2.
MEASURING TOOLS AND PROCESSES:
2.3.2 Vernier calipers:
Vernier calipers are actually “improved” rules: they use 2 jaws to “identify” the linear
distance and an improved scale, the Vernier scale, to arrive at a more precise
measurement.
Figure 2.3.2: Metric Vernier Caliper Figure 2.3.3: Dual Unit Vernier Caliper
Figure 2.3.4: Components of a Vernier Caliper
1
Reading Vernier scales:
Figure 2.3.5: Reading Vernier Scales
Step 1: On the main scale find the value “below” the zero of the Vernier scale. In
the image above, that would be 3 [mm]. Make sure that you know what the
graduations on the main scale represent.
Step 2: Determine the graduation line on the Vernier scale, which coincides with a
graduation line on the main scale; depending on the quality of your
eyesight, this could be the line at the “6" of the Vernier scale or the next
line. If it is the “6" line, then the measurement would be:
3 [mm] + 0.60 [mm] = 3.60 [mm] (NOT 3.6 [mm])
If it is the line following the “6" on the Vernier scale, then the measurement
would be:
3 [mm] + 0.62 [mm] = 3.62 [mm]
Make sure you are aware of the value of each increment on the Vernier
scale, for this case: 0.02 [mm].
2
Example 1:
This appears to be the Vernier scale on
an angle measuring tool; therefore the
base units on the main scale will be
degrees, on the Vernier scale 0.1
degrees.
Step 1: the zero of the Vernier scale
is at 19 degrees.
Step 2: the first alignment is at 0.8
degrees.
Answer: the angle is 19.8 degrees.
Figure 2.3.6: Angular Vernier Scale
Example 2:
Figure 2.3.7: Dual Vernier Scales
Find both, the inch and the metric value shown in the figure above.
Inch scale: again, make sure that you know what the increments on both scales
are.
Step 1: the zero of the Vernier scale is at: 0.95" on the
main scale.
Step 2: the first alignment is 3 lines past the “15" on the
Vernier scale: 0.018"
Answer: 0.968"
Metric scale: Step 1: 24 [mm]
Step 2: 0.62 [mm]
Answer: 24.62 [mm]
55
2.3.3 Dial calipers:
Instead of using a Vernier scale, these calipers use a dial indicator for the higher
discrimination aspect of the instrument; otherwise they are no different from Vernier
calipers. Since there is a “gap” between the rotating hand and the dial face, the line of
sight, when reading the instrument, must be perpendicular to the face of the dial or else
a reading error will occur.
Figure 2.3.8: Dial Caliper
2.3.4 Digital calipers:
A digital read-out replaces all scales. It is important to zero the calipers before taking
measurements and select the appropriate units (metric or imperial).
Figure 2.3.9: Digital
56 Caliper
If the caliper appears to be well used or even “abused”, ensure that the instrument is still
calibrated: take something of known dimension and verify it using the caliper.
2.3.5 Outside micrometers:
Standard micrometers have a discrimination of 0.001" or 0.01 [mm], those with a Vernier
scale have discriminations of one magnitude higher. Digital micrometers may have a
discrimination as fine as 0.00005". Their only limitation is the limited range: they typically
are only capable of measuring over a range of 1" (or ~25 mm). This means in order to
make measurements of ~20 mm and ~40 mm, two different micrometers would have to
be used.
The spindle should only
be moved using the
ratchet stop and not the
thimble to prevent any
damage to the hardened
spindle and anvil faces
due to excessive
pressure. The ratchet
stop contains a slip
clutch which will begin to
Figure 2.3.10: Outside Inch Vernier Micrometer
slip at the proper
pressure, thus also
ensuring constant measurement pressure. The thimble can be used when opening the
instrument.
Figure 2.3.11 shows a set of
micrometers, capable of measuring:
-from 0" to 1"
-from 1" to 2"
-from 2" to 3" and
-from 3" to 4".
Note that each instrument has a
range of 1" only.
Metric micrometer sets are available
in increments of 25 mm.
Figure 2.3.11: Micrometer Set 1" to 4"
58
Micrometers with a discrimination of 0.001", 0.02 [mm] or 0.01 [mm] have the main scale
along the sleeve and the secondary scale around the thimble. Instruments with a
discrimination of 0.0001" or 0.001 [mm] have an additional Vernier scale around parts of
the sleeve.
Note: before using any analogue instruments be aware of the
discrimination of each one of the scales and ensure that, when the
jaws closed, the instrument reads zero.
Example 1: Shown in the figures below is part of an inch Vernier
micrometer. What is the measured dimension?
Figure 2.3.12: Main Scale
On the main scale on the sleeve the reading would be 0.250", on the thimble
scale the reading is 0.000" and on the Vernier scale the first matching lines are at
0.0007".
Answer: 0.250" + 0.000" + 0.0007" = 0.2507"
59
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING
Example 2: Ignoring the barely visible Vernier scale on this metric micrometer,
determine the measured dimension.
The increments on the main scale are
in 0.5 [mm], and therefore we arrive at
5.5 [mm].
On the thimble scale we get a reading
of 0.28 [mm].
Answer:
5.5 [mm] + 0.28 [mm] = 5.78 [mm]
Figure 2.3.14: Metric Micrometer Scales
Outside micrometers are also available with digital read-outs.
Figure 2.3.15: Digital Outside Micrometer
Other types of micrometers are the inside micrometer and the depth micrometer. Be
aware that the depth micrometer has a “backwards” sleeve scale.
60
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING
2.4.2 Depth Micrometer
A depth micrometer (figure 8) is used for measuring the depth of a hole, slot and keyway etc. A
complete set of depth micrometer is equipped with spindles of different lengths, which can be
interchanged to suit different measuring ranges.
Figure 8. Depth Micrometer
Feeler blade set. A. Straight.
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING
2.4.3 Dial indicators:
Dial indicators show the deviation of a dimension from a “true” dimension.
The dial indicator consists of a plunger which
can move up or down moving the dial hand in
either a clockwise or counter-clockwise
direction. The smaller dial indicates the
number of full revolutions of the large hand.
Dial indicators have a limited range of travel
(the one in Figure 2.2.18 has a travel of 0 - 3
mm), and a discrimination of 0.01 mm or
typically 0.001" for inch based dial indicators.
Ensure that the plunger axis is always
perpendicular to the surface which is being
evaluated otherwise a measurement error will
be incurred.
Figure 2.4.4: Dial Indicator
63
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING
Setting up a dial indicator:
Figure 2.2.19 shows a dial indicator
mounted on a typical stand which in turn is
placed on a rigid surface. A reference
(master) specimen of exactly known height
is then placed under the plunger and the
bezel is rotated so that the instrument reads
exactly zero; ensure that the plunger can
still travel in both directions and is not
“bottomed out” in one direction. The
instrument is now set up to compare a Figure 2.4.5: Dial Indicator and Stand
specimen to the “calibrated” height. The instrument will indicate the deviation of that
dimension from the “calibrated” standard.
As always: ensure that the plunger tip and the surface to be measured are clean. Dial
indicators are also available in digital form.
2. Adjust the indicator so that
the plunger is at 90 degrees to the
part you are measuring, and lock it
in place.
2.4.5 Gauge blocks:
Gauge blocks are a set of precise reference blocks which are used to establish a
specified (reference) height. They come in stets of standard sizes and need to be
“wrung” together for the correct overall dimension. The process of “wringing” ensures
that there is no cumulative error due to the build up of air-films between the gauge
blocks.
Gauge blocks must be cleaned before AND after use.
Figure 2.4.7: Gauge Block Set Figure 24.8: Wrung Gauge Blocks
66
Straight Edges
• Feeler gauges measure the gap
between the straight edge and
the surface
• Used to measure the amount of
warpage the surface of a cylinder
head has
Straight edge being used to measu
flatness of a surface.
Feeler blade set. A. Straight.
Feeler blade set. C. Stepped. Feeler blade set. D. Wire gauge.