Class 7 Science

Chapter 1: Nutrition in Plants

1. Introduction
All living organisms require food. Food provides:
1. Energy to perform life processes
2. Materials for growth
3. Repair of damaged tissues
4. Protection against diseases
Food contains substances called nutrients.
Major nutrients are:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats
• Vitamins
• Minerals
Plants can make their own food, but animals cannot. Therefore, animals depend
directly or indirectly on plants.

1.1 Mode of Nutrition in Plants

Meaning of Nutrition
Nutrition is the process by which organisms take in food and utilize it for energy,
growth and maintenance.
Types of Nutrition
1. Autotrophic Nutrition
• “Auto” means self
• “Trophos” means nourishment
• Organisms make their own food from simple substances like carbon dioxide
and water.
• Example: Green plants

2. Heterotrophic Nutrition
• Organisms depend on others for food.
• Example: Animals, fungi
Plants are called autotrophs.

1.2 Photosynthesis – Food Making Process

Leaves are the food factories of plants.

Raw Materials Required

1. Carbon dioxide – from air
2. Water – from soil
3. Sunlight – from sun
4. Chlorophyll – green pigment in leaves

Role of Each Component

Carbon dioxide
• Enters leaf through tiny pores called stomata
• Stomata are surrounded by guard cells

Water and Minerals

• Absorbed by roots
 • Transported to leaves through vessels

Chlorophyll
• Green pigment
• Traps solar energy

Sunlight
• Provides energy for chemical reaction

Process of Photosynthesis
1. Roots absorb water and minerals.
2. Water reaches leaves through vessels.
3. Leaves take carbon dioxide from air.
4. Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight.
5. Food (carbohydrates) is produced.
6. Oxygen is released.

Chemical Equation
Carbon dioxide + Water
—(Sunlight + Chlorophyll)→
Carbohydrate + Oxygen

Importance of Photosynthesis
1. Provides food for all living organisms
2. Produces oxygen required for respiration
3. Converts solar energy into chemical energy
4. Maintains balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Without photosynthesis, life on Earth would not exist.
Photosynthesis in Non-Green Leaves
Some leaves appear red, brown or violet.
They still contain chlorophyll, but it is masked by other pigments.
Therefore, photosynthesis occurs in them also.

Synthesis of Other Nutrients

Plants first make carbohydrates.
From carbohydrates, they synthesize:
• Proteins
• Fats
• Vitamins

Nitrogen Requirement
• Proteins require nitrogen.
• Nitrogen is present in air but plants cannot absorb it directly.
• Soil bacteria convert nitrogen into usable form.
Farmers also add nitrogen fertilizers.

1.3 Other Modes of Nutrition in Plants

Some plants cannot make their own food. They are heterotrophic.

1. Parasitic Plants
• Depend on living host plant.
• Absorb ready-made food.
• Lack chlorophyll.
• Example: Cuscuta (Amarbel)
Characteristics:
 • Yellow, slender stem
• Twines around host plant
• Absorbs nutrients

2. Insectivorous Plants
• Green plants
• Can perform photosynthesis
• Trap insects to obtain nitrogen
Example: Pitcher plant
Reason:
They grow in nitrogen-poor soil, so they trap insects for nitrogen.
Thus, they are partially heterotrophic.

3. Saprotrophic Nutrition
Organisms that obtain nutrients from dead and decaying matter are called
saprotrophs.
Example:
• Mushrooms
• Bread mould (fungi)
These organisms:
• Do not have chlorophyll
• Secrete digestive juices
• Absorb dissolved nutrients
Activity 1.2 – Bread Mould Experiment
Procedure
1. Take a piece of bread.
2. Moisten it with water.
3. Keep in warm place for 2–3 days.
4. Observe fluffy patches.

Observation
• Cotton-like threads appear.
• These are fungi.

Conclusion
Fungi feed on dead and decaying matter.
This is saprotrophic nutrition.

Fungal Spores
• Spores are present in air.
• In warm and moist conditions, they grow rapidly.
• That is why items spoil during rainy season.

Symbiosis
When two organisms live together and benefit from each other, it is called
symbiosis.

Examples
1. Rhizobium and leguminous plants
2. Lichen (Alga + Fungus)
In Lichen:
 • Alga prepares food.
• Fungus provides shelter and water.

1.4 How Nutrients Are Replenished in Soil

Plants absorb nutrients from soil.
Continuous cropping reduces soil nutrients.
Farmers add:
• Manure
• Fertilisers (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium)

Role of Rhizobium
• Lives in roots of leguminous plants (peas, gram, beans)
• Converts atmospheric nitrogen into usable form
• Provides nitrogen to plant
• Plant provides food and shelter
This is a symbiotic relationship.

Key Concepts Summary

1. All organisms need food.
2. Green plants are autotrophs.
3. Photosynthesis requires sunlight, chlorophyll, water and carbon dioxide.
4. Oxygen is released during photosynthesis.
5. Parasites depend on host.
6. Saprotrophs feed on dead matter.
7. Insectivorous plants trap insects for nitrogen.
8. Soil nutrients are replenished by manure and bacteria.
Exercise with Answers

1. Why do organisms take food?

Organisms take food:
• To obtain energy
• For growth
• For repair of damaged parts
• To maintain life processes

2. Distinguish between a parasite and a saprotroph.

Parasite Saprotroph
Obtains food from a living host Obtains food from dead and decaying matter
Harms the host Does not depend on living host
Example: Cuscuta Example: Mushroom

3. How would you test the presence of starch in leaves?

Procedure:
1. Take a leaf.
2. Boil it in water.
3. Boil it in alcohol to remove chlorophyll.
4. Wash the leaf.
5. Add iodine solution.
Observation:
• Blue-black colour indicates presence of starch.
4. Give a brief description of the process of synthesis of food in
green plants.
Green plants prepare food by photosynthesis.
In the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll, carbon dioxide and water combine to
form carbohydrates and oxygen is released.
Solar energy is converted into chemical energy and stored in food.

5. Show with the help of a sketch that plants are the ultimate
source of food.
Explanation (Food Chain Concept):
Sun → Green Plants → Herbivores → Carnivores
All animals depend directly or indirectly on plants. Hence, plants are the ultimate
source of food.

6. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Green plants are called autotrophs since they synthesise their own food.
(b) The food synthesised by plants is stored as starch.
(c) In photosynthesis solar energy is absorbed by the pigment called chlorophyll.
(d) During photosynthesis plants take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen gas.

7. Name the following:

(i) A parasitic plant with yellow, slender and branched stem.
→ Cuscuta (Amarbel)
(ii) A plant that is partially autotrophic.
→ Pitcher plant
(iii) The pores through which leaves exchange gases.
→ Stomata
8. Tick the correct answer:
(a) Cuscuta is an example of:
→ (ii) parasite
(b) The plant which traps and feeds on insects is:
→ (iii) pitcher plant

9. Match the items given in Column I with those in Column II:

Column I Column II
Chlorophyll Leaf
Nitrogen Rhizobium
Cuscuta Parasite
Animals Heterotrophs
Insects Pitcher plant

10. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false:

(i) Carbon dioxide is released during photosynthesis. → F
(ii) Plants which synthesise their food are called saprotrophs. → F
(iii) The product of photosynthesis is not a protein. → T
(iv) Solar energy is converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis. → T

11. Choose the correct option:

Which part of the plant takes in carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis?
→ (ii) Stomata

12. Choose the correct option:

Plants take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere mainly through their:
→ (iv) Leaves
13. Why do farmers grow many fruits and vegetable crops
inside large green houses? What are the advantages to the
farmers?
Farmers grow crops in greenhouses because:
• Temperature is controlled
• Light is regulated
• Carbon dioxide supply can be adjusted
• Protection from pests and harsh weather
• Higher yield
• Year-round production
Advantages:
• Better quality crops
• Increased production
• Higher income
 Chapter 2
Nutrition in Animals
1. Introduction
Unlike plants, animals cannot prepare their own food.
They depend on plants directly or indirectly.
Animal nutrition includes:
1. Nutrient requirement
2. Mode of intake of food
3. Utilisation of food

Components of Food
Food contains:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Fats
• Vitamins
• Minerals
• Roughage
• Water
These complex components must be broken into simpler forms.
The process of breaking down complex substances into simpler substances is called
digestion.

2.1 Different Ways of Taking Food

Different animals have different feeding habits.
 Animal Mode of Feeding
Snail Scraping
Ant Chewing
Eagle Capturing and swallowing
Hummingbird Sucking
Mosquito Sucking
Butterfly Siphoning
Housefly Sponging

Steps of Nutrition
1. Ingestion – Taking food inside body
2. Digestion – Breaking down food
3. Absorption – Digested food enters blood
4. Assimilation – Use of absorbed food
5. Egestion – Removal of waste

2.2 Digestion in Humans

Human Digestive System
The digestive system consists of:
• Buccal cavity (mouth)
• Oesophagus (food pipe)
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Rectum
• Anus
Associated glands:
• Salivary glands
 • Liver
• Pancreas
Together they form the digestive system.

Digestion in Buccal Cavity

(A) Ingestion
Food enters through mouth.

(B) Teeth and their Functions

Type of Teeth Function
Incisors Cutting and biting
Canines Piercing and tearing
Premolars Grinding
Molars Grinding
Children first get milk teeth, later replaced by permanent teeth.

(C) Role of Saliva

Salivary glands secrete saliva.

Activity 2.3 – Effect of Saliva on Starch

Procedure:
• Test tube A: Boiled rice
• Test tube B: Chewed rice
• Add iodine solution
Observation:
• Test tube A turns blue-black (starch present)
• Test tube B does not turn blue-black
Conclusion:
Saliva breaks starch into sugar.
(D) Tongue
Functions:
• Helps in chewing
• Mixes saliva
• Helps in swallowing
• Helps in speaking
• Has taste buds (sweet, salty, sour, bitter)

Activity 2.4 – Taste Regions

Different regions of tongue detect different tastes:
• Tip → Sweet
• Sides → Sour and salty
• Back → Bitter

Oesophagus
Food moves down by peristalsis (wave-like movement).
A flap prevents food from entering windpipe.

Stomach
• J-shaped muscular bag
• Secretes:
• Mucus (protects lining)
• Hydrochloric acid (kills bacteria)
• Digestive juices (digest proteins)
Proteins are partially digested here.
Small Intestine
• About 7.5 metres long
• Receives bile from liver
• Receives pancreatic juice from pancreas
• Digestion is completed here

Functions of Secretions
Liver:
• Produces bile
• Bile helps digest fats
• Stored in gall bladder
Pancreas:
• Secretes pancreatic juice
• Digests carbohydrates, fats and proteins

Absorption
Inner wall has finger-like projections called villi.
Functions of villi:
• Increase surface area
• Absorb digested food
• Transport nutrients to blood
This process is called absorption.

Assimilation
• Absorbed nutrients used for:
• Growth
• Repair
 • Energy
Glucose + Oxygen → Energy + Carbon dioxide + Water

Large Intestine
• About 1.5 metres long
• Absorbs water and salts
• Forms faeces
• Waste removed by egestion

Diarrhoea
• Frequent watery stools
• Caused by infection
• Leads to loss of water and salts
Treatment: ORS (Oral Rehydration Solution)
Water + Sugar + Salt

2.3 Digestion in Grass-Eating Animals

Animals like cow, buffalo, deer are called ruminants.

Special Adaptation
They have a special part called rumen.
Process:
1. Swallow grass quickly.
2. Store in rumen.
3. Partially digested food called cud.
4. Bring back to mouth.
5. Chew again → Rumination.
Bacteria in rumen digest cellulose.
Humans cannot digest cellulose because they lack such bacteria.

2.4 Feeding and Digestion in Amoeba

Amoeba is a single-celled organism.

Steps:
1. Engulfs food using pseudopodia.
2. Food enters food vacuole.
3. Digestive juices break food.
4. Nutrients absorbed.
5. Waste expelled.
Basic digestion process is similar in all animals.

ACTIVITY ANSWERS

Activity 2.1 – Modes of Feeding

Animal Food Mode
Snail Plant leaves Scraping
Ant Food particles Chewing
Eagle Small animals Capturing & swallowing
Hummingbird Nectar Sucking
Mosquito Blood Sucking
Butterfly Nectar Siphoning
Housefly Liquid food Sponging

Activity 2.2 – Types of Teeth

Observation:
 • Cutting & biting → Incisors
• Piercing & tearing → Canines
• Grinding → Premolars & Molars

Activity 2.3 – Saliva Experiment

Result:
• Chewed rice shows less starch.
• Saliva converts starch into sugar.

Activity 2.4 – Taste Test

Observation:
• Sweet detected at tip
• Salty and sour at sides
• Bitter at back

Key Points Summary

1. Animals depend on plants.
2. Digestion converts complex food into simple substances.
3. Human digestion starts in mouth.
4. Protein digestion begins in stomach.
5. Digestion completes in small intestine.
6. Villi absorb nutrients.
7. Ruminants digest cellulose.
8. Amoeba uses pseudopodia.
9. Nutrition has five steps.
Exercise – Questions with Answers

1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The main steps of nutrition in humans are ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion.
(b) The largest gland in the human body is liver.
(c) The stomach releases hydrochloric acid and digestive juices which act on food.
(d) The inner wall of the small intestine has many finger-like outgrowths called villi.
(e) Amoeba digests its food in the food vacuole.

2. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false:

(a) Digestion of starch starts in the stomach. → F
(b) The tongue helps in mixing food with saliva. → T
(c) The gall bladder temporarily stores bile. → T
(d) The ruminants bring back swallowed grass into their mouth and chew it for some
time. → T

3. Tick (✔) the correct answer:

(a) Fat is completely digested in the:
→ (iii) small intestine
(b) Water from the undigested food is absorbed mainly in the:
→ (iv) large intestine

4. Match the items of Column I with those given in Column II:

Column I Column II
Carbohydrates Sugar
Proteins Amino acids
Fats Fatty acids and glycerol
5. What are villi? What is their location and function?
Villi are finger-like projections present on the inner lining of the small intestine.
Functions:
• Increase surface area for absorption.
• Absorb digested food into blood vessels.

6. Where is the bile produced? Which component of the food

does it help to digest?
Bile is produced in the liver.
It helps in the digestion of fats.

7. Name the type of carbohydrate that can be digested by

ruminants but not by humans. Give the reason also.
The carbohydrate is cellulose.
Reason:
Ruminants have bacteria in the rumen that digest cellulose.
Humans do not have such bacteria.

8. Why do we get instant energy from glucose?

Glucose is a simple sugar.
It does not require digestion and is directly absorbed into the blood.
Hence, it gives instant energy.

9. Which part of the digestive canal is involved in:

(i) absorption of food → Small intestine
(ii) chewing of food → Buccal cavity (mouth)
(iii) killing of bacteria → Stomach
(iv) complete digestion of food → Small intestine
(v) formation of faeces → Large intestine

10. Write one similarity and one difference between the

nutrition in amoeba and human beings.
Similarity:
Both follow ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion.
Difference:
Amoeba digests food inside a food vacuole (intracellular digestion).
Humans digest food in a digestive tract (extracellular digestion).

11. Match the items of Column I with suitable items in

Column II:
Column I Column II
(a) Salivary gland (iii) Saliva secretion
(b) Stomach (iv) Acid release
(c) Liver (i) Bile juice secretion
(d) Rectum (ii) Storage of undigested food
(e) Small intestine (v) Digestion is completed
(f) Large intestine (vi) Absorption of water

12. Label Fig. 2.11 of the digestive system.

Parts to label:
• Oesophagus
• Stomach
• Liver
• Gall bladder
• Pancreas
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Rectum
 • Anus

13. Can we survive only on raw, leafy vegetables/grass?

Discuss.
No, humans cannot survive only on raw leafy vegetables or grass.
Reason:
• Grass contains cellulose.
• Humans cannot digest cellulose.
• We need carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals in balanced
proportion.
• Therefore, a balanced diet is essential for survival.
 Chapter 3
Fibre to Fabric

Introduction
In Class 6, you learned about plant fibres like cotton and jute.
In this chapter, we study animal fibres:
• Wool
• Silk
These fibres are obtained from animals and processed into fabric.

3.1 WOOL
Why Do Wool-Yielding Animals Have Thick Hair?
Animals like sheep, goat, yak etc. have thick hair because:
• Hair traps air.
• Air is a poor conductor of heat.
• It keeps animals warm in cold climates.
Wool is obtained from these hairs.

Structure of Sheep Hair

Sheep fleece has two types of fibres:
1. Coarse beard hair
2. Fine soft under-hair
The fine under-hair is used to make wool.
Selective Breeding
Parents with special qualities (like soft under-hair) are selected to produce offspring
with desired qualities.
This process is called selective breeding.

Animals That Yield Wool

Wool is obtained from:
• Sheep (main source)
• Yak (Tibet, Ladakh)
• Angora goat (Mohair)
• Kashmiri goat (Pashmina)
• Camel
• Llama
• Alpaca
According to Table 3.1 (page 26), different Indian breeds of sheep give different
types of wool.

From Fibre to Wool – Processing Steps

According to the diagram on page 27, the process is:
Shearing → Scouring → Sorting → Cleaning of burrs → Dyeing → Rolling into yarn

Step I – Shearing
• Fleece (hair + thin skin layer) is removed.
• Done in summer.
• Hair grows again.
• Does not hurt sheep (upper skin layer is dead).
Step II – Scouring
• Fleece is washed thoroughly.
• Removes grease, dirt and dust.
• Done in tanks or machines.

Step III – Sorting

• Hair of different textures separated.
• Done in factories.
Occupational Hazard:
Workers may get infected by bacteria causing sorter’s disease (anthrax).

Step IV – Cleaning of Burrs

• Small fluffy fibres (burrs) are removed.

Step V – Dyeing
• Natural fleece is white, brown or black.
• Fibres are dyed into different colours.

Step VI – Rolling into Yarn

• Fibres are straightened and combed.
• Rolled into woollen yarn.
• Long fibres → Sweaters
• Short fibres → Woollen cloth

Activity 3.1 – Comparing Hair

Observation:
 • Head hair → Soft
• Body hair → Coarse
Conclusion:
Different types of hair serve different functions.

Activity 3.2 & 3.3 – Animals and Locations

Students collect pictures and mark wool-producing regions on maps.
Examples:
• Rajasthan, Gujarat → Sheep
• Jammu & Kashmir → Pashmina goat
• Ladakh → Yak

Activity 3.4 – Debate on Ethics

Discussion points:
• Shearing does not harm sheep.
• Sheep hair grows back.
• Wool industry provides livelihood.
• Ethical treatment of animals is important.

3.2 SILK
Silk is also an animal fibre.
Silk is obtained from silkworms.
The rearing of silkworms for silk production is called sericulture.

Life History of Silk Moth

(Refer to Fig. 3.9 on page 28–29)
Stages:
1. Egg
2. Larva (Caterpillar / Silkworm)
3. Pupa (Inside cocoon)
4. Adult moth

Cocoon Formation
• Caterpillar secretes protein fibre.
• Fibre hardens on contact with air.
• Forms cocoon around itself.
• Inside cocoon, pupa develops into moth.
Silk fibres are obtained from cocoon.

Types of Silk
Different silk moths produce different types of silk:
• Mulberry silk (most common)
• Tassar silk
• Mooga silk
• Eri silk
• Kosa silk
Mulberry silk:
• Soft
• Lustrous
• Elastic

Activity 3.5 – Comparing Silks

Students:
 • Collect silk samples.
• Compare with artificial silk.
• Observe texture and shine.

Activity 3.6 – Burning Test

Observation:
• Pure silk → Smells like burning hair.
• Artificial silk → Smells like burning plastic.
• Wool → Similar smell to pure silk.
Reason:
Silk and wool are protein fibres (animal origin).

Activity 3.7 – Life Cycle Arrangement

Correct Sequence:
Egg → Larva → Cocoon (Pupa) → Adult moth

From Cocoon to Silk

Rearing Silkworms
• Female lays hundreds of eggs.
• Eggs stored under hygienic conditions.
• Warmed for hatching.
• Larvae feed on mulberry leaves.
• After 25–30 days, spin cocoons.

Processing Silk
1. Cocoons collected.
 2. Kept in sun / boiled / steamed.
3. Silk threads loosened.
4. Threads unwound (reeling).
5. Silk threads spun.
6. Woven into silk cloth.

Discovery of Silk
According to Chinese legend (page 30):
• Empress Si-lung-Chi discovered silk accidentally.
• Silk industry began in China.
• Trade route called Silk Route.

Important Points from “What You Have

Learnt” (Page 31)
• Wool and silk are animal fibres.
• Sheep hair is sheared, scoured, sorted and processed.
• Silk fibre is protein.
• Cocoons provide silk thread.
• Silk is reeled and woven.

Extended Learning – Answers

Why is artificial silk cheaper?
• It is synthetic.
• Mass-produced in factories.
• Less labour-intensive.
Where is Vicuna found?
• South America (Andes Mountains).
• It yields fine wool.

Why should caterpillars not be collected with bare hands?

• They may cause skin irritation.
• Some may have harmful hairs.

Why do caterpillars shed skin but humans do not?

• Caterpillars have rigid outer covering.
• To grow, they must shed it.
• Humans have flexible skin that grows with the body.

Maximum length of silk thread from one cocoon

• Approximately 300 to 900 metres (depending on species).

Key Terms
• Fleece
• Shearing
• Scouring
• Sorting
• Sericulture
• Cocoon
• Reeling
• Silkworm
• Silk moth
Exercise

1.
You must be familiar with the nursery rhymes:
(i) “Baa baa black sheep, have you any wool.”
(ii) “Mary had a little lamb, whose fleece was white as snow.”

(a) Which parts of the black sheep have wool?

Answer:
The wool is obtained from the fleece (hair) of the sheep. The fleece is the hairy
outer covering of its body.

(b) What is meant by the white fleece of the lamb?

Answer:
White fleece means the soft, white woollen hair covering the body of the lamb.

2. The silkworm is (a) a caterpillar, (b) a larva. Choose the

correct option.
Answer:
(iii) both a and b
(Silkworm is the larval stage of silk moth and is also called caterpillar.)

3. Which of the following does not yield wool?

(i) Yak
(ii) Camel
(iii) Goat
(iv) Woolly dog
Answer:
(iv) Woolly dog
4. What is meant by the following terms?
(i) Rearing
The process of breeding and raising animals for useful products like wool.

(ii) Shearing
The process of removing fleece (hair) from the body of sheep.

(iii) Sericulture
The rearing of silkworms for the production of silk.

5. Given below is a sequence of steps in the processing of wool.

Which are the missing steps?
Shearing, __________, sorting, __________, __________, _________.
Answer:
Shearing, scouring, sorting, cleaning of burrs, dyeing, rolling into yarn.

6. Make sketches of the two stages in the life history of the silk
moth which are directly related to the production of silk.
Answer (Description):
The two stages are:
1. Larva (Silkworm) – Spins silk fibre.
2. Cocoon (Pupa stage) – Silk thread is obtained from the cocoon.

7. Out of the following, which are the two terms related to silk
production?
Sericulture, floriculture, moriculture, apiculture, silviculture
Answer:
Sericulture and Moriculture
(Sericulture – rearing silkworms;
Moriculture – cultivation of mulberry plants.)
8. Match the words of Column I with those given in Column
II:
Column I Column II
1. Scouring (e) Cleaning sheared skin
2. Mulberry leaves (c) Food of silkworm
3. Yak (b) Wool yielding animal
4. Cocoon (a) Yields silk fibres

9. Crossword Puzzle – Answers

Down:
1. Thorough washing → Scouring
2. Animal fibre → Silk (or Wool)
3. Long thread-like structure → Fibre

Across:
1. Keeps warm → Wool
2. Its leaves are eaten by silkworms → Mulberry
3. Hatches from egg of moth → Larva
 Chapter 4
HEAT

1. Introduction
• We wear woollen clothes in winter → keep us warm.
• We wear light-coloured cotton clothes in summer → feel cool.
• Why? → Because of heat transfer and absorption.

2. 4.1 Hot and Cold

Sense of Touch is Not Reliable
We feel objects as hot or cold by touching them.
But sometimes our sense of touch misleads us.

Activity 4.1 (Three Containers Experiment)

• Container A → Cold water
• Container B → Hot water
• Container C → Lukewarm water
• Left hand in A, right hand in B → then both in C.

Observation:
• One hand feels water hot.
• Other hand feels water cold.

Conclusion:
Sense of touch is not reliable to measure temperature.
3. Temperature
• Temperature = Measure of degree of hotness or coldness.
• Measured by thermometer.

4. 4.2 Measuring Temperature

Clinical Thermometer
Features (Page 36–37)
• Has a bulb containing mercury.
• Range: 35°C to 42°C
• Used only for measuring human body temperature.
• Has a kink near the bulb (page 40, Fig. 4.6).

Function of Kink:
• Prevents mercury from falling back immediately.
• Allows reading after removing from mouth.

Precautions While Using Clinical Thermometer (Page 37)

1. Wash before and after use.
2. Ensure mercury level below 35°C before use.
3. Read at eye level.
4. Do not hold by bulb.
5. Handle carefully.

Normal Body Temperature

• Average normal temperature = 37°C
• May vary slightly from person to person.
Activity 4.3 – Measuring Body Temperature
Observation:
• Not all persons have exactly 37°C.
• Slight variation is normal.

5. Laboratory Thermometer (Page 38–39)

Features
• Range: –10°C to 110°C
• Used to measure temperature of objects.
• No kink.

Precautions:
1. Keep upright.
2. Bulb fully immersed.
3. Bulb should not touch container.
4. Read while thermometer is still in substance.

Difference: Clinical vs Laboratory

Thermometer
Clinical Thermometer Laboratory Thermometer
Range: 35–42°C Range: –10–110°C
Has kink No kink
Used for body Used for substances
Reading taken after removing Must read while inside
6. 4.4 Transfer of Heat
Heat flows from:
Hotter object → Colder object
There are three modes of heat transfer:
1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

A. Conduction (Page 40–41)

Activity 4.6 (Metal Rod with Wax)
Observation:
• Wax near flame melts first.
• Heat travels along rod.

Definition:
Transfer of heat in solids from hotter end to colder end.

Conductors:
• Iron
• Copper
• Aluminium

Insulators:
• Wood
• Plastic
• Rubber
Activity 4.7 (Testing Materials)
Steel spoon → Other end becomes hot → Conductor
Plastic scale → Does not get hot → Insulator

B. Convection (Page 41–42)

Occurs in:
• Liquids
• Gases

Activity 4.8 (Potassium Permanganate in Water)

Observation:
• Purple colour rises upwards.
• Water near flame heats, rises.
• Cold water moves down.

Definition:
Transfer of heat in liquids and gases due to movement of particles.

Activity 4.9 (Candle Flame)

Hand above flame → Feels hotter
Hand on side → Less hot
Reason:
Hot air rises upward.

Sea Breeze and Land Breeze (Page 43, Fig. 4.11)

Day Time:
• Land heats faster.
• Hot air rises.
• Cool air from sea moves to land → Sea breeze
Night:
• Land cools faster.
• Cool air from land moves to sea → Land breeze

C. Radiation (Page 43)

• Heat from Sun reaches Earth by radiation.
• No medium required.
• Room heater gives heat by radiation.
• All hot bodies radiate heat.

7. 4.5 Clothes in Summer and Winter

Activity 4.10 (Black & White Cans in Sun)
Observation:
• Black can water becomes hotter.
• Black absorbs more heat.

Activity 4.11 (Cooling Experiment)

• Black surface loses heat faster.

Conclusion:
• Dark colours absorb more heat.
• Light colours reflect heat.

Why Woollen Clothes Keep Us Warm?

• Wool is poor conductor.
• Air trapped between fibres.
• Air prevents heat loss.
Two Thin Blankets vs One Thick Blanket
Two thin blankets are warmer because:
• Air layer trapped between them.
• Air is poor conductor.

Important Keywords
• Celsius scale
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation
• Insulator
• Conductor
• Sea breeze
• Land breeze
• Thermometer
• Temperature

What You Have Learnt (Page 45 Summary)

• Touch is unreliable for measuring hotness.
• Temperature measured in °C.
• Clinical thermometer: 35–42°C.
• Laboratory thermometer: –10–110°C.
• Heat flows from hot to cold.
• Three modes of heat transfer.
• Dark colours absorb more heat.
 • Wool keeps warm due to trapped air.

Exercise

1. State similarities and differences between the laboratory

thermometer and the clinical thermometer.
Similarities:
• Both are used to measure temperature.
• Both contain a bulb with mercury.
• Both have a glass tube with a scale marked in °C.

Differences:
Clinical Thermometer Laboratory Thermometer
Used to measure body temperature Used to measure temperature of substances
Range: 35°C to 42°C Range: –10°C to 110°C
Has a kink No kink
Reading can be taken after removing Reading must be taken while immersed

2. Give two examples each of conductors and insulators of

heat.
Conductors:
• Copper
• Iron
Insulators:
• Wood
• Plastic

3. Fill in the blanks:

(a) The hotness of an object is determined by its temperature.
(b) Temperature of boiling water cannot be measured by a clinical thermometer.
(c) Temperature is measured in degree Celsius (°C).
(d) No medium is required for transfer of heat by the process of radiation.
(e) A cold steel spoon is dipped in a cup of hot milk. Heat is transferred to its other
end by the process of conduction.
(f) Clothes of dark colours absorb more heat better than clothes of light colours.

4. Match the following:

Column I Column II
(i) Land breeze blows during (d) night
(ii) Sea breeze blows during (c) day
(iii) Dark coloured clothes are preferred during (b) winter
(iv) Light coloured clothes are preferred during (a) summer

5. Discuss why wearing more layers of clothing during winter

keeps us warmer than wearing just one thick piece of clothing.
Wearing multiple layers traps air between the layers.
Air is a poor conductor of heat.
The trapped air prevents body heat from escaping.
Therefore, multiple layers keep us warmer.

6. Look at Fig. 4.13. Mark where heat is transferred by

conduction, convection and radiation.
• Conduction: In the metal pan and handle.
• Convection: In the boiling water inside the pan.
• Radiation: From the flame to the pan and surroundings.
7. In places of hot climate it is advised that the outer walls of
houses be painted white. Explain.
White colour reflects most of the heat from sunlight.
Less heat is absorbed.
Therefore, houses remain cooler.

8. One litre of water at 30°C is mixed with one litre of water at

50°C. The temperature of the mixture will be:
Answer: (d) between 30°C and 50°C

9. An iron ball at 40°C is dropped in water at 40°C. The heat

will:
Answer: (b) not flow from iron ball to water or from water to iron ball.
(Heat flows only when there is temperature difference.)

10. A wooden spoon is dipped in a cup of ice cream. Its other

end:
Answer: (d) does not become cold.
(Wood is a poor conductor of heat.)

11. Stainless steel pans are usually provided with copper

bottoms. The reason is:
Answer: (c) copper is a better conductor of heat than stainless steel.
 Chapter 5
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

1. Introduction
In daily life we use substances like:
• Lemon
• Tamarind
• Vinegar
• Curd
• Baking soda
• Common salt
• Sugar
They have different tastes — sour, bitter, sweet or salty.

2. 5.1 Acids and Bases

Acids
• Substances that taste sour.
• Word “acid” comes from Latin word acere (meaning sour).
• Found naturally in many foods.

Examples of Natural Acids (Page 2 Table)

Acid Found In
Acetic acid Vinegar
Formic acid Ant sting
Citric acid Lemon, Orange
Lactic acid Curd
Oxalic acid Spinach
 Acid Found In
Ascorbic acid Amla (Vitamin C)
Tartaric acid Tamarind, grapes

Bases
• Substances that are bitter in taste
• Feel soapy when touched.

Examples of Bases (Page 2 Table)

Base Found In
Calcium hydroxide Lime water
Ammonium hydroxide Window cleaner
Sodium hydroxide Soap
Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia

3. Indicators
Indicators are substances that change colour in acidic or basic solutions.
Examples:
• Litmus
• Turmeric
• China rose petals

4. 5.2 Natural Indicators

A. Litmus
• Extracted from lichens.
• Purple in neutral solution.
• Turns red in acid.
• Turns blue in base.
Available as:
 • Red litmus paper
• Blue litmus paper

Activity 5.1 – Testing with Litmus

Observation Table (Based on activity)
Solution Effect on Red Litmus Effect on Blue Litmus Inference
Lemon juice No change Turns red Acid
Vinegar No change Turns red Acid
Soap solution Turns blue No change Base
Baking soda solution Turns blue No change Base
Sugar solution No change No change Neutral
Salt solution No change No change Neutral
Distilled water No change No change Neutral
Conclusion:
• Acid: Blue → Red
• Base: Red → Blue
• Neutral: No change

B. Turmeric Indicator
Turmeric:
• Remains yellow in acid
• Turns red in base

Activity 5.2 – Turmeric Paper

Observation:

Solution Effect on Turmeric Remark

Lemon juice No change Acid
Vinegar No change Acid
Baking soda Turns red Base
 Solution Effect on Turmeric Remark
Lime water Turns red Base
Sugar No change Neutral
Salt No change Neutral

C. China Rose Indicator

Prepared by soaking petals in warm water.
• Turns dark pink (magenta) in acid
• Turns green in base

Activity 5.3 – China Rose Test

Solution Colour Change
Lemon juice Dark pink
Vinegar Dark pink
Baking soda Green
Lime water Green
Sugar No change
Salt No change

5. 5.3 Neutralisation
When an acid reacts with a base, they neutralise each other.
Result:
• Salt
• Water
• Heat (energy released)

Definition:
Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water
with evolution of heat.
Example:
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O

Activity 5.5 – Phenolphthalein Indicator

• Colourless in acid.
• Pink in base.
When acid and base are mixed:
• Pink disappears.
• Solution becomes neutral.

6. Acid Rain (Page 6)

Acid rain forms when:
• Carbon dioxide
• Sulphur dioxide
• Nitrogen dioxide
mix with rainwater.
Forms:
• Carbonic acid
• Sulphuric acid
• Nitric acid
Effects:
• Damages monuments
• Harms plants
• Kills aquatic life
7. 5.4 Neutralisation in Everyday Life
1. Indigestion
• Excess HCl in stomach causes acidity.
• Treated with antacid like milk of magnesia.
• It neutralises excess acid.

2. Ant Bite
• Ant injects formic acid.
• Apply baking soda or calamine.
• Neutralises acid.

3. Soil Treatment
• Acidic soil → Add lime (base).
• Basic soil → Add compost (organic acids).

4. Factory Waste
• Acidic waste harmful to aquatic life.
• Neutralised with base before disposal.

Important Differences
Acids Bases
Sour Bitter
Turn blue litmus red Turn red litmus blue
React with metals Feel soapy
pH < 7 pH > 7
Key Terms
• Acid
• Base
• Indicator
• Neutral
• Neutralisation
• Salt
• Acid rain

What You Have Learnt (Page 8 Summary)

• Acids are sour; bases are bitter and soapy.
• Litmus helps identify acids and bases.
• Neutral substances do not change litmus.
• Acid + Base → Salt + Water.
• Neutralisation occurs in daily life.

Exercise

1. State differences between acids and bases.

Acids Bases
Sour in taste Bitter in taste
Turn blue litmus red Turn red litmus blue
Do not feel soapy Feel soapy to touch
Example: Lemon juice, vinegar Example: Soap, lime water
2. Ammonia is found in many household products such as
window cleaners. It turns red litmus blue. What is its nature?
Since it turns red litmus blue, ammonia is basic in nature.

3. Name the source from which litmus solution is obtained.

What is its use?
• Litmus is obtained from lichens.
• It is used as an indicator to test whether a solution is acidic or basic.

4. Is distilled water acidic/basic/neutral? How would you

verify it?
Distilled water is neutral.
Verification:
• It does not change the colour of red or blue litmus paper.

5. Describe the process of neutralisation with the help of an

example.
Neutralisation is the reaction between an acid and a base to form salt and water,
with evolution of heat.
Example:
Hydrochloric acid + Sodium hydroxide → Sodium chloride + Water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O

6. Mark ‘T’ for True and ‘F’ for False:

(i) Nitric acid turns red litmus blue.
F
(ii) Sodium hydroxide turns blue litmus red.
F
(iii) Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid neutralise each other and form salt and
water.
T
(iv) Indicator is a substance which shows different colours in acidic and basic
solutions.
T
(v) Tooth decay is caused by the presence of a base.
F

7. Dorji has unlabelled soft drinks. One customer wants acidic

drink, another basic and third neutral. How will he decide?
He should test each drink using litmus paper or another indicator:
• If blue litmus turns red → Acidic drink
• If red litmus turns blue → Basic drink
• If no change in either → Neutral drink

8. Explain why:
(a) An antacid tablet is taken when you suffer from acidity.
Antacid is basic in nature.
It neutralises excess acid (HCl) in the stomach and gives relief.

(b) Calamine solution is applied when an ant bites.

Ant injects formic acid.
Calamine (basic) neutralises the acid and reduces irritation.

(c) Factory waste is neutralised before disposing into water bodies.

Factory waste may contain acids.
Acids can harm aquatic life.
Therefore, they are neutralised with bases before disposal.
9. Three liquids: hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, sugar
solution. Identify them using only turmeric indicator.
• Turmeric turns red in base.
• No change in acid or neutral.
Procedure:
• Test all three.
• One that turns turmeric red → Sodium hydroxide (base).
• Of the remaining two:
• Test with blue litmus (if available) OR infer:
• Acid will not change turmeric but is acidic.
• Sugar solution remains neutral.
Thus:
• Turns turmeric red → Sodium hydroxide
• Does not change and acidic → Hydrochloric acid
• Does not change and neutral → Sugar solution

10. Blue litmus paper remains blue. What is the nature of

solution?
The solution is either:
• Basic, or
• Neutral
Explanation:
Blue litmus turns red only in acid.
If no change, it is not acidic.

11. Which statements are correct?

(a) Both acids and bases change colour of all indicators.
(b) If indicator changes with acid, it does not change with base.
(c) If indicator changes with base, it does not change with acid.
(d) Change of colour depends on type of indicator.
Correct answer: (iv) only d
 Chapter 6
Physical and Chemical Changes

1. Introduction
Everyday we observe many changes around us:
• Dissolving sugar in water
• Souring of milk
• Stretching a rubber band
• Rusting of iron
These changes are of two types:
1. Physical Changes
2. Chemical Changes

6.1 PHYSICAL CHANGES

Definition
A change in which only the physical properties (shape, size, colour, state) of a
substance change and no new substance is formed is called a physical change.

Important Points
• No new substance is formed.
• Generally reversible.
• Only physical properties change.

Activities and Explanations

Activity 6.1 – Cutting Paper
• Paper cut into pieces.
 • Shape and size changed.
• No new substance formed.
Conclusion: Physical change.

Activity 6.2 – Chalk Powder

• Chalk crushed into powder.
• Mixed with water and reshaped.
• After drying, chalk recovered.
Conclusion: Physical change.

Activity 6.3 – Ice to Water and Back

• Ice melts into water.
• Water freezes back to ice.
Conclusion:
• Change of state.
• Reversible.
• Physical change.

Activity 6.4 – Steam to Water

• Water boils → Steam forms.
• Steam cools → Water droplets form.
Conclusion: Change of state → Physical change.

Activity 6.5 – Heating Iron Blade

• Colour changes on heating.
• Original colour returns after cooling.
Conclusion:
• Temporary change.
 • No new substance formed.
• Physical change.

6.2 CHEMICAL CHANGES

Definition
A change in which one or more new substances are formed is called a chemical
change.
Also called a chemical reaction.

Characteristics of Chemical Changes

During chemical change:
• Heat or light may be produced.
• Gas may be formed.
• Sound may be produced.
• Colour change may occur.
• Smell may change.
• Usually irreversible.

Example 1 – Rusting of Iron

Iron + Oxygen + Water → Rust
Rust is a new substance (iron oxide).
Rusting needs:
• Oxygen
• Water (moisture)
More humidity → Faster rusting.
Example 2 – Burning of Magnesium (Activity 6.6)
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium oxide + Water → Magnesium Hydroxide (a base)
Observations:
• Bright white flame.
• White ash formed.
• New substances formed.
Conclusion: Chemical change.

Example 3 – Copper Sulphate and Iron (Activity 6.7)

Copper sulphate (blue) + Iron → Iron sulphate (green) + Copper
Observations:
• Blue solution turns green.
• Brown copper deposit forms.
• New substances formed.
Conclusion: Chemical change.

Example 4 – Vinegar and Baking Soda (Activity 6.8)

Vinegar + Baking soda → Carbon dioxide + other substances
Carbon dioxide + Lime water → Milky solution
Milky colour due to calcium carbonate.
Conclusion: Chemical change.

Daily Life Chemical Changes

• Digestion of food
• Photosynthesis
• Ripening of fruits
 • Fermentation
• Burning of fuel
• Explosion of firecrackers
• Browning of apple

6.3 RUSTING OF IRON

Equation:
Iron + Oxygen + Water → Rust (Iron oxide)

Prevention of Rusting
1. Painting
2. Greasing
3. Galvanisation (Coating iron with zinc)
4. Using stainless steel
Stainless steel contains:
• Iron
• Carbon
• Chromium
• Nickel
• Manganese

6.4 CRYSTALLISATION
Definition:
Process of obtaining pure solid crystals from a solution.

Activity 6.9 – Copper Sulphate Crystals

Procedure:
• Dissolve copper sulphate in hot water.
 • Add few drops of dilute sulphuric acid.
• Filter solution.
• Allow to cool undisturbed.
Observation:
• Blue crystals formed.
Conclusion:
Crystallisation is a physical change.

Difference Between Physical and Chemical

Changes
Physical Change Chemical Change
No new substance formed New substance formed
Reversible (mostly) Irreversible (mostly)
Only physical properties change Chemical composition changes
Example: Melting ice Example: Rusting

Important Keywords
• Physical change
• Chemical change
• Chemical reaction
• Rusting
• Galvanisation
• Crystallisation

Important Concept Questions from Chapter

• Is photosynthesis a chemical change? → Yes
• Is digestion chemical? → Yes
 • Is burning chemical? → Yes
• Is melting physical? → Yes

Exercise – Answers

1. Classify the following as Physical or Chemical changes:

(a) Photosynthesis → Chemical change
(b) Dissolving sugar in water → Physical change
(c) Burning of coal → Chemical change
(d) Melting of wax → Physical change
(e) Beating aluminium to make aluminium foil → Physical change
(f) Digestion of food → Chemical change

2. State whether true or false. Correct the false statements.

(a) Cutting a log of wood into pieces is a chemical change.
→ False
Correct: Cutting a log of wood into pieces is a physical change.
(b) Formation of manure from leaves is a physical change.
→ False
Correct: Formation of manure from leaves is a chemical change.
(c) Iron pipes coated with zinc do not get rusted easily.
→ True
(d) Iron and rust are the same substances.
→ False
Correct: Rust is iron oxide, which is a new substance.
(e) Condensation of steam is not a chemical change.
→ True
(It is a physical change.)
3. Fill in the blanks:
(a) When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it turns milky due to the
formation of calcium carbonate.
(b) The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogencarbonate.
(c) Two methods by which rusting of iron can be prevented are painting and
greasing.
(Also acceptable: galvanisation)
(d) Changes in which only physical properties of a substance change are called
physical changes.
(e) Changes in which new substances are formed are called chemical changes.

4. When baking soda is mixed with lemon juice, bubbles are

formed. What type of change is it?
It is a chemical change.
Reason:
• Carbon dioxide gas is produced.
• New substances are formed.
• The change is irreversible.

5. Candle burning – physical and chemical changes

When a candle burns:
Physical change:
• Wax melts (solid → liquid).
Chemical change:
• Wax burns.
• New substances like carbon dioxide and water vapour are formed.
Another example:
Burning LPG gas:
 • Liquid LPG becomes gas (physical change).
• Gas burns (chemical change).

6. How to show setting of curd is a chemical change?

• Milk changes into curd.
• Taste and smell change.
• New substance (curd) formed.
• Cannot be converted back to milk.
Therefore, it is a chemical change.

7. Burning wood vs Cutting wood

Burning wood:
• New substances (ash, gases) formed.
• Irreversible.
• Chemical change.
Cutting wood:
• Only size changes.
• No new substance formed.
• Physical change.

8. Preparation of copper sulphate crystals

Procedure:
1. Take water in a beaker.
2. Add few drops of dilute sulphuric acid.
3. Heat the water.
4. Add copper sulphate powder till it dissolves.
5. Filter the solution.
 6. Allow it to cool undisturbed.
Result:
• Blue crystals of copper sulphate form.
• This process is called crystallisation.

9. How does painting prevent rusting?

• Rusting requires oxygen and water.
• Paint forms a protective layer.
• Iron does not come in contact with air and moisture.
• Thus rusting is prevented.

10. Why rusting is faster in coastal areas?

• Coastal areas have high humidity.
• Air contains moisture and salts.
• Moisture + oxygen increases rusting.
• Salt water speeds up rust formation.

11. LPG changes

Change A: Liquid → Gas
→ Physical change
Change B: Burning
→ Chemical change
Correct answer:
(ii) Process – B is a chemical change.
12. Biogas changes
Change A: Digestion by bacteria
→ Chemical change
Change B: Burning
→ Chemical change
Correct answer:
(iii) Both processes A and B are chemical changes.
Chapter 7 – Weather, Climate and Adaptations
of Animals to Climate

7.1 WEATHER
Meaning of Weather
Weather is the day-to-day condition of the atmosphere at a place with respect to:
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Rainfall
• Wind speed
• Wind direction
These are called the elements of weather.
Weather changes frequently:
• It may be sunny in the morning.
• It may rain in the afternoon.
• It may become cool at night.
That is why weather is said to be temporary and short-term.

Weather Reports
Prepared by: Meteorological Department (IMD in India)
Weather reports include:
• Maximum temperature
• Minimum temperature
• Humidity
 • Rainfall

Important:
• Maximum temperature → usually occurs in the afternoon.
• Minimum temperature → usually occurs early in the morning.
Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge.

Source of Weather
All changes in weather are caused by the Sun.
• The Sun is the main source of heat and light.
• It heats land, oceans and air.
• Unequal heating causes winds and rainfall.
• Therefore, Sun is the primary source of energy for weather changes.

Activity 7.1 – Weather Data Collection

Objective:
To understand variation in weather over a week.

Procedure:
1. Collect weather reports for 7 days.
2. Record:
• Maximum temperature
• Minimum temperature
• Humidity
• Rainfall
3. Prepare a table.

Conclusion:
• Weather does not remain same every day.
 • It changes frequently.

7.2 CLIMATE
Meaning of Climate
Climate is the average weather pattern taken over a long period (about 25 years).
Weather = Short term
Climate = Long term average
Example:
• If a place is hot most of the time → Hot climate
• If a place has heavy rainfall → Wet climate

Examples of Climate in India (from Tables 7.2 & 7.3)

Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir)
• Cold winters
• Moderate summers
• Moderate rainfall
→ Cold climate for most of the year.

Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala)
• Hot throughout the year
• Heavy rainfall
→ Hot and wet climate.

Rajasthan
• High temperature
• Very little rainfall
→ Hot and dry (desert climate)
North-East India
• Heavy rainfall
→ Wet climate

Differences Between Weather and Climate

Weather Climate
Short-term condition Long-term average
Changes daily Changes slowly
Measured daily Measured over 25 years

7.3 CLIMATE AND ADAPTATION

Adaptation
Adaptation means special features or habits that help animals survive in their
habitat.
Adaptations develop through evolution.
Animals living in:
• Polar regions → Need protection from extreme cold
• Tropical rainforests → Need protection from heat and competition

(i) Polar Regions

Climate Features
• Extremely cold
• Covered with snow
• Temperature may reach –37°C
• Six months day
• Six months night
Adaptations of Polar Bear
• Thick white fur (camouflage in snow)
• Two layers of fur
• Thick layer of fat under skin (insulation)
• Large wide paws (walking on snow & swimming)
• Strong sense of smell
• Can close nostrils underwater
• Good swimmer

Adaptations of Penguin
• White body (camouflage)
• Thick skin
• Fat layer under skin
• Streamlined body
• Webbed feet (swimming)
• Huddle together to keep warm

Migration
Many birds migrate to escape cold climate.
Example:
• Siberian crane comes to India during winter.
Reasons:
• Escape extreme cold
• Search for food
• Suitable breeding conditions
(ii) Tropical Rainforests
Climate Features
• Hot and humid
• Temperature usually above 15°C
• Heavy rainfall
• Days and nights almost equal
Regions:
• Western Ghats
• Assam
• Southeast Asia
• Central Africa
• Brazil

Adaptations of Animals in Rainforest

1. Red-eyed Frog
• Sticky pads on feet
• Climbs trees easily

2. Monkey
• Long strong tail
• Good climber
• Grasp branches easily

3. Toucan (Bird)
• Long and large beak
• Reaches fruits on thin branches

4. Lion-tailed Macaque
• Good climber
 • Lives mostly on trees
• Eats fruits, seeds, insects

5. Elephant
• Strong trunk (smelling, picking food)
• Tusks (tear tree bark)
• Large ears (cool body)
• Thick skin

General Adaptations in Rainforest

• Bright colours
• Loud voice
• Sharp eyesight
• Sensitive hearing
• Thick skin
• Camouflage
• Living on trees

Why Tropical Rainforest Has Large Animal

Population?
• Continuous warmth
• Plenty of rainfall
• Availability of food
• Dense vegetation
• Suitable climate throughout year
Important Keywords
• Weather
• Climate
• Adaptation
• Humidity
• Polar region
• Tropical rainforest
• Migration
• Maximum temperature
• Minimum temperature

Activities Explained
Activity 7.2 – World Map Marking
• Polar regions → Blue
• Tropical regions → Red
Helps understand geographical distribution of climate zones.

Summary Points
• Weather changes daily.
• Climate is long-term pattern.
• Sun is source of all weather changes.
• Polar regions are extremely cold.
• Tropical rainforests are hot and wet.
• Animals have special adaptations.
• Migration helps animals survive harsh climate.
Exercise – Answers

1. Name the elements that determine the weather of a place.

The elements of weather are:
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Rainfall
• Wind speed
• Wind direction

2. When are the maximum and minimum temperatures likely

to occur during the day?
• Maximum temperature → Usually in the afternoon.
• Minimum temperature → Usually early in the morning.

3. Fill in the blanks:

(i) The average weather taken over a long time is called climate.
(ii) A place receives very little rainfall and the temperature is high throughout the
year, the climate of that place will be hot and dry.
(iii) The two regions of the earth with extreme climatic conditions are polar regions
and tropical regions.

4. Indicate the type of climate of the following areas:

(a) Jammu and Kashmir → Moderately hot and wet for part of the year (cold
winters).
(b) Kerala → Hot and wet climate.
(c) Rajasthan → Hot and dry (desert climate).
(d) North-east India → Wet climate (heavy rainfall).

5. Which of the two changes frequently, weather or climate?

Weather changes frequently.
Climate changes over a very long period.

6. Identify adaptations for tropical rainforest or polar regions:

Characteristic Region
(i) Diet heavy on fruits Tropical rainforest
(ii) White fur Polar region
(iii) Need to migrate Polar region
(iv) Loud voice Tropical rainforest
(v) Sticky pads on feet Tropical rainforest
(vi) Layer of fat under skin Polar region
(vii) Wide and large paws Polar region
(viii) Bright colours Tropical rainforest
(ix) Strong tails Tropical rainforest
(x) Long and large beak Tropical rainforest
Some features like migration can also be seen in both regions depending on
conditions.

7. Why does the tropical rainforest have a large population of

animals?
• Warm climate throughout the year
• Heavy rainfall
• Dense vegetation
• Plenty of food and shelter
• Suitable living conditions
8. Why do we find animals of certain kinds in particular
climatic conditions?
Animals develop adaptations suited to their climate.
Example:
• Polar bears have thick fur and fat to survive extreme cold.
• Monkeys have long tails to climb trees in rainforests.
Thus, animals survive only in climates suited to their adaptations.

9. How do elephants living in tropical rainforests adapt

themselves?
• Long trunk for smelling and picking food
• Tusks for tearing bark
• Large ears help in cooling
• Thick skin protects from heat and insects

10. A carnivore with stripes on its body moves fast while

catching prey. It is likely found in:
Correct answer: (iv) Tropical rainforests

11. Which features adapt polar bears to extremely cold

climate?
Correct answer:
(i) A white fur, fat below skin, keen sense of smell.

12. Which option best describes a tropical region?

Correct answer:
(i) Hot and humid
 Chapter 8
Winds, Storms and Cyclones

8.1 Air Exerts Pressure

Key Idea
Air around us exerts pressure in all directions.

Activity 8.1 – Crushed Can Experiment

Procedure:
• Take a tin can and heat water in it until it boils.
• Close the lid tightly.
• Pour cold water over the can.
Observation:
• The can gets crushed.
Reason:
• Steam inside condenses → air pressure inside decreases.
• Outside air pressure becomes greater.
• Outside air crushes the can.
Conclusion:
Air exerts pressure.

Daily Life Examples

• Bicycle tube becomes tight when filled with air.
• Overfilled tube bursts.
• Flags flutter due to air pressure.
8.2 High-Speed Winds Reduce Air Pressure
Important Concept
When wind speed increases, air pressure decreases.

Activity 8.2 – Blowing Paper into Bottle

• Try to blow paper ball into bottle.
• Paper comes out instead.
Reason:
Blowing creates low pressure near bottle mouth.
Higher pressure inside pushes paper out.

Activity 8.3 – Balloons Move Together

• Blow between two hanging balloons.
• Balloons move toward each other.
Reason:
Low pressure between balloons.
Higher outside pressure pushes them together.

Activity 8.4 – Lifting Paper Strip

• Blow above strip of paper.
• Paper rises upward.
Reason:
Fast moving air → lower pressure above strip.
Higher pressure below lifts strip.

Conclusion
High-speed wind = Low pressure.
8.3 Air Expands on Heating
Key Principle
• Air expands when heated.
• Air contracts when cooled.
• Warm air is lighter than cold air.
• Warm air rises upward.

Activity 8.5 – Balloon on Boiling Tube

Observation:
• Balloon inflates in hot water.
• Balloon shrinks in cold water.
Conclusion:
Air expands on heating and contracts on cooling.

Activity 8.6 – Warm Air Rises

• Paper bag over candle rises.
Reason:
Warm air becomes lighter and rises.

8.4 Wind Currents Due to Uneven Heating

Cause of Wind
Uneven heating of Earth.

(a) Between Equator and Poles

• Equator → more heating → air rises.
• Poles → less heating → cold air moves in.
This sets up global wind circulation.
(b) Between Land and Water
In Summer
• Land heats faster.
• Warm air rises over land.
• Air from sea moves toward land.
This creates Monsoon winds.

In Winter
• Land cools faster.
• Winds move from land to sea.

8.5 Thunderstorms and Cyclones

Thunderstorm
• Occurs in hot, humid regions.
• Strong upward winds.
• Formation of lightning and thunder.

How Thunderstorm Becomes Cyclone

1. Warm air rises.
2. Low pressure forms.
3. More air rushes in.
4. Water vapour condenses.
5. Heat is released.
6. Cycle repeats.
7. Very low pressure forms.
8. High-speed rotating winds develop → Cyclone.
Structure of Cyclone
• Centre → Calm area called Eye.
• Eye diameter → 10–30 km.
• Height → 10–15 km.
• Around eye → very high-speed winds (150–250 km/h).
Cyclones are called:
• Hurricane (America)
• Typhoon (Japan/Philippines)
• Cyclone (Indian Ocean)

8.6 Destruction Caused by Cyclones

• Strong winds destroy houses.
• Communication lines damaged.
• Heavy rainfall causes floods.
• Sea water enters land (storm surge).
• Loss of life and property.
East coast of India is more vulnerable.

Tornado
• Funnel-shaped dark cloud.
• Wind speed up to 300 km/h.
• Very destructive.
• Less common in India.
8.7 Safety Measures
Before Cyclone
• Listen to weather warnings.
• Store drinking water.
• Move valuables to safe place.

During Cyclone
• Stay indoors.
• Avoid electric wires.
• Do not touch wet switches.

Government Measures
• Cyclone shelters.
• Early warning systems.
• Rescue operations.

8.8 Advanced Technology

• Satellites
• Radars
• Anemometer (measures wind speed)
Cyclone watch → 48 hours before.
Cyclone warning → 24 hours before.

Flow Chart (Concept Summary)

Uneven heating →
Warm air rises →
Low pressure →
Cool air rushes →
Cloud formation →
Heavy rain →
Storm →
Cyclone (under certain conditions)

Important Keywords
• Pressure
• Wind
• Cyclone
• Hurricane
• Typhoon
• Tornado
• Thunderstorm
• Monsoon
• Anemometer
• Low pressure

Exercise – Answers

1. Fill in the missing words:

(a) Wind is moving air.
(b) Winds are generated due to uneven heating on the earth.
(c) Near the earth’s surface warm air rises up whereas cool air comes down.
(d) Air moves from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
2. Suggest two methods to find out wind direction at a given
place.
1. Using a wind vane (weather vane).
2. Observing the movement of:
• Smoke
• Flags
• Leaves
• Light pieces of paper

3. State two experiences that show air exerts pressure (other

than those given in the text).
1. When we blow air into a balloon, it expands.
2. When we drink juice using a straw, liquid rises due to air pressure.

4. Would you buy a house with windows but no ventilators?

No.
Ventilators are necessary because:
• Warm air rises and needs an outlet.
• Proper air circulation prevents suffocation.
• It keeps the room cool and fresh.
Without ventilators, hot air will remain trapped.

5. Why are holes made in hanging banners and hoardings?

Holes allow air to pass through.
Without holes:
• Strong winds create high pressure.
• The banner may tear or fall.
Holes reduce air pressure and prevent damage.

6. How will you help neighbours if a cyclone approaches?

• Inform them about warnings.
• Help shift essential items to safer places.
• Move elderly and children to shelters.
• Store drinking water.
• Provide first aid if required.
• Cooperate with rescue teams.

7. What planning is required in advance to deal with cyclones?

• Build cyclone-resistant houses.
• Construct cyclone shelters.
• Early warning systems.
• Emergency evacuation plans.
• Keep emergency kits ready.
• Maintain communication systems.

8. Which place is unlikely to be affected by a cyclone?

(i) Chennai
(ii) Mangaluru (Mangalore)
(iii) Amritsar
(iv) Puri
Answer: (iii) Amritsar
Reason:
Cyclones mainly affect coastal areas. Amritsar is inland.
9. Which statement is correct?
(i) In winter the winds flow from the land to the ocean.
(ii) In summer the winds flow from the land towards the ocean.
(iii) A cyclone is formed by a very high-pressure system with very high-speed winds
revolving around it.
(iv) The coastline of India is not vulnerable to cyclones.
Correct Answer: (i) In winter the winds flow from the land to the ocean.
 Chapter 9 – Soil

1. Introduction to Soil
• Soil is one of the most important natural resources.
• It:
• Anchors plants
• Supplies water and nutrients
• Is home to many organisms
• Supports agriculture
Soil is formed by weathering – the breaking down of rocks by wind, water and
climate.

2. Soil Teeming with Life

Soil contains:
• Earthworms
• Ants
• Beetles
• Bacteria
• Plant roots
• Small animals
Soil is a living system.

Activity 9.1 – Observation of Soil Samples

Observe soil using hand lens.
Table 9.1 (Completed Example)
Soil Source Plants Animals Other Observations
Garden soil Grass Ants, earthworms Dark, moist
Roadside soil Few weeds Few insects Plastic pieces
Construction area Very few plants No visible animals Gravel, sand
Conclusion:
• Soil contains living and non-living things.
• Soil differs from place to place.
• Plastic pollutes soil.

3. Soil Profile
A vertical section of soil showing layers is called Soil Profile.
(See soil profile diagram on page 3)

Layers (Horizons):

1. A-horizon (Topsoil)
• Dark in colour
• Rich in humus
• Soft and porous
• Most roots grow here

2. B-horizon (Subsoil)
• Harder
• Less humus
• More minerals

3. C-horizon
• Small rock pieces

4. Bedrock
• Hard rock layer
Activity 9.2 – Soil in Water
Procedure:
• Mix soil in water.
• Allow to settle.

Observation:
Layers form:
• Gravel (bottom)
• Sand
• Clay
• Humus (floating)

Conclusion:
Soil has particles of different sizes.

4. Types of Soil
Soil is classified based on particle size.

Type Particle Size Properties

Sandy Large Well aerated, low water holding
Clayey Very small Holds more water, less air
Loamy Mixture Best for plants

Activity 9.3 – Making Ball, Cylinder and Ring

Observation:
• Clayey soil → Easily forms ball and ring.
• Sandy soil → Cannot form shapes.
• Loamy soil → Moderately forms shape.

Best soil for pots and toys:

Clayey soil
5. Properties of Soil
A. Percolation Rate
Definition:
Speed at which water passes through soil.
Formula:
Percolation rate = Amount of water / Time taken
Example (page 6):
200 mL in 20 minutes
Rate = 10 mL/min

Order of Percolation:
Sandy > Loamy > Clayey

B. Moisture in Soil

Activity 9.5 – Heating Soil

Observation:
Water droplets appear inside tube.
Conclusion:
Soil contains moisture.

C. Absorption of Water

Activity 9.6
Water absorbed = Initial – Final
Clayey soil:
• Highest water retention
• Lowest percolation
Sandy soil:
• Lowest water retention
 • Highest percolation

6. Soil and Crops

Different crops need different soils.

Crop Suitable Soil

Wheat Clayey / Loamy
Paddy Clayey
Cotton Sandy loam
Pulses Loamy

7. Soil Erosion
Removal of top layer by:
• Wind
• Water
• Ice
Causes:
• Deforestation
• Floods
Prevention:
• Plant trees
• Avoid deforestation
• Grow vegetation

Case Study Summary (Page 8)

Clay is used for making pots.
Horse dung is mixed because:
• It increases porosity
 • Allows water to evaporate
• Cools water in pots

KEY DIFFERENCE
Percolation Rate = Speed of water flow
Water Retention = Amount of water soil holds

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
• Humus makes soil fertile.
• Loamy soil is best for crops.
• Sandy soil has highest percolation.
• Clayey soil has highest water retention.
• Alluvial soil (North India) is fertile.

FORMULAS
Percolation Rate = Water / Time
% Moisture = (Water lost / Original weight) × 100
Example:
If 10 g lost from 100 g soil → 10%

What You Have Learnt

• Soil has layers.
• Soil types differ in properties.
• Soil supports crops.
• Soil can be polluted.
• Soil erosion must be prevented.
Exercise

1. In addition to the rock particles, the soil contains

(i) air and water
(ii) water and plants
(iii) minerals, organic matter, air and water
(iv) water, air and plants

Answer:
(iii) minerals, organic matter, air and water

2. The water holding capacity is the highest in

(i) sandy soil
(ii) clayey soil
(iii) loamy soil
(iv) mixture of sand and loam

Answer:
(ii) clayey soil

3. Match the items in Column I with Column II:

Column I → Column II
Column I Correct Match
(i) A home for living organisms (b) All kinds of soil
(ii) Upper layer of the soil (c) Dark in colour
(iii) Sandy soil (a) Large particles
(iv) Middle layer of the soil (e) Lesser amount of humus
(v) Clayey soil (d) Small particles and packed tight
4. Explain how soil is formed.
Soil is formed by the breaking down of rocks into small particles due to wind, water
and climate. This process is called weathering. Over time, humus (decayed plants
and animals) mixes with these rock particles to form soil.

5. How is clayey soil useful for crops?

• It has high water holding capacity.
• It contains more nutrients.
• It is suitable for crops like paddy.
• It retains moisture for longer time.

6. List the differences between clayey soil and sandy soil.

Clayey Soil Sandy Soil
Very small particles Large particles
High water retention Low water retention
Poor aeration Well aerated
Low percolation rate High percolation rate
Sticky when wet Non-sticky

7. Sketch the cross-section of soil and label the various layers.

Layers (Top to Bottom):
• A-horizon (Topsoil)
• B-horizon (Subsoil)
• C-horizon
• Bedrock
8. Razia conducted an experiment in the field related to the
rate of percolation. She observed that it took 40 min for 200
mL of water to percolate through the soil sample. Calculate
the rate of percolation.
Percolation Rate = Amount of water / Time
= 200 mL / 40 min
= 5 mL/min

9. Explain how soil pollution and soil erosion could be

prevented.
Soil Pollution Prevention:
• Avoid use of plastic and polythene.
• Reduce pesticides.
• Proper disposal of waste.
• Treat chemicals before releasing into soil.

Soil Erosion Prevention:

• Plant more trees.
• Prevent deforestation.
• Grow grass and vegetation.
• Use terrace farming in hilly areas.

10. Solve the crossword puzzle

Across:
2. Erosion
3. Polythene
4. Clayey
5. Earthworm
Down:
1. Wind
2. Wheat
3. Sandy
4. Horizons
 Chapter 10
Respiration in Organisms

1. Why Do We Respire?
• All living organisms need energy.
• Energy comes from food.
• The process of breakdown of food to release energy is called respiration.
• Respiration takes place in the cells → called cellular respiration.

Word Equation (Aerobic Respiration):

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

Types of Respiration
1. Aerobic Respiration
• Occurs in presence of oxygen.
• Produces more energy.
• End products: Carbon dioxide and water.

2. Anaerobic Respiration
• Occurs in absence of oxygen.
• Produces less energy.
In yeast:
Glucose → Alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
In muscle cells (during heavy exercise):
Glucose → Lactic acid + Energy

Muscle Cramps
• During heavy exercise, oxygen supply is insufficient.
 • Lactic acid accumulates.
• Causes cramps.
• Relief by massage or hot water bath → improves blood circulation and oxygen
supply.

2. Breathing
Breathing =
Inhalation + Exhalation
• Inhalation → Taking in oxygen-rich air
• Exhalation → Giving out carbon dioxide-rich air
Breathing is a part of respiration.

Breathing Rate
• Number of breaths per minute.
• One breath = One inhalation + One exhalation.
Average adult at rest: 15–18 breaths per minute.
During heavy exercise: Up to 25 breaths per minute.

Activity 10.1 – Holding Breath

Observation:
• Cannot hold breath for long.
• After releasing breath, heavy breathing occurs.
Reason:
• Body needs oxygen continuously.
• Carbon dioxide accumulates if breathing stops.
Activity 10.2 – Counting Breathing Rate
Observation:
• Breathing rate increases after brisk walking or running.
• Breathing rate decreases during rest.
Conclusion:
More energy demand → More oxygen needed → Faster breathing.

3. How Do We Breathe?
Main organs:
• Nasal cavity
• Trachea (windpipe)
• Lungs
• Ribs
• Diaphragm

Mechanism of Breathing
During Inhalation:
• Ribs move up and outward.
• Diaphragm moves down.
• Chest cavity expands.
• Air enters lungs.

During Exhalation:
• Ribs move down and inward.
• Diaphragm moves up.
• Chest cavity decreases.
• Air pushed out.
(Refer to diagram on page showing rib and diaphragm movement.)
Activity 10.5 – Model of Lungs
Bottle model:
• Balloons = Lungs
• Rubber sheet = Diaphragm
Pull sheet down → Balloons inflate
Push sheet up → Balloons deflate
This demonstrates breathing mechanism.

4. What Do We Breathe Out?

Activity 10.6 – Lime Water Test
Blow into lime water.
Observation:
• Lime water turns milky.
Reason:
Carbon dioxide + Lime water → Turns milky
Exhaled air contains:
• Less oxygen (16.4%)
• More carbon dioxide (4.4%)
Inhaled air:
• 21% oxygen
• 0.04% carbon dioxide

5. Breathing in Other Animals

1. Cockroach (Insects)
• Have spiracles (small openings).
 • Air passes through tracheae (air tubes).
• No lungs.

2. Earthworm
• Breathes through moist skin.

3. Frog
• Breathes through:
• Lungs (on land)
• Moist skin (in water)

4. Fish
• Breathe using gills.
• Gills absorb oxygen dissolved in water.

5. Whale and Dolphin

• Have lungs.
• Come to surface to breathe air.

6. Breathing in Plants
Plants also respire.
• Leaves have stomata.
• Roots absorb air from spaces between soil particles.
If a plant is overwatered:
• Air spaces fill with water.
• Roots cannot get oxygen.
 • Plant may die.

Important Concepts
• Respiration releases energy.
• Breathing is physical process.
• Respiration is chemical process.
• Oxygen is necessary for aerobic respiration.
• Increased activity → Increased breathing rate.

Difference Between Breathing and Respiration

Breathing Respiration
Physical process Chemical process
Occurs in lungs Occurs in cells
Inhalation + Exhalation Breakdown of glucose

Keywords
• Aerobic respiration
• Anaerobic respiration
• Cellular respiration
• Diaphragm
• Spiracles
• Tracheae
• Gills
• Stomata
Summary
• All organisms respire.
• Humans use lungs.
• Fish use gills.
• Insects use tracheae.
• Earthworms use skin.
• Plants respire through stomata and roots.

Exercise

1. Why does an athlete breathe faster and deeper than usual

after finishing the race?
During running, muscles need more energy.
To produce more energy, more oxygen is required.
Therefore:
• Breathing rate increases.
• Depth of breathing increases.
• More oxygen reaches cells.
• Carbon dioxide is removed quickly.

2. List the similarities and differences between aerobic and

anaerobic respiration.
Similarities:
• Both break down glucose.
• Both release energy.
• Both occur in cells.
Differences:
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen
Produces more energy Produces less energy
End products: CO₂ + Water End products: Alcohol (yeast) or Lactic acid (muscles)

3. Why do we often sneeze when we inhale dust-laden air?

Dust particles irritate the nasal lining.
Sneezing removes unwanted particles from the respiratory tract.

4. Three test tubes experiment (Snail and Water Plant)

• A → Snail
• B → Plant
• C → Snail + Plant
Snail produces carbon dioxide.
Plant absorbs carbon dioxide (in light).

Test tube with highest CO₂:

Test tube A (Snail only)

5. Tick the correct answer:

(a) In cockroaches, air enters the body through:
(iii) spiracles

(b) During heavy exercise, cramps occur due to accumulation of:

(ii) lactic acid

(c) Normal breathing rate per minute (adult at rest):

(ii) 15–18

(d) During exhalation, ribs:

(ii) move downwards
6. Match the following:
Column I Column II
(a) Yeast (iii) Alcohol
(b) Diaphragm (iv) Chest cavity
(c) Skin (i) Earthworm
(d) Leaves (v) Stomata
(e) Fish (ii) Gills
(f) Frog (vi) Lungs and skin

7. Mark True (T) or False (F):

(i) During heavy exercise breathing slows down → F
(ii) Plants photosynthesise only during day and respire only at night → F
(iii) Frogs breathe through skin and lungs → T
(iv) Fish have lungs → F
(v) Chest cavity increases during inhalation → T

8. Word Search Answers

(i) Tracheae
(ii) Ribs
(iii) Diaphragm
(iv) Stomata
(v) Spiracles
(vi) Lungs
(vii) Nostrils
(viii) Yeast
(ix) Cockroach

9. Mountaineers carry oxygen because:

Correct answer:
(b) The amount of air available to a person is less than that available on the
ground.
At high altitudes:
• Air pressure is low.
• Oxygen concentration is lower.
• Extra oxygen is required.
 Chapter 11 – Transportation in Animals and
Plants

1. Introduction
All living organisms need:
• Food
• Oxygen
• Water
These must be transported to every cell.
Wastes must also be removed.
This chapter explains:
• Transport system in animals
• Excretion in animals
• Transport system in plants
• Transpiration

2. Circulatory System in Animals

2.1 Blood
Blood is a fluid that flows in blood vessels.

Functions of Blood:
• Transports oxygen
• Carries digested food
• Removes carbon dioxide
• Removes wastes
• Protects from infection
Components of Blood:
Component Function
Plasma Liquid part; carries nutrients
Red Blood Cells (RBC) Carry oxygen
White Blood Cells (WBC) Fight germs
Platelets Help in clotting
Why is blood red?
Because RBC contain haemoglobin (red pigment).

2.2 Blood Vessels

Arteries
• Carry blood away from heart
• Thick elastic walls
• Carry mostly oxygen-rich blood

Veins
• Carry blood toward heart
• Thin walls
• Have valves
• Carry mostly carbon dioxide-rich blood

Capillaries
• Very thin vessels
• Connect arteries and veins
• Exchange of substances occurs here

Activity 11.1 – Pulse Rate

Place fingers on wrist.
Observation:
• Throbbing movement → Pulse
 • Normal pulse rate: 72–80 beats/min (adult at rest)
Conclusion:
Pulse rate = Heart rate

2.3 Heart
• Located in chest cavity
• Size ≈ closed fist
• Four chambers:
• Right atrium
• Right ventricle
• Left atrium
• Left ventricle

Function:
Acts as a pump.

Heartbeat:
Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of heart muscles.
Normal rate: 70–80 beats per minute (adult)

Activity 11.2 – Model of Stethoscope

Materials:
• Funnel
• Rubber tube
• Balloon
Observation:
You hear thumping sound.
Conclusion:
That sound is heartbeat.
3. Excretion in Animals
Excretion:
Removal of waste produced in cells.

Excretory System in Humans

Parts:
• 2 Kidneys
• 2 Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra

Functions:
• Kidneys filter blood.
• Waste removed as urine.
• Urine stored in bladder.
• Passed out through urethra.
Urine contains:
• 95% water
• 2.5% urea
• 2.5% other wastes

Dialysis
If kidneys fail, blood is purified using artificial kidney.

Excretion in Other Animals

Animal Waste
Fish Ammonia
Birds Uric acid
Humans Urea
Sweat
Contains:
• Water
• Salts
Functions:
• Removes waste
• Cools body

4. Transportation in Plants
Plants also need:
• Water
• Minerals
• Food transport

4.1 Transport of Water and Minerals

Absorbed by roots.

Root Hairs:
• Increase surface area.
• Absorb water and minerals.

Xylem:
• Vascular tissue.
• Transports water from roots to leaves.

Activity 11.3 – Red Ink Experiment

Procedure:
 • Put plant stem in red-coloured water.
• Observe next day.
Observation:
Red colour appears in stem and leaves.
Conclusion:
Water moves upward through stem via xylem.

4.2 Transport of Food

Food prepared in leaves.
Transported through:

Phloem
Function:
Carries food to all parts of plant.

5. Transpiration
Loss of water vapour from leaves.
Occurs through:
Stomata

Functions of Transpiration:
• Creates suction pull
• Helps water move upward
• Cools plant

Important Terms
• Circulatory system
• Excretion
• Xylem
 • Phloem
• Transpiration
• Haemoglobin
• Capillaries
• Dialysis
• Pulse
• Heartbeat

Exercise

1. Match the structures in Column I with functions in Column

II.
Column I Column II
(i) Stomata (b) Transpiration
(ii) Xylem (d) Transport of water
(iii) Root hairs (a) Absorption of water
(iv) Phloem (c) Transport of food

2. Fill in the blanks

(i) The blood from the heart is transported to all parts of the body by the arteries.
(ii) Haemoglobin is present in red blood cells.
(iii) Arteries and veins are joined by a network of capillaries.
(iv) The rhythmic expansion and contraction of the heart is called heartbeat.
(v) The main excretory product in human beings is urea.
(vi) Sweat contains water and salts.
(vii) Kidneys eliminate the waste materials in the liquid form called urine.
(viii) Water reaches great heights in the trees because of suction pull caused by
transpiration.
3. Choose the correct option:
(a) In plants, water is transported through:
(i) xylem

(b) Water absorption through roots can be increased by keeping the plants:
(iii) under the fan
Reason: Increased transpiration increases water absorption.

4. Why is transport of materials necessary in a plant or

animal?
Transport is necessary because:
• Every cell needs oxygen and food.
• Waste products must be removed.
• In plants, water and minerals must reach leaves.
• Food prepared in leaves must reach other parts.
Without transport, cells cannot survive.

5. What will happen if there are no platelets in the blood?

• Blood will not clot.
• Bleeding will not stop.
• Even small injuries may cause excessive blood loss.

6. What are stomata? Give two functions.

Stomata are tiny pores present on the surface of leaves.
Functions:
1. Exchange of gases.
2. Transpiration (loss of water vapour).
7. Does transpiration serve any useful function?
Yes.
Functions:
• Creates suction pull to move water upward.
• Cools the plant.
• Maintains water balance.

8. What are the components of blood?

Blood consists of:
• Plasma
• Red blood cells (RBC)
• White blood cells (WBC)
• Platelets

9. Why is blood needed by all parts of the body?

Because it:
• Supplies oxygen.
• Supplies nutrients.
• Removes carbon dioxide.
• Removes wastes.

10. What makes blood look red?

Presence of haemoglobin in red blood cells.
11. Describe the function of the heart.
• Heart acts as a pump.
• Pumps blood to lungs and body.
• Maintains circulation.
• Works continuously without rest.

12. Why is it necessary to excrete waste products?

Because:
• Wastes are toxic.
• They may damage cells.
• Accumulation can cause illness.
• Removal maintains body balance.

13. Draw a diagram of the human excretory system and label

parts.
Required labels:
• Kidney
• Ureter
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
(You can draw this neatly in exam.)
 Chapter 12 – Reproduction in Plants

1. Introduction
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of
their own kind.
In plants, reproduction occurs by two main methods:
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual reproduction

2. Modes of Reproduction
A. Asexual Reproduction
New plants are produced without seeds.
Only one parent is involved.
Types:
1. Vegetative Propagation
2. Budding
3. Fragmentation
4. Spore Formation

2.1 Vegetative Propagation

New plants grow from:
• Roots
• Stems
• Leaves
• Buds
Since vegetative parts are used → called vegetative propagation.

Activity 12.1 – Stem Cutting (Rose/Money Plant)

Procedure:
• Cut a branch with a node.
• Plant in soil.
• Water daily.
Observation:
• Roots develop.
• New leaves grow.
Conclusion:
New plant develops from stem cutting.

Example: Potato
Potato has “eyes” (buds).

Activity 12.2 – Potato

• Cut potato pieces with eyes.
• Plant in soil.
Observation:
• New shoots grow.
Conclusion:
Potato reproduces vegetatively.

Other Examples:
Plant Part Used
Ginger Stem
Turmeric Stem
Bryophyllum Leaves
 Plant Part Used
Sweet potato Root
Dahlia Root

Advantages of Vegetative Propagation

• Plants grow faster.
• Flowering occurs earlier.
• Offspring identical to parent.
• Useful in agriculture.

2.2 Budding (Yeast)

Yeast is a single-celled organism.

Activity 12.3 – Yeast

• Mix yeast + sugar + water.
• Keep in warm place.
• Observe under microscope.
Observation:
• Small outgrowth (bud) forms.
• Bud detaches → new yeast.
Conclusion:
Reproduction by budding.

2.3 Fragmentation
Seen in algae (Spirogyra).
• Alga breaks into fragments.
• Each fragment grows into new plant.
2.4 Spore Formation
Seen in:
• Bread mould
• Fern
• Moss
Spores:
• Light
• Have protective coat
• Survive unfavourable conditions
Under favourable conditions → germinate.

3. Sexual Reproduction
Involves:
• Male gamete
• Female gamete
• Fertilisation
Flower is the reproductive part.

3.1 Parts of a Flower

Male part → Stamen
• Anther (contains pollen grains)
• Filament

Female part → Pistil

• Stigma
• Style
• Ovary (contains ovules)
Unisexual Flowers
Only male or female part.
Examples:
• Papaya
• Cucumber
• Corn

Bisexual Flowers
Have both male and female parts.
Examples:
• Mustard
• Rose
• Petunia

3.2 Pollination
Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.
Types:

1. Self-pollination
Same flower or same plant.

2. Cross-pollination
Different plant of same kind.
Agents:
• Wind
• Water
• Insects
3.3 Fertilisation
Fusion of male and female gamete.
Result:
Zygote formation.
Zygote → Embryo.

4. Fruit and Seed Formation

After fertilisation:
• Ovary → Fruit
• Ovule → Seed
• Zygote → Embryo
Examples:
• Mango (fleshy fruit)
• Almond (hard fruit)

5. Seed Dispersal
Why necessary?
• Prevent overcrowding
• Reduce competition
• Help plants spread

Methods of Seed Dispersal

1. By Wind
Examples:
• Drumstick
• Maple
 • Madar
• Sunflower
Features:
• Light
• Winged
• Hairy

2. By Water
Example:
• Coconut
Features:
• Spongy outer coat

3. By Animals
Examples:
• Xanthium
• Urena
Features:
• Hooks
• Spines

4. By Explosion
Examples:
• Castor
• Balsam
Fruit bursts → seeds scatter.
Important Terms
• Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction
• Pollination
• Fertilisation
• Zygote
• Embryo
• Spore
• Budding
• Fragmentation
• Vegetative propagation
• Seed dispersal

Exercise

1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Production of new individuals from the vegetative part of parent is called
vegetative propagation.
(b) A flower may have either male or female reproductive parts. Such a flower is
called unisexual.
(c) The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same or of
another flower of the same kind is known as pollination.
(d) The fusion of male and female gametes is termed as fertilisation.
(e) Seed dispersal takes place by means of wind, water and animals.
2. Describe the different methods of asexual reproduction.
Give examples.
Asexual reproduction occurs without seeds and involves only one parent.

(i) Vegetative Propagation

New plants grow from roots, stems or leaves.
Examples: Potato, Ginger, Bryophyllum.

(ii) Budding
A small bud forms on parent organism and grows into new individual.
Example: Yeast.

(iii) Fragmentation
Organism breaks into fragments and each fragment grows into new individual.
Example: Spirogyra (algae).

(iv) Spore Formation

Spores are produced which germinate into new plants.
Examples: Bread mould, Fern, Moss.

3. Explain sexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction involves:
• Male gamete (in pollen grain)
• Female gamete (in ovule)
• Fusion of gametes (fertilisation)
Steps:
1. Pollination
2. Fertilisation
3. Zygote formation
4. Seed and fruit formation
4. Difference between asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
One parent involved Two parents involved
No seeds formed Seeds formed
Offspring identical Offspring show variation
Faster process Slower process

5. Sketch the reproductive parts of a flower.

You should draw and label:
• Anther
• Filament
• Stigma
• Style
• Ovary
• Ovule
(Neatly labeled diagram required in exam.)

6. Difference between self-pollination and cross-pollination

Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Same flower/plant Different plant
Less variation More variation
No external agent required Needs wind, insects, etc.

7. How does fertilisation take place?

• Pollen lands on stigma.
• Pollen tube grows through style.
• Male gamete reaches ovule.
• Fuses with female gamete.
• Zygote formed.
 • Zygote develops into embryo.

8. Ways of seed dispersal

(i) By Wind
Light, winged seeds.
Example: Maple, Drumstick.

(ii) By Water
Floating seeds.
Example: Coconut.

(iii) By Animals
Hooks attach to animals.
Example: Xanthium.

(iv) By Explosion
Fruit bursts open.
Example: Castor, Balsam.

9. Match the following

Column I Column II
(a) Bud (iii) Yeast
(b) Eyes (v) Potato
(c) Fragmentation (ii) Spirogyra
(d) Wings (i) Maple
(e) Spores (iv) Bread mould

10. Tick the correct answer

(a) The reproductive part of a plant is the
✔ (iv) flower
(b) The process of fusion of male and female gametes is called
✔ (i) fertilisation
(c) Mature ovary forms the
✔ (iv) fruit
(d) A spore producing organism is
✔ (ii) bread mould
(e) Bryophyllum can reproduce by its
✔ (ii) leaves
 CHAPTER 13: MOTION AND TIME

1. INTRODUCTION TO MOTION
In Class VI, we learned three types of motion:
1. Motion along a straight line (Rectilinear motion)
2. Circular motion
3. Periodic motion

Example Type of Motion

Soldiers in march past Straight line
Bullock cart on straight road Straight line
Hands of athlete in race Periodic
Pedal of bicycle Circular
Earth around Sun Circular (periodic)
Swing Oscillatory/Periodic
Pendulum Oscillatory

2. SLOW OR FAST (Section 13.1)

Some objects move faster than others.

How do we decide?
By comparing the distance covered in a given time.
• More distance in same time → Faster
• Less distance in same time → Slower
Example: Bus moves farther than bicycle in 5 minutes → Bus is faster.

3. SPEED (Section 13.2)

Definition:
Speed = Distance covered / Time taken
Speed=DistanceTime\text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Time}}
Speed=TimeDistance

Units:
• Basic unit of time = second (s)
• Basic unit of distance = metre (m)
• Basic unit of speed = m/s
• Other units:
• km/h
• m/min

Uniform Motion
Object moves with constant speed.
Distance-time graph → Straight line

Non-uniform Motion
Speed keeps changing.
Graph → Curved or irregular shape

4. MEASUREMENT OF TIME (Section 13.3)

Ancient people measured time using periodic events:
• Sunrise to sunrise = Day
• New moon to new moon = Month
• Earth revolution = Year

SIMPLE PENDULUM (Activity 13.2)

A simple pendulum consists of:
• Bob
• Thread
 • Support

Time Period:
Time taken to complete one oscillation.
Time period=Time for 20 oscillations20\text{Time period} = \frac{\text{Time for 20
oscillations}}{20}Time period=20Time for 20 oscillations
Important Observation:
• Time period remains constant for small displacement.
• Does not depend on mass of bob.

5. MEASURING SPEED (Section 13.4)

Steps:
1. Roll a ball.
2. Measure distance.
3. Measure time.
4. Calculate speed.
Speed=DistanceTime\text{Speed} = \frac{\text{Distance}}{\text{Time}}
Speed=TimeDistance

SPEEDOMETER & ODOMETER

• Speedometer → Measures speed (km/h)
• Odometer → Measures distance travelled

6. DISTANCE–TIME GRAPH (Section 13.5)

Graph has:
• X-axis → Time
• Y-axis → Distance
• Origin → (0,0)
Interpretation:
Graph Type Meaning
Straight line Uniform speed
Horizontal line Object at rest
Curved line Non-uniform motion
Distance-time graph gives information at any time.

EXERCISE

1. Classify the following as motion along a straight line, circular or oscillatory

motion:
(i) Motion of your hands while running – Oscillatory motion
(ii) Motion of a horse pulling a cart on a straight road – Straight line motion
(iii) Motion of a child in a merry-go-round – Circular motion
(iv) Motion of a child on a see-saw – Oscillatory motion
(v) Motion of the hammer of an electric bell – Oscillatory motion
(vi) Motion of a train on a straight bridge – Straight line motion

2. Which of the following are not correct?

(i) The basic unit of time is second – Correct
(ii) Every object moves with a constant speed – Not correct
(iii) Distances between two cities are measured in kilometres – Correct
(iv) The time period of a given pendulum is constant – Correct
(v) The speed of a train is expressed in m/h – Not correct

3. A simple pendulum takes 32 s to complete 20 oscillations. What is the time

period?
Time period = Total time / Number of oscillations
Time period = 32 / 20 = 1.6 s
4. The distance between two stations is 240 km. A train takes 4 hours to cover
this distance. Calculate the speed.
Speed = Distance / Time
Speed = 240 / 4 = 60 km/h

5. Odometer reading at 8:30 AM = 57321.0 km

At 8:50 AM = 57336.0 km
Distance moved = 57336 − 57321 = 15 km
Time taken = 20 minutes
Speed in km/min = 15 / 20 = 0.75 km/min
Speed in km/h = 0.75 × 60 = 45 km/h

6. Salma takes 15 minutes to reach school. Speed = 2 m/s. Find distance.

15 minutes = 15 × 60 = 900 seconds
Distance = Speed × Time
Distance = 2 × 900 = 1800 m
= 1.8 km

7. Shape of distance-time graph

(i) Car moving with constant speed – Straight line
(ii) Car parked on side road – Horizontal straight line

8. Correct relation:
Correct answer:
(ii) Speed = Distance / Time

9. The basic unit of speed is:

Correct answer:
(iv) m/s
10. A car moves:
40 km/h for 15 minutes
60 km/h for next 15 minutes
15 minutes = 0.25 hours
Distance 1 = 40 × 0.25 = 10 km
Distance 2 = 60 × 0.25 = 15 km
Total distance = 10 + 15 = 25 km
Correct answer: (ii) 25 km

11. Speed of fastest car

If 1 cm represents 100 m
Find distance moved (from figure) and divide by 10 seconds
Speed = Distance / Time
(Exact value depends on measured distance from figure.)

12. From distance-time graph, vehicle with steeper line is faster.

Vehicle A (if line is steeper)

13. Graph showing non-constant speed

Correct answer:
Curved graph
 CHAPTER 14: ELECTRIC CURRENT AND
ITS EFFECTS

1. INTRODUCTION
Electric current produces different effects when it flows through a conductor.
Main Effects:
1. Heating effect
2. Magnetic effect
Electric circuits can be represented using symbols.

2. SYMBOLS OF ELECTRIC
COMPONENTS (Section 14.1)
Common Components and Symbols:
1. Electric cell
• Longer line → Positive terminal
• Shorter line → Negative terminal
2. Battery
• Combination of two or more cells
3. Electric bulb
4. Switch
• ON position → Closed circuit
• OFF position → Open circuit
5. Connecting wire
Battery
When the positive terminal of one cell is connected to the negative terminal of
another, it forms a battery.
Examples:
• Torch
• Remote control
• Toys
• Truck batteries (large batteries contain many cells)

Activity 14.1
(Making and drawing a circuit)
Observation:
• Bulb glows only when switch is ON.
• When switch is OFF → Circuit is open → Bulb does not glow.
Conclusion:
Closed circuit → Current flows
Open circuit → No current

3. HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC

CURRENT (Section 14.2)
When electric current flows through a wire, it becomes hot.
This is called:
Heating effect of electric current

Activity 14.2
Touch bulb when:
• Switch OFF → Bulb cold
 • Switch ON → Bulb becomes warm
Conclusion:
Current produces heat.

Activity 14.3 (Nichrome Wire)

Observation:
• Wire becomes hot when current passes.
Conclusion:
Heating effect depends on:
• Material
• Length
• Thickness

Appliances Using Heating Effect

• Electric heater
• Iron
• Geyser
• Kettle
• Hair dryer
• Toaster

Electric Fuse
Fuse is a safety device.
If current exceeds safe limit:
• Fuse wire melts
• Circuit breaks
 • Prevents fire

Causes of Excess Current:

1. Short circuit
2. Overloading

MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)

• Automatically switches OFF during overload.
• Used in place of fuse.

4. MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC

CURRENT (Section 14.3)
When electric current flows through a wire, it behaves like a magnet.
Discovered by:
Hans Christian Oersted

Activity 14.5 (Compass Experiment)

Observation:
• Compass needle deflects when current flows.
Conclusion:
Current produces magnetic field.

5. ELECTROMAGNET (Section 14.4)

Electromagnet:
A coil of insulated wire wrapped around iron core.
Activity 14.6
Observation:
• Nail attracts pins when current flows.
• Stops attracting when current is OFF.
Conclusion:
Electromagnet works only when current flows.

Uses of Electromagnet
• Cranes lifting scrap
• Electric bell
• Motors
• Toys
• Removing iron pieces from eye (medical use)

6. ELECTRIC BELL (Section 14.5)

Parts:
• Electromagnet
• Iron strip
• Hammer
• Gong
Working:
1. Switch ON → Current flows
2. Electromagnet attracts iron strip
3. Hammer strikes gong
4. Circuit breaks
5. Iron strip returns
6. Process repeats → Bell rings
EXERCISE

1. Draw in your notebook the symbols to represent the following components of

an electric circuit:
(a) Electric cell
(b) Electric bulb
(c) Switch in ON position
(d) Switch in OFF position
Answer:
(Students should draw standard circuit symbols as given in the textbook.)

2. Draw the circuit diagram to represent the circuit shown in Fig. 14.21.
Answer:
Use symbols of cell, bulb, switch and connecting wires to represent the given circuit
in proper closed form.

3. Figure 14.22 shows four cells fixed on a board. Draw lines to indicate how you
will connect their terminals with wires to make a battery of four cells.
Answer:
Connect the positive terminal of the first cell to the negative terminal of the
second cell, and so on.
Leave one free positive terminal at one end and one free negative terminal at the
other end.
This forms a battery.

4. The bulb in the circuit shown in Fig. 14.23 does not glow. Can you identify the
problem? Make necessary changes in the circuit to make the bulb glow.
Answer:
Possible problems:
• Cells may not be connected properly.
• Circuit may be open.
• Switch may be OFF.
 • Loose connections.
Correction:
• Ensure proper connection of positive to negative terminals.
• Close the switch.
• Tighten loose wires.

5. Name any two effects of electric current.

Answer:
1. Heating effect
2. Magnetic effect

6. When the current is switched on through a wire, a compass needle kept

nearby gets deflected. Explain.
Answer:
When electric current flows through a wire, it produces a magnetic field around it.
This magnetic field causes the compass needle to deflect.

7. Will the compass needle show deflection when the switch in the circuit shown
by Fig. 14.24 is closed?
Answer:
Yes.
When the switch is closed, current flows through the wire, producing a magnetic
field.
The compass needle will show deflection.

8. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Longer line in the symbol for a cell represents its ______ terminal.
(b) The combination of two or more cells is called a ______.
(c) When current flows through a wire, it may get ______.
(d) An electric current can produce a ______ effect.
Answers:
(a) Positive
(b) Battery
(c) Heated
(d) Magnetic

9. Mark T or F:
(a) Electric current can heat up a wire.
(b) Electric current can produce magnetic effect.
(c) Electric fuse is a safety device.
(d) MCB works manually only.
Answers:
(a) True
(b) True
(c) True
(d) False
Correction for (d):
MCB works automatically.
 CHAPTER 15: LIGHT

1. INTRODUCTION
Light makes objects visible to us.

👉
We can see objects because:
Light reflected from objects enters our eyes.
Important ideas:
• Light travels in a straight line.
• Light can be reflected.
• Light can form images.
• White light consists of seven colours.

2. LIGHT TRAVELS ALONG A STRAIGHT

LINE (Section 15.1)
Example:
• Candle visible through straight pipe.
• Not visible through bent pipe.

✅
Conclusion:
Light travels in straight lines.

3. REFLECTION OF LIGHT (Section 15.2)

Reflection:
Change in direction of light when it strikes a mirror.
Polished surfaces act as mirrors:
• Stainless steel
• Water surface
 • Shiny metal

Activity 15.1 – Reflection with Torch and Mirror

Observation:
• Mirror changes direction of light.
• Image of slits seen in mirror.
Conclusion:
Plane mirror reflects light and forms image.

Activity 15.2 – Image of Candle in Plane Mirror

Observations:
• Image appears behind mirror.
• Image is erect.
• Same size as object.
• Cannot be obtained on screen.
Conclusion:
Image formed by plane mirror is:
• Virtual
• Erect
• Same size
• Same distance behind mirror

Activity 15.3 – Distance of Image

Observation:
Image distance = Object distance.
4. LEFT–RIGHT REVERSAL (Section 15.3)
In plane mirror:
• Right appears left.
• Left appears right.
• Image not upside down.
Example:
AMBULANCE written reversed so drivers can read it in mirror.

5. SPHERICAL MIRRORS (Section 15.4)

Types:
1. Concave mirror
2. Convex mirror

Concave Mirror
Reflecting surface curves inward.
Properties:
• Can form real or virtual image.
• Image can be magnified.
• Used by dentists.
• Used in torch reflectors.

Activity 15.6 – Sunlight on Paper (Concave Mirror)

Observation:
Bright spot formed.
Paper may burn.
Conclusion:
Concave mirror forms real image.
Activity 15.7 – Candle with Concave Mirror
Observations:
• Image can be real and inverted.
• If object close → image virtual and erect.
• Image size changes.

Convex Mirror
Reflecting surface bulges outward.
Properties:
• Always forms virtual image.
• Image smaller.
• Used as side mirrors in vehicles.

Activity 15.8 – Convex Mirror

Observation:
• Image always erect.
• Always smaller.
• Cannot get real image.

6. LENSES (Section 15.5)

Types:
1. Convex lens (thick in middle)
2. Concave lens (thin in middle)
Convex Lens
• Converging lens.
• Can form real image.
• Used as magnifying glass.

Activity 15.9 – Sunlight through Convex Lens

Observation:
Bright spot formed.
Paper may burn.
Conclusion:
Convex lens forms real image.

Activity 15.10 – Candle with Convex Lens

Observations:
• Image can be real and inverted.
• If object very close → virtual, erect, magnified.

Concave Lens
• Diverging lens.
• Always forms:
• Virtual image
• Erect image
• Smaller image

7. SUNLIGHT – WHITE OR COLOURED?

(Section 15.6)
Rainbow contains:
 • Red
• Orange
• Yellow
• Green
• Blue
• Indigo
• Violet

Activity 15.11 – Prism

Observation:
White light splits into 7 colours.
Conclusion:
White light is a mixture of seven colours.

Activity 15.12 – Newton’s Disc

Observation:
When rotated fast → appears white.
Conclusion:
Seven colours combine to form white light.

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
Real Image:
Can be obtained on screen.
Virtual Image:
Cannot be obtained on screen.
Erect Image:
Upright image.
Magnified Image:
Larger than object.

SUMMARY TABLE
Device Type of Image
Plane Mirror Virtual, erect, same size
Concave Mirror Real or virtual
Convex Mirror Always virtual, smaller
Convex Lens Real or virtual
Concave Lens Always virtual, smaller

EXERCISES

1. Fill in the blanks:

(a) An image that cannot be obtained on a screen is called virtual image.
(b) Image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual and smaller in size.
(c) An image formed by a plane mirror is always of the same size as that of the
object.
(d) An image which can be obtained on a screen is called a real image.
(e) An image formed by a concave lens cannot be obtained on a screen.

2. Mark T or F:
(a) We can obtain an enlarged and erect image by a convex mirror.
False
(b) A concave lens always forms a virtual image.
True
(c) We can obtain a real, enlarged and inverted image by a concave mirror.
True
(d) A real image cannot be obtained on a screen.
False
(e) A concave mirror always forms a real image.
False

3. Match the following:

(a) A plane mirror → (v) The image is erect and of the same size as the object.
(b) A convex mirror → (ii) Can form image of objects spread over a large area.
(c) A convex lens → (i) Used as a magnifying glass.
(d) A concave mirror → (iii) Used by dentists to see enlarged image of teeth.
(e) A concave lens → (vi) The image is erect and smaller in size than the object.

4. State the characteristics of the image formed by a plane

mirror.
Image formed by a plane mirror is:
• Virtual
• Erect
• Same size as object
• Laterally inverted (left-right reversed)
• At same distance behind mirror as object is in front

5. Letters whose mirror image appears the same:

A, H, I, M, O, T, U, V, W, X, Y
(Any symmetrical letters are correct.)

6. What is a virtual image? Give one example.

A virtual image is an image that cannot be obtained on a screen.
Example:
Image formed by a plane mirror.

7. Two differences between convex and concave lens:

Convex Lens Concave Lens
Thick in middle Thin in middle
Can form real and virtual image Always forms virtual image

8. One use each:

Concave mirror → Used by dentists to see enlarged image.
Convex mirror → Used as side mirror in vehicles.

9. Which type of mirror can form a real image?

Concave mirror

10. Which type of lens always forms a virtual image?

Concave lens

Multiple Choice (11–13)

11. A virtual image larger than the object can be produced by:
(ii) concave mirror

12. Distance between mirror and image = 4 m.

After moving 1 m towards mirror:
New object distance = 3 m
Image distance = 3 m
Total distance = 6 m
Correct answer: (iii) 6 m

13. Driver reversing car at 2 m/s.

Image appears to approach at 4 m/s.
Correct answer: (iii) 4 m/s
 Chapter 16: Water – A Precious Resource

1. Introduction
• 22 March is celebrated as World Water Day.
• UN recommends minimum 50 litres per person per day.
• Millions of people face water shortage, especially in summer.
• Year 2003: International Year of Freshwater.
Important Slogan:
“Jal Hai, To Kal Hai” (If there is water, there is future)

2. How Much Water is Available?

• About 71% of Earth’s surface is covered with water.
• Most of it is saline water (oceans & seas).
• Only a very small fraction is freshwater.
• Even smaller amount is available for human use.

Key Idea:
Only about 0.006% of total water is usable.

3. Forms of Water
Water exists in three forms:
1. Solid – Ice, glaciers, snow
2. Liquid – Rivers, lakes, groundwater, oceans
3. Gas – Water vapour
4. Water Cycle
Processes involved:
1. Evaporation
2. Condensation
3. Cloud formation
4. Precipitation
5. Transpiration
6. Infiltration
7. Groundwater recharge
Water cycle maintains balance of water on Earth.

5. Groundwater
Water Table
• Upper surface of underground water layer.
• Level below which soil pores are filled with water.

Infiltration
• Seeping of water into the ground.

Aquifer
• Underground layer that stores groundwater.

Recharge
• Rainwater refills groundwater.
6. Depletion of Water Table
Causes:

(1) Increasing Population

• More houses, roads, pavements.
• Less open area → Less seepage.

(2) Increasing Industries

• Large amount of groundwater used.

(3) Agricultural Activities

• Tube wells for irrigation.
• Overuse lowers water table.

(4) Deforestation
• Reduces infiltration.
• Increases runoff.

(5) Scanty Rainfall

7. Distribution of Water
• Uneven distribution across regions.
• Some areas: floods
• Some areas: droughts
Example:
• Assam: Heavy rainfall
• Rajasthan: Desert, very less rainfall
8. Water Management
(A) Rainwater Harvesting
• Collecting rainwater.
• Recharging groundwater.

(B) Traditional Methods

• Bawris (Stepwells)
• Check dams

(C) Drip Irrigation

• Water delivered directly to roots.
• Prevents wastage.

9. Role of Individuals
Water-wise Habits:
• Close tap while brushing.
• Repair leaking taps.
• Use bucket instead of shower.
• Reuse water where possible.
• Avoid overdrawing groundwater.

10. Effect of Water Scarcity on Plants

• Plants wilt without water.
• No water → No photosynthesis.
• No plants → No food, oxygen, rainfall.
• Life on Earth will end.
Keywords
• Aquifer
• Depletion
• Infiltration
• Recharge
• Water table
• Rainwater harvesting
• Drip irrigation

EXERCISE ANSWERS

1. True / False
(a) True
(b) False
(c) False
(d) True

2. How is groundwater recharged?

Groundwater is recharged by:
• Rainwater infiltration
• Seepage from rivers and ponds
• Percolation through soil

3. Long term impact of 10 tubewells in 50 houses?

• Excess withdrawal of groundwater
• Water table will go down
• Wells may dry up
4. How will you minimise use of water in garden?
• Use drip irrigation
• Water plants in morning/evening
• Avoid overwatering
• Reuse household water

5. Factors responsible for depletion of water table:

• Increasing population
• Industries
• Irrigation
• Deforestation
• Scanty rainfall
• Urbanisation

6. Fill in the blanks:

(a) Tube wells and hand pumps
(b) Solid, liquid and vapour
(c) Aquifer
(d) Infiltration

7. Not responsible for water shortage:

Correct answer: (iii) Heavy rainfall

8. Correct option:
(iv) Total water of the world remains constant.
9. Groundwater sketch (Label these parts):
• Surface
• Water table
• Aquifer
• Groundwater
• Hand pump
• Recharge area
(Draw labelled diagram in exam.)

Important 5-Mark Questions (Exam Ready)

Why is water called a precious resource?
• Essential for life.
• Very limited usable freshwater.
• Uneven distribution.
• Rapid depletion.
• Required for agriculture, industries, homes.

Explain rainwater harvesting.

Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting and storing rainwater for future use.
It helps:
• Recharge groundwater.
• Reduce water scarcity.
• Prevent flooding.
 Forests: Our Lifeline

1. Introduction to Forest
A forest is a large area covered mainly with trees, shrubs, herbs, animals, birds,
insects, and micro-organisms.
It is not just a collection of trees, but a complex ecosystem where living and non-
living components interact continuously.
Forests are called:
• Green lungs of the Earth
• Natural water purifiers
• Dynamic living entities

2. Structure of a Forest
Forest vegetation is arranged in layers:

(1) Canopy
• Uppermost layer formed by branches and crowns of tall trees.
• Acts like a roof over the forest.
• Receives maximum sunlight.

(2) Understorey
• Middle layer of smaller trees and shrubs.
• Grows under the canopy.

(3) Shrubs and Herbs Layer

• Lower layer.
• Includes grasses and small plants.

(4) Forest Floor

• Covered with dead leaves, twigs, fruits, seeds and animal droppings.
 • Rich in humus.
• Appears dark and moist.

3. Components of Forest Ecosystem

Forest is made up of:

(A) Producers
• Green plants.
• Prepare food by photosynthesis.

(B) Consumers
• Herbivores (deer, rabbit)
• Carnivores (tiger, lion)
• Omnivores (bear)

(C) Decomposers
• Fungi, bacteria, earthworms.
• Convert dead matter into humus.

4. Interdependence in Forest
All organisms are connected through:

(1) Food Chain

Example:
Grass → Insect → Frog → Snake → Eagle
Food chains are linked to form a food web.
If one component is disturbed, the entire system is affected.

5. Role of Decomposers
• Break down dead plants and animals.
 • Convert them into humus.
• Humus enriches soil.
• Nutrients are recycled.
• Nothing goes waste in forest.
Example: Mushrooms, bacteria.

6. Importance of Forests
(1) Maintain Oxygen–Carbon Dioxide Balance
• Plants absorb CO₂.
• Release oxygen.
• Maintain atmospheric balance.

(2) Prevent Soil Erosion

• Roots hold soil firmly.
• Prevent floods.
• Reduce land degradation.

(3) Maintain Water Cycle

• Forest canopy slows rainwater.
• Soil absorbs water like sponge.
• Helps recharge groundwater.
• Maintains water table.

(4) Regulate Climate

• Keep temperature cool.
• Increase rainfall.
• Reduce noise pollution.

(5) Provide Habitat

• Home for animals, birds and insects.
 • Provide shelter and protection.

(6) Provide Forest Products

• Timber
• Gum
• Honey
• Medicinal plants
• Oils
• Spices
• Fodder
• Fuel wood

7. Forest and Water Cycle

Forests help in:
• Evaporation and transpiration
• Cloud formation
• Rainfall
• Groundwater recharge
If forests disappear:
• Water cycle disturbed
• Less rainfall
• Floods and droughts increase

8. Seed Dispersal in Forest

Seeds are dispersed by:
• Wind
• Water
 • Animals
Animal droppings help seed germination.

9. Forest and Tribal Communities

Forest dwellers depend on forests for:
• Food
• Shelter
• Medicine
• Water
• Livelihood
Forests are their lifeline.

10. Deforestation
Deforestation means cutting down trees on a large scale.
Causes:
• Industrialization
• Urbanization
• Agriculture expansion
• Overgrazing
Effects:
• Increase in CO₂
• Global warming
• Soil erosion
• Floods
• Loss of biodiversity
11. Activities with Answers

Activity 17.1
List items at home obtained from forest:
• Wooden furniture
• Paper
• Plywood
• Matchsticks
• Gum
• Spices
• Honey
• Medicines

Activity 17.2
Observation in a forest or park:
Observed trees:
• Neem – Tall, rough bark
• Banyan – Broad crown
• Mango – Dense leaves
Characteristics:
• Different heights
• Different crown shapes
• Different leaf sizes

Activity 17.3
Does the pit feel warm? Why?
Yes.
Because decomposers break down organic waste and release heat during
decomposition.

Exercise

1. Explain how animals dwelling in the forest help it grow and regenerate.
Animals help forests in the following ways:
• Seed dispersal: Animals eat fruits and throw away or excrete seeds in different
places, helping new plants grow.
• Manure formation: Animal droppings add nutrients to the soil.
• Food chain balance: Herbivores and carnivores maintain ecological balance.
• Soil enrichment: Dead animals are decomposed and converted into humus.
Thus, animals support forest regeneration.

2. Explain how forests prevent floods.

Forests prevent floods because:
• Tree canopy slows down falling rainwater.
• Roots bind soil and prevent soil erosion.
• Forest floor absorbs water like a sponge.
• Rainwater seeps into the ground and recharges groundwater.
Hence, forests reduce surface runoff and control flooding.

3. What are decomposers? Name any two of them. What do they do in the
forest?
Decomposers are organisms that break down dead plants and animals into simpler
substances.
Examples:
 • Bacteria
• Fungi (mushrooms)
Role:
• Convert dead matter into humus.
• Recycle nutrients back into soil.
• Maintain soil fertility.
• Ensure nothing goes waste in forest.

4. Explain the role of forest in maintaining balance between oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
• Green plants absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
• They release oxygen into the atmosphere.
• Animals use oxygen and release carbon dioxide.
This natural exchange maintains atmospheric balance. Hence forests are called green
lungs.

5. Explain why there is no waste in a forest.

• Dead plants and animals are decomposed by micro-organisms.
• Animal droppings enrich soil.
• Nutrients are recycled back to plants.
• Everything is reused within the ecosystem.
Therefore, forests have a natural recycling system.

6. List five products we get from forests.

1. Timber
2. Gum
3. Honey
4. Medicinal plants
 5. Fuel wood

7. Fill in the blanks

(a) The insects, butterflies, honeybees and birds help flowering plants in pollination.
(b) A forest is a purifier of air and water.
(c) Herbs form the lowest layer in the forest.
(d) The decaying leaves and animal droppings in a forest enrich the soil.

8. Why should we worry about the conditions and issues related to forests far
from us?
• Forests influence global climate.
• They affect rainfall patterns.
• Deforestation increases carbon dioxide.
• It leads to global warming.
• Loss of forests anywhere affects life everywhere.

9. Explain why there is a need of variety of animals and plants in a forest.

• Different organisms form food chains.
• Maintain ecological balance.
• Ensure proper nutrient cycling.
• Help forest regeneration.
• Protect biodiversity.
A forest with more variety is more stable and healthy.

10. Label the diagram (Carbon cycle and water cycle in forest)
Correct labels include:
• Clouds
• Rain
 • Atmosphere
• Carbon dioxide
• Oxygen
• Plants
• Animals
• Soil
• Roots
• Water table

11. Which of the following is not a forest product?

(i) Gum
(ii) Plywood
(iii) Sealing wax
(iv) Kerosene
Answer: (iv) Kerosene

12. Which statement is not correct?

(i) Forests protect the soil from erosion.
(ii) Plants and animals in a forest are not dependent on one another.
(iii) Forests influence the climate and water cycle.
(iv) Soil helps forests to grow and regenerate.
Answer: (ii)
(Correct statement: Plants and animals in a forest are interdependent.)

13. Micro-organisms act upon dead plants to produce:

(i) Sand
(ii) Mushrooms
(iii) Humus
(iv) Wood
Answer: (iii) Humus
 Chapter 18: Wastewater Story

1. Introduction
All of us use water daily for:
• Drinking
• Bathing
• Washing clothes
• Cleaning utensils
• Flushing toilets
After use, this water becomes dirty water, called wastewater.
Wastewater contains:
• Soap
• Oil
• Dirt
• Human waste
• Chemicals
• Micro-organisms
Wastewater must be cleaned before releasing it into rivers or reusing it.

2. Water – Our Lifeline

Clean water is essential for:
• Drinking
• Cooking
• Cleaning
• Agriculture
• Industries
 • Hygiene
Many people in the world do not have access to safe drinking water.
World Water Day: 22 March
International Decade for Water for Life: 2005–2015

3. What is Sewage?
Sewage is wastewater released from:
• Homes
• Industries
• Hospitals
• Offices
• Streets during rain
Sewage contains:

(A) Organic impurities

• Human faeces
• Animal waste
• Oil
• Urea
• Food waste

(B) Inorganic impurities

• Nitrates
• Phosphates
• Metals

(C) Nutrients
• Nitrogen
• Phosphorus
(D) Microbes
• Vibrio cholerae (causes cholera)
• Salmonella (causes typhoid)
• Protozoa (causes dysentery)
Untreated sewage causes water and soil pollution.

4. Sewerage System
• Underground network of pipes called sewers.
• Sewers carry sewage to treatment plants.
• Manholes are present at intervals for cleaning and inspection.

5. Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP)

Wastewater is treated through:

Step 1: Screening
• Bar screens remove large objects:
• Rags
• Plastic
• Cans
• Napkins

Step 2: Grit and Sand Removal

• Sand, grit and pebbles settle at bottom.

Step 3: Sedimentation (Clarifier Tank)

• Solids settle at bottom → called sludge
• Oil and grease float → removed by skimmer
• Water becomes clarified water
Step 4: Anaerobic Digestion
• Sludge decomposed by anaerobic bacteria.
• Produces biogas.
• Biogas used as fuel or electricity.

Step 5: Aeration
• Air pumped into water.
• Aerobic bacteria digest waste.
• Microbes settle → activated sludge.

Step 6: Filtration and Disinfection

• Water filtered.
• Chlorine or ozone added to disinfect.
Treated water is discharged into rivers or reused.

6. By-products of Treatment
1. Sludge
• Dried and used as manure.
2. Biogas
• Used as fuel.

7. Better Housekeeping Practices

To reduce pollution:
• Do not throw oil and fats into drains.
• Do not throw chemicals into sinks.
• Do not flush solid wastes.
• Use dustbin for garbage.
 • Keep drains covered.

8. Sanitation and Disease

Poor sanitation leads to diseases:
• Cholera
• Typhoid
• Dysentery
• Polio
• Hepatitis
• Meningitis
Open defecation pollutes:
• Soil
• Surface water
• Groundwater

9. Alternative Arrangements for Sewage

Disposal
Where sewer system not available:
• Septic tanks
• Composting pits
• Chemical toilets
• Vermi-processing toilets
• Biogas plants
Example: Vermi toilet uses earthworms to decompose human waste.
10. Public Sanitation
Public places generate large waste:
• Railway stations
• Bus depots
• Fairs
• Airports
People must:
• Not litter
• Use dustbins
• Maintain hygiene

11. Activities with Answers

Activity 18.1 – Uses of Clean Water

Uses include:
• Drinking
• Cooking
• Bathing
• Washing clothes
• Cleaning utensils
• Irrigation

Activity 18.2 – Open Drain Observation

Observations:
• Colour: Black or brown
• Odour: Foul smell
 • Presence of insects
• Floating solid waste
• Dirty water with foam
Conclusion:
Drain water is polluted and unsafe.

Activity 18.3 – Sewage Route Study

Students should:
• Draw pipe system diagram.
• Count manholes.
• Observe organisms near drains (flies, mosquitoes).

Activity 18.4 – Wastewater Treatment Experiment

Observations:
(a) After aeration:
• Water appears clearer.
• Suspended particles reduced.
(b) Odour:
• Foul smell reduced.
(c) Sand filter removed:
• Solid particles.
(d) Chlorine removed:
• Killed germs.
(e) Chlorine smell:
• Slight smell present.
Conclusion:
Wastewater treatment involves aeration, filtration and disinfection.
Exercise – Chapter 18: Wastewater Story

1. Fill in the blanks

(a) Cleaning of water is a process of removing pollutants.
(b) Wastewater released by houses is called sewage.
(c) Dried sludge is used as manure.
(d) Drains get blocked by oils and fats.

2. What is sewage? Explain why it is harmful to discharge untreated sewage into

rivers or seas.
Sewage is wastewater released from homes, industries, hospitals and offices
containing human waste, food waste, chemicals and harmful microbes.
Untreated sewage is harmful because:
• It pollutes water bodies.
• Spreads water-borne diseases like cholera and typhoid.
• Kills aquatic organisms.
• Reduces oxygen in water.

3. Why should oils and fats not be released in the drain?

• They harden and block pipes.
• Choke sewer lines.
• Reduce soil’s filtering capacity.
• Interfere with wastewater treatment.

4. Describe the steps involved in getting clarified water from wastewater.

Steps:
1. Screening – Removes large objects like rags and plastic.
2. Grit removal – Sand and pebbles settle down.
 3. Sedimentation – Solid waste settles at bottom as sludge.
4. Skimming – Oil and grease removed from surface.
The water obtained after these steps is called clarified water.

5. What is sludge? Explain how it is treated.

Sludge is the solid waste that settles at the bottom of sedimentation tank.
Treatment:
• Transferred to a separate tank.
• Anaerobic bacteria decompose it.
• Produces biogas.
• Dried sludge is used as manure.

6. Untreated human excreta is a health hazard. Explain.

Untreated excreta:
• Pollutes soil and water.
• Spreads diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery and polio.
• Contaminates groundwater.
• Causes epidemics.

7. Name two chemicals used to disinfect water.

• Chlorine
• Ozone

8. Explain the function of bar screens in a wastewater treatment plant.

Bar screens:
• Remove large solid objects like sticks, plastic, rags and cans.
• Prevent damage to treatment machinery.
9. Explain the relationship between sanitation and disease.
Poor sanitation:
• Leads to contaminated water.
• Encourages breeding of flies and mosquitoes.
• Spreads water-borne diseases.
• Causes outbreaks and epidemics.
Good sanitation prevents diseases.

10. Outline your role as an active citizen in relation to sanitation.

• Do not litter in public places.
• Avoid throwing garbage in drains.
• Use toilets; discourage open defecation.
• Spread awareness about hygiene.
• Insist on covering open drains.
• Conserve and protect water sources.