Optics & Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Optics and Laser Technology

journal homepage: [Link]/locate/optlastec

Full length article

Sensing of volatile organic compounds using one-dimensional photonic

crystal Bloch surface waves and internal optical modes
Bhargavi Veeraghattam a, Sudha Maria Lis S. b, Sarbojit Mukherjee c, Prasanta Kumar Guha a, d, *,
B.N. Shivakiran Bhaktha a, b, *
a
School of Nano-Science and Technology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
b
Department of Physics, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
c
Advanced Technology Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
d
Electronics and Electrical Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Bloch surface wave (BSW) and internal optical modes (IOMs) of one-dimensional photonic crystals (1DPhCs)
Photonic crystal coupled reflectance have been explored for sensing purposes in the photonic crystal coupled reflectance (PCCR) geometry using the
Bloch surface wave sensing Kretschmann-Raether (KR) prism-coupling configuration. 1DPhCs coated with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) thin films
Kretschmann-Raether configuration
of two distinct thicknesses: 18 nm (referred to as PhC18) and 24 nm (referred to as PhC24) were fabricated. The
Sensing volatile solvents
response of the PCCR to the changes occurring in the PVA coated 1DPhC structures were studied by spraying
volatile organic compounds, 1-propanol and 2-propanol onto the surface of the 1DPhCs. The BSWs excited under
TE polarization are found to be very sensitive to perturbations at the 1DPhC interface. 1-propanol displays larger
wavelength shifts and longer recovery times of the 1DPhC modes than 2-propanol because of its lower vapor
pressure and higher reactivity to PVA.

1. Introduction [5], the selectivity of refractive index sensors are low [6] and, inter­
ferometric sensors are affected by external vibrations [7].
Environmental monitoring and medical diagnostics are of utmost One-dimensional photonic crystals (1DPhCs) have been used for
importance in contemporary times. A variety of sensors have been various applications such as reflectors [8], polarization selectors [9],
proposed and developed for these applications which primarily involve Bloch surface wave (BSW) sensors [10,11], and surface plasmon reso­
electrical sensors encompassing chemiresistors [1] and electrochemical nance sensors [12,13]. BSW is a wave observed at the interface of a
sensors [2]. In case of chemiresistors, the resistance of sensing material dielectric medium and a truncated photonic crystal, which can be
changes when it comes in contact with analytes; whereas for electro­ excited in the transverse electric (TE) configuration. This signifies the
chemical sensors, redox reactions between the sensing material and presence of a substantial evanescent field present on the surface of the
analyte gives rise to change in current. These sensors are found to photonic crystal. The distribution of the electromagnetic field is stron­
exhibit low level of reversibility and poor selectivity. The gravimetric gest at the interface and decays exponentially away from it. By varying
sensors [3] represent an alternative type of sensors that function by the refractive index and the thickness of the surface defect layer of a
detecting fluctuations in the mass of the sensor in order to ascertain the photonic crystal, BSW can be excited at any preferred wavelength
concentration of a particular analyte. However, these sensors have lower [14,15,16]. When compared to surface plasmon resonance sensors, BSW
selectivity. On the other hand, optical sensors have advantages over sensors have a lower loss that can be excited at any wavelength,
electrical sensors, as they are extremely sensitive, immune to electro­ accomplished by appropriately modifying the geometry and materials of
magnetic interference and are cost effective. There are several categories the photonic crystal. As the BSW-based sensors do not rely on metals, the
of optical sensors which have advantages over their electrical counter­ sensors can produce sharper resonance than those produced by surface
parts, but also face some drawbacks, namely: colorimetric sensors [4] plasmon sensors [14]. The BSW sensors have been proposed in various
are not reversible, waveguide sensors have complex fabrication methods sensing applications such as gas sensing [17], protein aggregation [18],

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: pkguha@[Link] (P.K. Guha), kiranbhaktha@[Link] (B.N.S. Bhaktha).

[Link]
Received 18 September 2023; Received in revised form 25 February 2024; Accepted 6 March 2024
Available online 12 March 2024
0030-3992/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Veeraghattam et al. Optics and Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

biosensing [19], refractive index sensing [20], vapor sensing [21], water and ultrasonicated for 30 min. The thin films were deposited using
chemical, and biological sensing [22,23]. The BSW sensors have been the dip-coating method onto the well-cleaned vitreous-silica substrate.
developed with optical fibers [24], D-shaped fibers [25], photonic To get the appropriate layer thickness for the 1DPhC, it is important to
crystal fibers [26], and two-dimensional photonic crystals [27]. How­ perform the thickness optimization on each of the individual layers. As a
ever, these fabrication methods are challenging and complex. On the result, the dipping speed was adjusted to 1000 µm/s while coating both
other hand, BSW sensing with 1DPhCs has the advantage of ease of of the solutions. After each dipping step, the films went through an
fabrication. annealing process in air at 900 ◦ C for 1 min. The requisite thickness of
Several materials have been proposed for sensing applications, each layer of the 1DPhC’s TiO2 and SiO2 layers were attained after three
including metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) [28], metals [29], and and two dips, respectively. With constant stirring at 500 rpm and
carbon nanotubes (CNTs) [30]. Nevertheless, these materials are not heating at 90 ◦ C for about 1 h, the polymer solution with 1 wt% PVA was
deemed to be cost-effective due to their intricate fabrication process and prepared in DI water. The solution was spin-coated on two separate
irreversible changes during the detection process. There exist multiple 1DPhCs to obtain the PVA thickness to be 18 nm and 24 nm,
polymers that are utilized for the purpose of sensing volatile organic respectively.
solvents due to their cost-effectiveness, repeatability, and ease of
fabrication. Several polymers have been used as optical sensing mate­ 2.2. Optical characterization using photonic crystal coupled reflectance
rials for detecting volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Specifically, geometry
polymethylmethacrylate has been proposed for the detection of para­
cetamol in traditional herbal medicine [31], polydimethylsiloxane has The 1DPhC was mounted in KR configuration on the base of a vit­
been considered for sensing acetone and 2-propanol [32], polyvinyl reous silica right-angle prism of refractive index 1.458 at 632.8 nm,
alcohol (PVA) has been investigated for sensing ethanol and propanol using an index-matching liquid glycerol of refractive index 1.46 for
[33] and, polyvinyl prole (PVP) and polyvinyl acetate have been efficient coupling. A halogen-deuterium lamp was used as the light
examined for VOC sensing applications [34,35]. source and a fiber coupled UV–visible reflectance spectrometer (Avas­
Here, we present a BSW sensor comprised of a 1DPhC fabricated by pec-ULS2048L-EVO) having a spectral range of 200–1100 nm and 0.4
sol–gel technique. Two different thicknesses of PVA layers were depos­ nm spectral resolution was used for collection. The light source was
ited on the 1DPhCs and the behavior of photonic crystal coupled directed towards the base of the prism through one of its faces with the
reflectance (PCCR) was studied using Kretschmann-Raether (KR) prism help of a collimator and an aperture as shown in Fig. 1(a). An appro­
coupling configuration. Further, the behavior of BSW and internal op­ priately oriented polarizer was mounted between the collimator and the
tical modes (IOMs) was studied when the PVA coated 1DPhCs were aperture to excite TE and TM modes independently. The reflected light
sprayed with two volatile solvents, 1-propanol and 2-propanol. The was then collected from the other face of the prism using focusing optics
variations in the modes of the 1DPhCs, both TE and transverse magnetic and an optical fiber. To study the sensitivity of BSW and IOMs to
(TM), based on the thickness of the PVA layer and the properties of the external perturbations, solvents 1-propanol and 2-propanol were
sprayed solvent are discussed and a detailed analysis is carried out using dispensed over the surface of the PVA-coated 1DPhC for 3 s using an
the electric field profiles of the modes generated using transfer matrix electronically controlled DC5V Humidifier USB spray module. During
method (TMM) approach. TMM is a technique for analysing wave the process of spraying, the reflectance was recorded at regular intervals
propagation (light, sound, or other waves) in layered structures. It di­ of 240 spectra / minute.
vides a structure into thin layers and uses matrices to represent how
waves move through each layer and across boundaries [36,37,38]. 3. Results and discussion
Evidently, the utilization of BSW sensing with white light source offers
numerous advantages, including cost-effectiveness and the ability to Fig. 1(b) shows the cross-sectional field emission scanning electron
perform multimode sensing. microscope (FESEM) image of an 8-bilayered 1DPhC. The average
thickness of TiO2 and SiO2 is observed to be 46 ± 3 and 79 ± 4 nm,
2. Experimental section respectively. The final SiO2 layer has a thickness of 120 nm. A thin film
of PVA polymer (1 wt%) was deposited as a host layer over 1DPhC,
2.1. Fabrication of one-dimensional photonic crystal structure measured 18 nm and 24 nm in thickness, respectively. These samples
will be referred to as PhC18 and PhC24, respectively. The normal inci­
The 1DPhC structures used for the experiments consist of eight bi­ dence reflection spectrum of 1DPhC recorded using a fiber-coupled
layers, i.e., eight pairs of quarter-wave thick alternating layers of tita­ halogen-deuterium light source and spectrometer (Avaspec-
nium dioxide (TiO2) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) on a vitreous-silica ULAS496CL) is shown in Fig. 1(c). The reflectance spectrum exhibits a
substrate fabricated by sol − gel synthesis route and dip-coating tech­ 182 nm wide photonic stop-band (PSB) centered at 488 nm, showing a
nique. In order to obtain the suitable thickness of different layers, reflectivity of ~ 98 %. The reflection spectrum of the fabricated struc­
quarter-wavelength stack condition being satisfied at λB = 488 nm was ture was also obtained using transfer matrix method (TMM) calcula­
used. The SiO2 sol was prepared by mixing tetraethyl orthosilicate tions. The thickness of the films for the calculations were taken from the
(TEOS), ethanol (EtOH), de-ionized water (DI-H2O), and hydrochloric FESEM image (Fig. 1(b)) and the refractive indices were obtained from
acid (HCl) as a catalyst in a reagent bottle. The molar ratio of TEOS to refractive index database [38,39,40,41]. Fig. 1(c) shows a good overlap
HCl to EtOH to H2O was 1:0.01:25:2 [38]. It was heated to 65 ◦ C and of experimentally recorded and numerically calculated spectra, which
stirred for an hour. Titanium (IV) isopropoxide, often known as TIP or Ti indicates a well-defined and precisely fabricated structure.
[OCH(CH3)2]4, was utilized as the precursor for TiO2 sol, from Aldrich. Fig. 2 presents the dispersion diagrams obtained from TMM nu­
9.3 ml of isopropyl alcohol (IPA, (CH3)2CHOH, 99.7 %, Aldrich) was merical calculations and experimental measurements performed with
added to 3.2 ml of the TIP solution and stirred together for 30 min at a TE and TM input polarizations, on PhC18 and PhC24 samples. For angles
temperature of 70 ◦ C. In addition to this, 10.3 ml of acetic acid (C2H4O2, of incidence below the critical angle (43.5◦ ), a photonic stop-band can
100 % Puriss Glacial) was added to the mixture and agitated for one be seen (region with reflectivity ~ 1), which exhibits a blue-shift as the
hour at a temperature of 70 ◦ C. Later, 24 ml of methanol was added to angle of incidence increases. At angles exceeding the critical angle, the
the solution, and it was agitated once more at 70 ◦ C for a total of 30 min. incident light is reflected and the reflectance dip corresponding to the
All the chemicals were purchased from Sigma Aldrich. The synthesized allowed modes of the structure (BSW and/or IOMs) are observed. The
sols were filtered with the assistance of 0.2-µm Whatman Puradisc sy­ BSWs observed for TE polarization in Fig. 2(a) and 2(b) for PhC18 and
ringe filters. The vitreous-silica substrate was cleaned with ethanol and PhC24 respectively, are highly sensitive to minor variations in the angle

2
B. Veeraghattam et al. Optics and Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

Fig. 1. (a) The schematic representation of the PCCR geometry used for BSW sensing. (b) Cross-sectional FESEM image of the fabricated 1DPhC, and (c) the normal
incidence reflection spectrum of the fabricated 1DPhC.

Fig. 2. Dispersion diagrams illustrating TE and TM modes of PhC18 (first row) and PhC24 (second row). Subplots (a)-(d) show the numerically calculated dispersion
diagrams, whereas (e)-(h) present the experimentally obtained dispersion diagrams. The color bar represents reflectivity. The BSWs and IOMs are identified.

of incidence when compared to the IOMs. As the angle of incidence is enhanced. Fig. 2(e) and 2(f) present the experimentally obtained TE
augmented, the intensity of the BSW diminishes, and it eventually polarized dispersion diagrams for PhC18 and PhC24 samples, respec­
vanishes. Just above the critical angle, the strength of the IOMs is lower; tively. The excitation of BSWs and IOMs in the fabricated samples can be
nevertheless, when the angle of incidence increases, their strength is identified with ease in comparison with the numerically calculated

3
B. Veeraghattam et al. Optics and Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

diagrams in Fig. 2(a) and 2(b). Under the incidence of TM polarized exhibits high sensitivity to perturbations in the refractive index or
light, as expected, the BSW cannot be excited. However, IOMs are thickness of each layer, particularly the PVA layer. For TM polarization,
observed above the critical angle as evidenced by the numerically the BSW cannot be excited, instead, IOM1 and IOM2 are depicted in
calculated data in Fig. 2(c) and (d), and the experimental data in Fig. 2 Fig. 3(e-h) for PhC18 and PhC24 with weaker field confinements in the
(g) and (h). PVA layer. The resonance wavelength and the angle of incidence for
Fig. 3(a-d) present the electric field intensity distributions for BSW which these fields have been plotted has also been mentioned in the
and IOMs along the depth of the 1DPhC − PVA structures for PhC18 and Fig. 3.
PhC24 under TE polarization, respectively. The electric field intensity The field of the BSW is substantially enhanced compared to the field
distributions for PhC18 and PhC24 were generated using TMM simula­ of IOMs and in an ideal case this would lead to a sharp dip corresponding
tions in the KR configuration, corresponding to the wavelength at which to BSW in the reflection spectrum. However, studies have shown that the
the reflectance minimum has been observed for a mode from the extinction coefficient values of the dielectric materials play an important
dispersion diagram. The red line in each plot represents the structure’s role in determining the optimum compromise between the depth and
refractive index profile. For BSW, the electric field intensity confinement width of the BSW resonance [42,43]. Also, the reflection spectrum not
is maximum within the PVA layer, and it gradually decreases when it only represents the electric field strength but also the modes’ coupling to
extends into the 1DPhC structure. The distribution of the field intensity the incident light [42]. While BSWs exhibit stronger field localization at
is influenced by the refractive index profile of the structure. The BSW 1DPhC-PVA interface, their coupling to the incident light might be

Fig. 3. Electric field intensity distributions in the 1DPhC-PVA structures are presented. TE polarized intensity distributions are shown for: (a) BSW and (b) IOM1 in
PhC18, (c) BSW and (d) IOM1 in PhC24. TM polarized intensity distributions are shown for: (e) IOM1 and (f) IOM2 in PhC18, (g) IOM1 and (h) IOM2 in PhC24. The
refractive index variations are shown in red-colored plot and the shaded green region represents the PVA layer. Here, λres represents resonance wavelength, while θi
denotes angle of incidence.

4
B. Veeraghattam et al. Optics and Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

weaker than some IOMs. This weaker coupling could explain the lower polarized incident light, the BSW, and IOM1 shift to longer wavelengths,
reflectivity dips observed for the BSWs despite its higher field intensity. both, during and after the solvent were sprayed, and it eventually reverts
TiO2 and SiO2 layers exhibit absorption losses [43,44], and other factors back after the solvent evaporates, as seen in Fig. 4 (a-d). A similar
like surface roughness, fabrication imperfections, reflection losses may behavior was observed for the IOMs under TM polarization in Fig. 4 (e-
lead to the observed results [44,45]. h). In Fig. 4(a), T1 represents the duration of the spray and T2 denotes
Polymer coated engineered 1DPhC structures PhC18 and PhC24 the time required for BSW in TE and IOM1 in TM polarization to recover
were tested for sensing various volatile solvent vapor using the PCCR from a 90 % to 10 % wavelength shift, commonly referred to as the
geometry, shown in Fig. 1(a). The angle of incidence was fixed above the recovery time.
critical angle at 43.8◦ for PhC18 and at 45.0◦ for PhC24 for studies on The changes occurring in the reflection spectra due to spraying of
both TE and TM modes. The solvents 1-propanol and 2-propanol were volatile compounds are explicitly shown in Fig. 5. Fig. 5(a) and 5(b)
used as analytes considering their reactivity towards PVA polymer [46]. depict the reflectance spectra at various times for PhC18-1P and PhC18-
The selection of these solvents was based on their solubility parameters, 2P, while Fig. 5(c) and 5(d) represent the same for PhC24-1P and PhC24-
with PVA having a solubility parameter of 25.7 MPa1/2, while 1-propa­ 2P, under TE polarization. Similarly, Fig. 5(e) and 5(f) showcase PhC18-
nol and 2-propanol have solubility parameters of 24.6 MPa1/2 and 23.6 1P and PhC18-2P, while Fig. 5(g) and 5(h) illustrate the same for PhC24-
MPa1/2, respectively [46]. The solubility parameter of PVA is in close 1P and PhC24-2P under TM polarization. The red-shift of the PCCR
proximity to that of 1-propanol and 2-propanol. It is to be noted that modes are evident when the volatile solvents are sprayed on the PVA
PVA exhibits limited solubility in these solvents, however, it demon­ coated 1DPhCs and the complete recovery of the system is also
strates favorable reactivity towards them [46]. demonstrated after the solvent has evaporated.
Fig. 4 depicts the time dependent reflection spectra, monitored using The dynamic variations observed in the reflection spectra of Figs. 4
the PCCR set-up during spraying and evaporation of solvents, when 1- and 5 can be explained in terms of the electric filed intensity distribu­
and 2-propanol were sprayed over PhC18 and PhC24. For each sample, tions for various modes of polymer deposited 1DPhCs, considering the
PhC18 and PhC24, the solvent was sprayed for 3 s, keeping all the other interactions between the modes and 1- and 2-propanols. Prior to
conditions of the experiment unchanged. Here, PhC18-1P and PhC18-2P bringing out a correspondence between the variations in the reflectance
represent the PhC18 sample sprayed with 1-propanol and 2-propanol, spectra of the modes and their electric field intensity confinements in the
respectively. Similarly, PhC24-1P and PhC24-2P represent PhC24 sam­ structure, we quantify the experimental observations in terms of the
ple sprayed with 1-propanol and 2-propanol, respectively. For TE wavelength shift and recovery times, under various perturbations. In

Fig. 4. The time-dependent reflectance spectra recorded before, during, and after spraying volatile solvents on the PhC18 and PhC24 samples are shown for: (a)
PhC18-1P, (b) PhC18-2P, (c) PhC-24-1P and (d) PhC-24-2P for TE polarization; and (e) PhC18-1P; (f) PhC18-2P; (g) PhC-24-1P and (h) PhC-24-2P for TM polari­
zation. BSWs and IOM1s are observed for TE polarization. IOM1 and IOM2 are identified for TM polarization. Here, T1 and T2 represent the duration of the spray and
recovery time, respectively. PhC18-1P and PhC18-2P refer to PhC18 sample sprayed with 1-propanol and 2-propanol, respectively. PhC24-1P and PhC24-2P refer to
PhC24 sample sprayed with 1-propanol and 2-propanol, respectively.

5
B. Veeraghattam et al. Optics and Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

Fig. 5. Reflection spectra recorded at different times after spraying the volatile solvents 1-propanol and 2-propanol on PhC18 and PhC24 samples. (a) PhC18-1P, (b)
PhC18-2P, (c) PhC24-1P, (d) PhC24-2P for TE polarization and; (e) PhC18-1P, (f) PhC18-2P, (g) PhC24-1P, (h) PhC24-2P for TM polarization.

Fig. 6(a) and 6(b), the wavelength shifts observed for various modes of solvent properties. The vapor pressure of 1-propanol and 2-propanol are
PhC18 and PhC24 for TE and TM polarization respectively, are shown, known to be 2.76 and 6.02 kPa, respectively [46]. Due to the fact that 2-
when the 1DPhC was sprayed with 1-propanol and 2-propanol. The propanol exhibits a higher vapor pressure, it tends to evaporate faster
experiments were repeated 4 times and the average values of the ob­ from the PVA thin film, in comparison to 1-propanol, which in turn leads
servations are reported in Fig. 6 along with appropriate error-bars. The to the faster recovery of modes in PhC18-2P with respect to PhC18-1P.
BSW and IOM1 of PhC18-1P exhibit larger wavelength shift compared to The aforementioned pattern is also observed in the case of PhC24-1P
those of PhC18-2P, attributed to the higher reactivity of 1-propanol and PhC24-2P samples. It must also be noted that the greater thick­
relative to 2-propanol with PVA. Similar responses are observed for ness of PhC24 results in higher dissolution of polymer which leads to the
PhC24-1P and PhC24-2P. Overall, the BSW of PhC24-1P exhibits the longer recovery time. In summary, as the volatile solvents evaporate
largest wavelength shift due to its strong electric field confinement in from the polymer thin film, the modes revert back to their initial spectral
the PVA layer, as confirmed by the electric field intensity values in Fig. 3 locations. The temporal dynamics of the 1DPhC modes observed during
(c). The BSW and IOM1 are known to be sensitive to changes occurring this process can be used to understand the properties of the polymer thin
at the surface of the 1DPhC structures [37,38]. The TM modes (IOM1 film, the solvents and their mutual interactions.
and IOM2) of PhC18 and PhC24 are found to be relatively less sensitive
to the perturbations as confirmed by the experimental observations in 4. Conclusion
Fig. 6(b) and the same can be predicted by the weak confinement of the
TM modes in Fig. 3(e-h). Fig. 6(c) depicts the recovery times of BSW and One-dimensional photonic crystal (1DPhC) was fabricated with eight
IOM1 in PhC18 and PhC24 for TE polarization. The recovery time of bilayers of alternating TiO2 and SiO2 thin films. A solution of 1 wt% PVA
PCCR modes depends on the interplay between the solvent and polymer was spin-coated on the 1DPhC with two different thicknesses: 18 nm
interaction, the thickness of the polymer, and the vapor pressure of the (referred to as PhC18) and 24 nm (referred to as PhC24), to form a
solvents. In general, the recovery time of modes of PhC24 are found to be surface defect layer. The photonic crystal coupled reflectance (PCCR)
longer than those of PhC18. Also, the recovery time is longer for PhC18- measurements were performed for both TE and TM polarization, spe­
1P compared to PhC18-2P, and for PhC24-1P compared to PhC24-2P, for cifically to characterize the behavior of the BSW and IOM1 when volatile
both the modes, BSW and IOM1. Similar comparative analyses are also organic solvents such as 1-propanol and 2-propanol were sprayed over
presented for the TM modes in Fig. 6(d), wherein the recovery time of the PVA coated 1DPhC. BSW is exclusively observed under TE polari­
PhC24-1P is found to be longer than PhC24-2P for both modes, IOM1 zation and is not present in TM polarization. Specifically, under TE
and IOM2. These observations can again be related to the higher electric polarization, BSW displays greater sensitivity compared to IOM1. PhC24
field confinement of the modes in the PVA layer in PhC24, and to the is found to exhibit greater sensitivity compared to PhC18 due to its

6
B. Veeraghattam et al. Optics and Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

Fig. 6. Comparison of wavelength shifts for (a) TE and (b) TM polarizations, and recovery times for (c) TE and (d) TM polarizations across different modes, when 1-
propanol and 2-propanol solvents were sprayed over polymer-coated PhC18 and PhC24 structures.

higher electric field confinement in the PVA thin film. Owing to the Acknowledgements
lower vapor pressure, 1-propanol exhibits better reactivity and a longer
recovery time than 2-propanol. Overall, polymer coated 1DPhC struc­ The authors acknowledge support from Science and Engineering
tures are demonstrated to be able to selectively detect the presence of Research Board via sponsored Project No. CRG/2020/002650 and DST
several volatile organic compounds by facile reflectance measurements FIST project No. SR/FST/PS-II/2022/207 and Indian Space Research
in the visible region. Organization project No. SAC/SEDA/EOSDIG/SSD/2023/1. The sup­
port received from Indian Nanoelectronics Users Program (INUP) is also
CRediT authorship contribution statement acknowledged. The authors acknowledge Central research facility
(CRF), IIT Kharagpur for SEM measurements.
Bhargavi Veeraghattam: Writing – original draft, Investigation,
Formal analysis, Data curation. Sudha Maria Lis S.: Writing – review & References
editing, Formal analysis, Data curation. Sarbojit Mukherjee: Writing –
review & editing, Software, Formal analysis, Data curation. Prasanta [1] A. Salehi-khojin, D. Estrada, K.Y. Lin, M.-H. Bae, F. Xiong, E. Pop, R.I. Masel,
Polycrystalline graphene ribbons as chemiresistors, Adv. Mater. 24 (1) (2012)
Kumar Guha: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, 53–57.
Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investi­ [2] H. Jin, H. Haick, UV regulation of non-equilibrated electrochemical reaction for
gation, Funding acquisition, Formal analysis. B.N. Shivakiran Bhak­ detecting aromatic volatile organic compounds, Sen. Actuators b: Chem. 237
(2016) 30–40.
tha: Writing – review & editing, Visualization, Validation, Supervision, [3] Y. Chen, H. Zhang, Z. Feng, H. Zhang, R. Zhang, Y. Yu, J. Tao, H. Zhao, W. Guo,
Resources, Project administration, Methodology, Investigation, Funding W. Pang, X. Duan, J. Liu, D. Zhang, Chemiresistive and gravimetric dual-mode gas
acquisition, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. sensor toward target recognition and differentiation, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 8
(33) (2016) 21742–21749.
[4] X. Zhong, D. Li, W. Du, Rapid recognition of volatile organic compounds with
Declaration of competing interest colorimetric sensor arrays for lung cancer screening, Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 410 (16)
(2018) 3671–3681.
[5] H.H. Qazi, A.B. Mohammad, Akram M Recent Progress in Optical Chemical
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­ Sensors, Sens. 12 (12) (2012) 16522–16556.
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: [6] B. Veeraghattam, P.K. Guha, B.N. Shivakiran Bhaktha, Temporal dynamics of
photonic stop-band in volatile solvent infiltrated opals, Opt. Mater. 117 (2021)
[Shivakiran Bhaktha B.N. reports financial support was provided by
111146.
Science and Engineering Research Board. Shivakiran Bhaktha B.N. re­ [7] S. Khan, S. Le Calve, D. Newport, Review of optical interferometry techniques for
ports financial support was provided by Ministry of Electronics and In­ VOC detection, Sens. Actuators a: Phys. 302 (1) (2020) 111782.
formation Technology Information & Documentation Centre (Library). [8] Y. Fink, J.N. Winn, S. Fan, C. Chen, J. Miche, J.D. Joannopoulos, E.L. Thomas,
A dielectric omnidirectional reflector, Sci. 282 (1998) 1679–1682.
Shivakiran Bhaktha B.N. reports financial support was provided by India [9] F. Wu, G. Lu, Z. Guo, H. Jiang, C. Xue, M. Zheng, C. Chen, G. Du, H. Chen, Redshift
Ministry of Science & Technology Department of Science and gaps in one-dimensional photonic crystals containing hyperbolic metamaterials,
Technology.]. Phys. Rev. Appl. 10 (6) (2018) 0640221–0640227.
[10] M. Liscidini, J.E. Sipe, Analysis of Bloch-surface-wave assisted diffraction-based
biosensors, J. Opt. Soc. Am. b. 26 (2) (2009) 279–289.
Data availability [11] A. Sinibaldi, R. Rizzo, G. Figliozzi, E. Descrovi, N. Danz, P. Munzert,
A. Anopchenko, F. Michelotti, A full ellipsometric approach to optical sensing with
Data will be made available on request.

7
B. Veeraghattam et al. Optics and Laser Technology 175 (2024) 110818

Bloch surface waves on photonic crystals, Opt. Express. 21 (20) (2013) [31] Bojko, Barbara, Pratiwi, Rimadani, Suherman, Shelvy Elizabeth, Design of Optical
23331–23344. Sensor Membrane Based on Polymer Poly(methyl methacrylate) for Paracetamol
[12] J.N. Anker, W.P. Hall, O. Lyandres, N.C. Shah, J. Zhao, R.P. Van Duyne, Biosensing Detection in Traditional Herbal Medicine, J. Anal. Chem. 2018, (2018) 1687–8760.
with plasmonic nanosensor, Nat. Mater. 7 (2018) 442–453. [32] X. Ning, J. Yang, C. Zhao, C. Chan, PDMS-coated fiber volatile organic compounds
[13] B. Spackova, P. Wrobel, M. Bockova, J. Homola, Optical biosensors based on sensors, Appl. Opt. 55 (13) (2016) 3543–3548.
plasmonic nanostructures: a review, Proc. IEEE. 104 (12) (2016) 2380–2408. [33] G.J. Thangamani, K. Deshmukh, K. Chidambaram, M.B. Ahamed, K.K. Sadasivuni,
[14] M. Gryga, D. Ciprian, P. Hlubina, Bloch surface wave resonance based sensors as an D. Ponnamma, M. Faisal, N.A. Nambiraj, S.K. Pasha, Influence of CuO
alternative to surface plasmon resonance sensors, Sens. 20 (18) (2020) 5119. nanoparticles and graphene nanoplatelets on the sensing behavior of poly (vinyl
[15] P. Yeh, A. Yariv, A.Y. Cho, Optical surface waves in periodic layered media, Appl. alcohol) nanocomposites for the detection of ethanol and propanol vapors, J. Mat.
Phys. Lett. 32 (2) (1978) 104–105. Sci. 29 (2018) 5186–5205.
[16] R.D. Meade, K.D. Brommer, A.M. Rappe, J.D. Joannopoulos, Electromagnetic Bloch [34] M. Shafiei, K. Shiba, G. Imamura, G. Yoshikawa, I.D. Mackinnon, Humidity and
waves at the surface of a photonic crystal, Phys. Rev. b. 44 (19) (1991) VOC Sensing Performance of a PVP and PVP, ZSM5 Composite, IEEE Sens J.
10961–10964. Montreal, QC, Canada 2019 (2019) 1–4.
[17] M. Gryga, Sensing of gaseous analytes via Bloch surface waves, SPIE Photonics [35] B. Nadekar, G.S. Gund, Y.B. Khollam, S.F. Shaikh, D.S. Wavhal, D.P. Dubal,
Europe 11354 (2020) 51. P. More, Plasma-polymerized and iodine-doped polyvinyl acetate for volatile
[18] V. Paeder, V. Musi, L. Hvozdara, S. Herminjard, H.P. Herzig, Detection of protein organic compound gas sensing applications, ACS Appl. Poly. Mat. 5 (3) (2023)
aggregation with a Bloch surface wave-based sensor, Sens. Actuat. B-Chem. 157 (1) 1882–1890.
(2011) 260–264. [36] S. Sarkar, V. Gupta, M. Kumar, J. Schubert, P.T. Probst, J. Joseph, T.A.F. König,
[19] A. Farmer, A.C. Friedli, S.M. Wright, W.M. Robertson, Biosensing using surface Hybridized guided-mode resonances via colloidal plasmonic self-assembled
electromagnetic waves in photonic band gap multilayers, Sens. Actuators B Chem. grating, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 11 (14) (2019) 13752–13760.
173 (2012) 79–84. [37] T. Fort, R. Kanok, P. Hlubina, P. Pokorny, J. Sobota, One-dimensional photonic
[20] S. Gan, H. Wang, J. Liang, X. Dai, Y. Xiang, Ultra-sensitive refractive index sensors crystals with different termination layer thicknesses and very narrow bloch surface
based on Bloch surface waves with transition metal dichalcogenides, IEEE Sens. J. wave and guided wave based resonances for sensing applications, Photonics 9 (8)
19 (19) (2019) 8675–8680. (2022) 1–13.
[21] F. Michelotti, B. Sciacca, L. Dominici, M. Quaglio, E. Descrovi, F. Giorgis, [38] S. Bhaskar, P. Das, B.N. Venkatesh Srinivasan, S. Bhaktha, S.S. Ramamurthy, Bloch
F. Geobaldo, Fast optical vapor sensing by Bloch surface waves on porous silicon surface waves and internal optical modes-driven photonic crystal-coupled emission
membranes, Phys. Chem. 12 (2) (2010) 502–506. platform for femtomolar detection of aluminum ions, J. Phys. Chem. c. 124 (13)
[22] P. Hlubina, M. Gryga, D. Ciprian, P. Pokorny, L. Gembalova, J. Sobota, High- (2020) 7341–7352.
performance liquid analyte sensing based on Bloch surface wave resonances in the [39] W.M. Haynes, CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, 93rd edition, CRC Press,
spectral domain, Opt. Laser Technol. 145 (2022) 107492. Raton FL, 2012.
[23] P. Rivolo, F. Michelotti, F. Frascella, G. Digregorio, P. Mandracci, L. Dominici, [40] L.V. Rodríguez-de Marcos, J.I. Larruquert, J.A. Méndez, J.A. Aznárez, Self-
F. Giorgis, E. Descrovi, Real time secondary antibody detection by means of silicon- consistent optical constants of SiO2 and Ta2O5 films, Opt. Mater. Express. 6 (11)
based multilayers sustaining Bloch surface waves, Sens. Actuators b: Chem. 161 (1) (2016) 3622–3637.
(2012) 1046–1052. [41] S. Sarkar, V. Gupta, M. Kumar, J. Schubert, P.T. Probst, J. Joseph, T.A.F. König,
[24] X. Tan, X. Zhu, Optical fiber sensor based on Bloch surface wave in photonic Hybridized guided-mode resonances via colloidal plasmonic self-assembled
crystals, Opt. Express. 24 (14) (2016) 16016–16026. grating, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 11 (2019) 13752–13760.
[25] V. Gonzalez, P. Torres, Novel Bloch wave excitation platform based on few-layer [42] K. Ray, R. Badugu, J.R. Lakowicz, Bloch surface wave-coupled emission from
photonic crystal deposited on D-shaped optical fiber, Sci. Rep. 11 (1) (2021) quantum dots by ensemble and single molecule spectroscopy, RSC Adv. 5 (2015)
11266. 54403–54411.
[26] G. Esteban, A. Rodrigo, T. Pedro, Bloch surface wave resonance in photonic crystal [43] W. Kong, Y. Wan, X. Ni, W. Zhao, S. Li, Z. Zheng, Optimizing loss of the dielectric
fibers: towards ultra-wide range refractive index sensors, Opt. Express. 27 (6) stack for Bloch-surface-wave sensors under different interrogation schemes,
(2019) 8236–8245. J. Mod. Opt. 64 (4) (2017) 1–6.
[27] H. Chen, K.K. Tsia, W.P. Andrew, Surface modes in two-dimensional photonic [44] M. Scaravilli, G. Castaldi, A. Cusano, V. Galdi, Grating-coupling-based excitation of
crystal slabs with a flat dielectric margin, Opt. Express. 14 (16) (2006) 7368–7377. Bloch surface waves for lab-on-fiber optrodes, Opt. Express. 24 (2016)
[28] C.S. Koh, H.K. Lee, X. Han, H.Y. Sim, X.Y. Ling, Plasmonic nose: integrating the 27771–27784.
MOF-enabled molecular preconcentration effect with a plasmonic array for [45] I.V. Soboleva, M.N. Romodina, E.V. Lyubin, A.A. Fedyanin, Optical effects induced
recognition of molecular-level volatile organic compounds, Chem. Commun. 54 by Bloch surface waves in one-dimensional photonic crystals, Appl. Sci. 8 (2018)
(20) (2018) 1359–7345. 127.
[29] G. Korotcenkov, Metal oxides for solid-state gas sensors: what determines our [46] J. Brandrup, E.H. Immergut, E.A. Grulke, Polymer hand book, 4th edition, John
choice? Mater. Sci. Eng. b. 139 (1) (2007) 1–23. willey & Sons Ltd., Hoboken, 1999.
[30] M.M. Rana, D.S. Ibrahim, M.M. Asyraf, S. Jarin, A. Tomal, A review on recent
advances of CNTs as gas sensors, Sens. Rev. 37 (2) (2017) 127–136.