT & Firewalls
NAT (Network Address Translation): Maps multiple private IP addresses (e.g., [Link]/8 ,
[Link]/16 ) to a single public IP address using port tracking (PAT/NAPT), conserving
IPv4 space.
Firewalls: Filter traffic based on rules. Statefull firewalls track active connections, whereas
stateless firewalls inspect individual packets in isolation.
Module 6: Practical Diagnostic Tooling
Understanding these command-line utilities is essential for troubleshooting networks:
ping <host> : Uses ICMP Echo requests to test Layer 3 reachability and latency.
traceroute <host> (or tracert on Windows): Uses incrementing TTL (Time to Live)
values to identify every router hop along a path.
netstat / ss : Displays active socket connections, listening ports, and routing tables.
dig <domain> / nslookup <domain> : Queries DNS servers for specific record types.
tcpdump / Wireshark : Captures and inspects raw traffic packets on an interface.