@[Link].

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🐍 PYTHON · COMPLETE PROGRAMMING NOTES

Python Programming
Complete Notes
From zero to advanced — syntax, data types, OOP, file handling,
decorators, concurrency & async. Every concept, example, and diagram
in one place.

Syntax & Basics Data Types Operators Control Flow Data Structures

Functions & OOP Modules File Handling Async & Concurrency

Free resource · Save it · Share it · Follow for more 🚀

What's Inside
A complete, beginner-to-advanced Python reference. Read top to bottom, or jump to any chapter.

› 4.2.4 String Immutability

1 Introduction to Python
› 4.3 Boolean Data Type
› 1.1 History of Python › 4.3.1 True
› 1.2 What is Python? › 4.3.2 False
› 1.3 Why Learn Python? › 4.4 None Type
› 1.4 Main Features of Python › 4.5 Type Checking with type()
› 1.5 Python Version › 4.6 Type Conversion
› 1.6 How Python Code Runs › 4.7 Mutable vs Immutable Data Types
› 1.7 Compiler vs Interpreter Basics › 4.8 Simple Memory Understanding
› 4.9 Quick Revision
2 Environment Setup
› 2.1 Installing Python 5 Operators
› 2.2 Checking Python Version › 5.1 Arithmetic Operators
› 2.3 Installing VS Code › 5.2 Comparison Operators
› 2.4 Terminal and Command Line Basics › 5.3 Logical Operators
› 2.5 Python Interpreter › 5.4 Assignment Operators
› 2.6 Python REPL › 5.5 Membership Operators
› 2.7 Creating and Running .py Files › 5.6 Identity Operators
› 2.8 Virtual Environments Using venv › 5.7 Bitwise Operators
› 2.9 Installing Packages Using pip › 5.8 Operator Precedence
› 2.10 [Link]
6 String Operations
3 Python Syntax Basics
› 6.1 String Creation
› 3.1 First Python Code › 6.2 String Indexing
› 3.2 Python File Structure › 6.3 String Slicing
› 3.3 Comments › 6.4 String Methods
› 3.4 Indentation Rules › 6.5 String Formatting
› 3.5 Variables › 6.5.1 f-strings
› 3.6 Naming Conventions › 6.5.2 format() Method
› 3.7 Keywords › 6.5.3 Old% Formatting
› 3.8 Print Statements › 6.6 String Concatenation
› 3.9 Input from Users › 6.7 Escape Characters
› 3.10 Basic Program Structure › 6.8 Raw Strings
› 3.11 Common Syntax Errors › 6.9 String Multiplication
› 3.12 Quick Revision Table
7 Control Flow
4 Data Types
› 7.1 if Statement
› 4.1 Numbers › 7.2 if-else Statement
› 4.1.1 int › 7.3 elif Statement
› 4.1.2 float › 7.4 Nested Conditions
› 4.1.3 complex › 7.5 Ternary Operator
› 4.2 Strings › 7.6 match-case
› 4.2.1 String Creation › 7.7 Truthy and Falsy Values
› 4.2.2 String Indexing
› 4.2.3 String Slicing 8 Loops and Iteration

2
 › 8.1 for Loop › 9.3.9 Real-World Dictionary Use Cases
› 8.2 while Loop › 9.3.10 Nested Dictionaries
› 8.3 break › 9.3.11 Dictionary Comprehensions
› 8.4 continue › 9.3.12 Merging Dictionaries
› 8.5 pass › 9.3.13 Copying Dictionaries
› 8.6 else with Loops › 9.3.14 Dictionary vs List
› 8.7 Nested Loops › 9.3.15 Important Dictionary Operations
› 8.8 range() › 9.4 Sets
› 8.9 enumerate() › 9.4.1 Creating Sets
› 8.10 zip() › 9.4.2 Unique Values
› 8.11 Iterator Protocol Basics › 9.4.3 Set Elements Must Be Immutable
› 8.12 StopIteration › 9.4.4 Accessing Set Values
› 9.4.5 Checking Membership
9 Data Structures
› 9.4.6 Adding Set Items
› 9.1 Lists › 9.4.7 Removing Set Items
› 9.1.1 Creating Lists › 9.4.8 Set Operations
› 9.1.2 Accessing List Values › 9.4.9 Union
› 9.1.3 Updating List Values › 9.4.10 Intersection
› 9.1.4 List Methods › 9.4.11 Difference
› 9.1.5 List Slicing › 9.4.12 Symmetric Difference
› 9.1.6 List Comprehensions › 9.4.13 Subset, Superset, & Disjoint Sets
› 9.1.7 Nested Lists › 9.4.14 Set Methods
› 9.1.8 Sorting and Reversing Lists › 9.4.15 Set Operators
› 9.1.9 Copying Lists › 9.4.16 Updating Sets with Operations
› 9.1.10 Shallow Copy vs Deep Copy › 9.4.17 Copying Sets
› 9.2 Tuples › 9.4.18 Frozen Sets
› 9.2.1 Creating Tuples › 9.4.19 Set Comprehensions
› 9.2.2 Tuple Immutability › 9.4.20 Set Conversion
› 9.2.3 Tuple Packing › 9.4.21 Set vs List vs Tuple
› 9.2.4 Tuple Unpacking › 9.5 Collections Module
› 9.2.5 Named Tuples › 9.5.1 Counter
› 9.2.6 Tuple vs List › 9.5.2 defaultdict
› 9.2.7 Tuple methods › 9.5.3 OrderedDict
› 9.2.8 Tuple operations › 9.5.4 deque
› 9.2.9 Tuple packing › 9.5.5 ChainMap
› 9.2.10 Tuple unpacking
› 9.2.11 Extended Tuple Unpacking 10 Functions
› 9.2.12 Named Tuples › 10.1 What is a Function?
› 9.2.13 Tuple vs List › 10.2 Defining Functions
› 9.3 Dictionaries › 10.3 Calling Functions
› 9.3.1 Creating Dictionaries › 10.4 Parameters
› 9.3.2 Accessing Dictionary Values › 10.5 Arguments
› 9.3.3 Updating Dictionary Values › 10.6 Positional Arguments
› 9.3.4 Dictionary Methods › 10.7 Return Values
› 9.3.5 get() Method › 10.8 Returning Multiple Values
› 9.3.6 Nested Dictionaries › 10.9 Default Parameters
› 9.3.7 Dictionary Comprehensions › 10.10 Keyword Arguments
› 9.3.8 Merging Dictionaries › 10.11 *args

3
 › 10.12 **kwargs › 13.15 Virtual Environment Basics
› 10.13 *args vs **kwargs › 13.16 [Link]
› 10.14 Function Parameter Order › 13.17 Third-Party Packages
› 10.15 Docstrings › 13.18 Circular Import Warning
› 10.16 Function Naming Rules
14 Object-Oriented Programming
11 Advanced Functions › 14.1 OOP Fundamentals
› 11.1 Functions as First-Class Objects › 14.1.1 Classes
› 11.2 Lambda Functions › 14.1.2 Objects
› 11.3 map() › 14.1.3 Attributes
› 11.4 filter() › 14.1.4 Methods
› 11.5 reduce() › 14.1.5 self
› 11.6 Recursion › 14.1.6 __init__ Constructor
› 11.7 Nested Functions › 14.1.7 Instance Variables
› 11.8 Closures › 14.1.8 Class Variables
› 11.9 Function Annotations › 14.1.9 Methods vs Functions
› 11.10 Higher-Order Functions › 14.2 OOP Principles
› 14.2.1 Encapsulation
12 Scope and Namespaces
› 14.2.2 Inheritance
› 12.1 Local Scope › 14.2.3 Method Overriding
› 12.2 Global Scope › 14.2.4 Polymorphism
› 12.3 Local vs Global Scope › 14.2.5 Duck Typing
› 12.4 Variable Shadowing › 14.2.6 Abstraction
› 12.5 global Keyword › 14.2.7 Composition
› 12.6 Enclosing Scope › 14.3 Special Methods
› 12.7 nonlocal Keyword › 14.3.1 __str__
› 12.8 Built-in Scope › 14.3.2 __repr__
› 12.9 LEGB Rule › 14.3.3 __len__
› 12.10 Namespace Concept › 14.3.4 __getitem__
› 12.11 locals() and globals() › 14.3.5 __add__
› 12.12 NameError & UnboundLocalError › 14.3.6 __sub__
› 12.13 Important Scope Summary Table › 14.3.7 __call__
› 14.3.8 __enter__ & __exit__
13 Modules and Packages
› 14.3.9 Context Manager Real Use
› 13.1 Importing Modules
› 14.3.10 Operator Overloading
› 13.2 Different Ways to Import
› 14.3.11 Magic Methods / Dunder Methods
› 13.3 Standard Library Modules
› 14.3.12 Reverse and In-place Operator Methods
› 13.4 Creating Your Own Modules › 14.3.13 __bool__
› 13.5 Importing Specific Code from Your Own › 14.3.14 __iter__ and __next__
Module
› 14.3.15 __contains__
› 13.6 Module Search Path
› 13.7 Exploring a Module with dir() 15 Advanced OOP in Python
› 13.8 __name__ == "__main__" › 15.1 @classmethod
› 13.9 Package Structure › 15.2 Class Method as Alternate Constructor
› 13.10 __init__.py › 15.3 @staticmethod
› 13.11 Absolute Imports › 15.4 Instance Method vs Class Method vs Static
› 13.12 Relative Imports Method
› 13.13 Package Management Basics › 15.5 @property
› 13.14 pip Basics
4
 › 15.6 @property Setter › 16.3.4 JSON Files
› 15.7 Read-only Property › 16.3.5 [Link]() vs [Link]()
› 15.8 Abstract Base Classes › 16.3.6 XML Files
› 15.9 Why Abstract Base Classes Are Used
17 Advanced Python Concepts
› 15.10 Mixins
› 15.11 Mixin vs Normal Parent Class › 17.1 Decorators
› 15.12 Metaclasses › 17.1.1 Decorators
› 15.13 Data Classes › 17.1.2 Function Decorators
› 15.14 Normal Class vs Data Class › 17.1.3 Decorators with Function Arguments
› 15.15 Default Values in Data Classes › 17.1.4 [Link]
› 15.16 Mutable Defaults in Data Classes › 17.1.5 Decorators with Arguments
› 15.17 Frozen Data Classes › 17.1.6 Multiple Decorators
› 17.1.7 Class Decorators
16 File Handling and Error Management › 17.1.8 Built-in and Standard Decorators
› 16.1 File Operations › 17.2 Generators and Iterators
› 16.1.1 File Handling › 17.2.1 Generators and Iterators
› 16.1.2 Opening Files › 17.2.2 Iterable vs Iterator
› 16.1.3 Closing Files › 17.2.3 Iterator Protocol
› 16.1.4 Reading Files › 17.2.4 __iter__
› 16.1.5 Reading Line by Line › 17.2.5 __next__
› 16.1.6 Writing Files › 17.2.6 Generator Functions
› 16.1.7 Appending Files › 17.2.7 yield
› 16.1.8 File Modes › 17.2.8 Generator Expressions
› 16.1.9 with Statement › 17.2.9 yield from
› 16.1.10 File Object Methods › 17.2.10 One-time Consumption of Iterators
› 16.1.11 Binary Files › 17.2.11 itertools
› 16.1.12 File Paths › 17.2.12 Memory Efficiency
› 16.1.13 Basic os Module › 16.3 Context Managers
› 16.1.14 Basic pathlib Module › 16.3.1 __enter__
› 16.1.15 Encoding › 16.3.2 __exit__
› 16.2 Exception Handling › 16.3.3 Custom Context Manager Using Class
› 16.2.1 try-except › 16.3.4 contextlib
› 16.2.2 Catching Exception Object › 16.3.5 @contextmanager
› 16.2.3 Multiple except Blocks › 16.3.6 Resource Management
› 16.2.4 Handling Multiple Exceptions Together › 16.4 Regular Expressions
› 16.2.5 else in Exception Handling › 16.4.1 re Module
› 16.2.6 finally › 16.4.2 Pattern Matching
› 16.2.7 try-except-else-finally Flow › 16.4.3 Regex Metacharacters
› 16.2.8 Raising Exceptions › 16.4.4 Common Regex Character Classes
› 16.2.9 Re-raising Exceptions › 16.4.5 Groups and Capturing
› 16.2.10 Custom Exceptions › 16.4.6 Non-capturing Groups
› 16.2.11 Exception Hierarchy › 16.4.7 search()
› 16.2.12 Bare except Warning › 16.4.8 match()
› 16.2.13 File Handling with Exception Handling › 16.4.9 fullmatch()
› 15.3 File Formats › 16.4.10 findall()
› 16.3.1 Text Files › 16.4.11 finditer()
› 16.3.2 CSV Files › 16.4.12 sub()
› 16.3.3 [Link] vs [Link] › 16.4.13 split()

5
 › 16.4.14 [Link]() › 17.3 Concurrent Futures
› 17.3.1ThreadPoolExecutor
17 Concurrent and Asynchronous
› 17.3.2 ProcessPoolExecutor
Programming › 17.3.3Futures
› 17.1 Multithreading › 17.3.4Async Programming
› 17.1.1 threading Module › 17.4 Async Programming
› 17.1.2 Creating Threads › 17.4.1 asyncio
› 17.1.3 Managing Threads › 17.4.2 async and Coroutines
› 17.1.4 Race Conditions › 17.4.3 await
› 17.1.5 Locks › 17.4.4 Event Loop
› 17.1.6 Synchronization › 17.4.5 Tasks
› 17.2 Multiprocessing › 17.4.6 [Link]()
› 17.1.1 Managing Processes › 17.4.7 Async Futures
› 17.1.2 Process Pools › 17.4.8 Async Context Managers
› 17.1.3 Memory Sharing Basics › 17.4.9 Async vs Threading vs Multiprocessing
› 17.1.4 Concurrent Futures

1 Python Overview

1.1 History of Python

Python was created by Guido van Rossum.

He started working on Python in the late 1980s, and Python was first released in 1991.
The language was designed to be simple, readable, and easy to use. Guido wanted Python code to look
clean and understandable, so programmers could focus more on solving problems instead of writing
complicated syntax.
Python’s name does not come from the snake. It was inspired by a British comedy show called “Monty
Python’s Flying Circus.”
Over time, Python became popular because it was easy for beginners and powerful for professionals.
Today, Python is used in many fields like:
● Web development ● Automation ● Data science ● Artificial intelligence ● Machine learning ● Testing ●
Scripting ● Backend development

1.2 What is Python?

Python is a high-level, general-purpose programming language.

It is used to write programs for automation, web development, data handling, artificial intelligence,
machine learning, scripting, testing, and many other [Link] is popular because its syntax is
simple and easy to read.
Example:

6
PYTHON CODE print("Hello, World!")
Output: Hello, World! Python files are saved with the .py extension. Example: [Link], [Link], [Link]

1.3 Why Learn Python?

Python is easy to start with and powerful enough for real-world projects.
Python is useful because:
● It is beginner-friendly. ● It is used in many industries. ● It has simple syntax. ● It has many libraries. ●
It is good for automation. ● It is widely used in AI, data science, and backend development.

1.4 Main Features of Python

Feature Meaning

Easy syntax Python code is simple and readable

High-level We do not need to deal directly with machine-level details

Interpreted Python code runs using the Python interpreter

Dynamically typed No need to declare variable type manually

Object-oriented Supports classes and objects

Cross-platform Runs on Windows, macOS, and Linux

Large library support Many built-in and external libraries are available

Open-source Free to use

1.5 Python Version

For modern learning, use Python 3 . Python 2 is oldand should not be used for new learning.
To check Python version, use:
python --version or: python3 --version
Example output: Python 3.12.5

1.6 How Python Code Runs

◆ Basic flow:

Python Code → Python Interpreter → Output

More accurate flow:

7
Source Code → Bytecode → Python Virtual Machine → Output
For now, remember:
● Python code is written in .py files. ● Python interpreter reads and runs the code. ● Python runs code
from top to bottom. ● Output is shown on the screen.

1.7 Compiler vs Interpreter Basics

Before code runs, it must be translated into a form the computer can understand.
There are two common translators:
● Compiler

● Interpreter Compiler

A compiler translates the whole program before running it.

Flow: Source Code → Compiler → Executable File → RunProgram
Examples of compiled languages:
● C ● C++ ● Go ● Rust

Interpreter
An interpreter runs code more directly.
Flow: Source Code → Interpreter → Output
Python is commonly called an interpreted language.
Compiler vs Interpreter

Point Compiler Interpreter

Translation Translates full code before running Runs code more directly

Speed Usually faster after compilation Usually slower

Error checking Many errors found before running Errors can appear while running

Examples C, C++, Go, Rust Python, JavaScript, Ruby

2 Environment Setup

Environment setup means preparing your computer so you can write, run, and manage Python
programs properly.
For Python development, we mainly need:

8
1. Python installed on the system 2. A code editor like VS Code 3. Terminal/Command Prompt basics 4.
Package manager pip 5. Virtual environment setup using venv

◆ Basic setup flow:

Install Python
↓ Check Python Version
↓ Install VS Code
↓ Write Python Code
↓ Run Python File
↓ Use venv and pip for Projects

2.1 Installing Python

The safest way is to download Python from the official Python website. The official Python downloads
page provides the latest stable Python release and installers for different operating systems.
For Windows
1. Go to the official Python website. 2. Download the latest stable Python 3 installer. 3. Open the
installer. 4. Select Add [Link] to PATH. 5. Click Install Now. 6. Wait for installation to complete. 7.
Open Command Prompt and check the version.
Important: Always tick: Add [Link] to PATH
This option allows you to run Python from the terminal.
For macOS
Steps:
1. Download the macOS installer from the official Python website. 2. Open the .pkg file. 3. Follow the
installation steps. 4. Open Terminal. 5. Check Python version.
Command: python3 --version
For Linux
Many Linux systems already come with Python installed.
Check version: python3 --version
For Ubuntu/Debian-based systems, Python can usually be installed with:
sudo apt update sudo apt install python3 python3-pip python3-venv

2.2 Checking Python Version

Windows python --version or: py --version macOS/Linux python3 --version

9
2.3 Installing VS Code

VS Code is a code editor used to write and run Python code. Python itself runs the code, but VS Code
helps us write code easily.
Steps to Install VS Code
1. Download VS Code from the official website. 2. Install it. 3. Open VS Code. 4. Go to Extensions. 5.
Search for Python. 6. Install the official Python extension by Microsoft. 7. Open a Python file. 8. Select
Python interpreter if VS Code asks.
Creating First Python File in VS Code
Create a file: [Link]

Write:

Run the file.

Output
Ways to Run Python in VS Code
You can run Python code by:
1. Clicking the Run button. 2. Right-clicking and selecting Run Python File in Terminal. 3. Opening
terminal and running:
python [Link] or: python3 [Link]
VS Code’s Python extension provides multiple ways to run Python files, including the “Run Python File in
Terminal” option.
Bad file names: [Link], [Link], [Link] Better file names: number_game.py,
student_report.py,[Link]

2.4 Terminal and Command Line Basics

The terminal / command prompt is a place where we type commands to interact with the computer.

Windows macOS/Linux
Task Meaning
Command Command

Check current pwd pwd Shows the current folder/location in

folder terminal

List files and dir ls Shows files and folders inside the
folders current folder

Change folder cd folder name _ cd folder name _ Moves into a folder

Go back one cd .. cd .. Moves one level back

folder

10
 Create folder mkdir python- mkdir python-notes Creates a new folder named python-
notes notes

Clear terminal cls clear Clears the terminal screen

Running a Python File from Terminal

Suppose your file name is:
[Link]
Run it using: python [Link] or: python3 [Link]
Example file:
PYTHON CODE
print("Terminal is running Python")
Output: Terminal is running Python

2.5 Python Interpreter

The Python interpreter is the program that reads and runs Python code.
When we write: print("Hello")
the computer does not understand this directly.
The Python interpreter reads this code and executes it.
Basic flow: Python Code → Python Interpreter → Output

2.6 Python REPL

REPL stands for:

● Read ● Evaluate ● Print ● Loop

Python REPL allows us to run Python code line by line. It is useful for quick testing.
Opening Python REPL
Windows: python or: py
macOS/Linux: python3
You may see something like: >>>

This means Python REPL is ready.

REPL Example
>>> 10 + 20 30 >>> print("Hello") Hello >>> name = "Aman" >>> name 'Aman'
Exiting Python REPL
Use: exit()
or press:

11
Ctrl + Z then Enter on Windows Ctrl + D on macOS/Linux
REPL vs Python File

REPL Python File

Used for quick testing Used for complete programs

Code is not saved automatically Code is saved [Link]

Runs line by line Runs full file

Good for experiments Good for projects

When to Use REPL

Use REPL for:
● Testing small calculations ● Checking syntax ● Trying functions ● Quick experiments

2.7 Creating and Running .py Files

A Python file is a file that contains Python code. Python files use the .py extension.
Examples:
[Link], [Link], [Link], student_app.py Creating a Python File
Steps:
1. Create a project folder. 2. Open it in VS Code. 3. Create a new file. 4. Save it with the .py extension. 5.
Write Python code. 6. Run the file.
Example File
File name: [Link]
Code:
PYTHON CODE
print("Hello, Python") print("This is my first Python file")

Run:

python [Link] OR python3 [Link]

▶ Output:

Hello, Python This is my first Python file

Python Runs File Top to Bottom
PYTHON CODE
print("Start") name = "Nishchal" print("Name:", name) print("End")

12
Output:
Start Name: Nishchal End Common Mistakes
● Saving file as [Link]. ● Forgetting .py extension. ● Running the wrong file. ● Writing Python code
in the terminal instead of a file. ● Not saving file before running. ● Giving file names with spaces.
Bad: my first python [Link]
Good: first_python_file.py
Best Practices
● Use lowercase file names. ● Use underscores for multiple words. ● Keep one project in one folder. ●
Save before running. ● Keep file names meaningful.

2.8 Virtual Environments Using venv

A virtual environment is an isolated environment for a Python project. It keeps project packages
separate from other projects.
Python’s official documentation says venv is the standard tool for creating virtual environments, and
each virtual environment has its own independent set of installed Python packages.
Why Virtual Environment is Needed
Suppose you have two projects:
Project A needs package version 1.0 Project B needs package version 2.0
If both projects use the same global Python environment, package conflicts can happen.
Virtual environments solve this problem.
Computer Python
↓ Project A → venv → packages for Project A Project B → venv → packages for Project B Project C →
venv → packages for Project C

2.9 Installing Packages Using pip

pip is Python’s package installer. It is used to install external libraries.

Python’s official installing guide describes PyPI as a public repository of open-source packages, and
pip is used to install packages fromit.
What is a Package?
A package is reusable code created by someone [Link] of writing everything from scratch, we
can install packages.
Example packages:

Package Use

requests Working with APIs

13
 pandas Data analysis

numpy Numerical computing

flask Web development

django Web development

pytest Testing

Check pip Version

pip --version or: python -m pip --version
On macOS/Linux: python3 -m pip --version
Install a Package
Example: pip install requests
Better command: python -m pip install requests
On macOS/Linux: python3 -m pip install requests
Why python -m pip is Better
This makes sure pip installs the package for the same Python interpreter you are using. This is helpful
when multiple Python versions are installed.
List Installed Packages
pip list or: python -m pip list

2.10 [Link]

[Link] is a file that stores the list of packages used in a Python project.
It helps other people install the same packages easily.
Example: requests==2.32.3 pandas==2.2.2 numpy==2.0.1
Why [Link] is Important
Suppose you create a project and install many packages. Later, you share the project with another
person. Instead of telling them every package manually, you give them [Link] . They can
install everything usingone command.
Create [Link]

After installing packages, run:

pip freeze > [Link]

or:

python -m pip freeze > [Link]

14
This creates a file like:
requests==2.32.3 urllib3==2.2.2 certifi==2024.7.4
Install Packages from [Link]

Use: pip install -r [Link]

or:

python -m pip install -r [Link]

Example Project Structure
weather_app/ │ ├── [Link] ├── [Link] └── venv/

3 Python Syntax Basics

Python syntax means the set of rules used to write Python programs.
Just like English has grammar, Python also has grammar. If we do not follow Python syntax rules, the
program gives an error Python is beginner-friendly because its syntax is simple, readable, and close to
normal English.

✎ Example:

Output: Hello, World! 3.1 First Python Code

The first Python program usually starts with printing a message on the screen.

Output: Hello, World!

Part Meaning

print Built-in Python function used to display output

() Parentheses used to pass data to the function

"Hello, World!" Text value, also called a string

15
 ◆ Diagram:

✎ Another example:

▶ Output:

Welcome to Python Python is easy to learn

Each print() statement displays output on a new lineby default.

3.2 Python File Structure

Python programs are usually saved with the .py extension.

Example: [Link]
Inside [Link]:

16
A Python file can be very simple. It may contain only one line of code. But in larger programs, we
usually follow a clean structure.

Basic file structure:

◆ Diagram:

17
 ★ Important point:

Python does not force a fixed file structure for small programs. But writing code in a clean order makes
it easier to read and maintain.

3.3 Comments

Comments are notes written inside a program. Python ignores comments while running the code
Comments are useful for explaining what the code does.

Single-Line Comment

Output: Hello Python

The line starting with # is ignored by Python.

18
Inline Comment

Output: 20

Multi-Line Comments

Python does not have a special multi-line comment symbol. The recommended way is to use # on each
line.

Output: 30
Triple quotes can also be used for multi-line text, but technically they create a string.

19
Output: Program started Best practice for beginners: use # for comments. 3.4 Indentation Rules
Indentation means spaces at the beginning of a line. Python uses indentation to define code blocks. In
many languages, curly braces {} are usedto define blocks. Python uses indentation instead.
Example:

Output: 10 is greater than 5 Here, the print() line is indented because it belongsto the if block.

20
 ▶ Output:

You are eligible to vote Please carry your ID Program finished

Explanation:

if age >= 18: This checks the condition.

print("You are eligible to vote") print("Please carry your ID")
These two lines are indented, so they are inside the if block.
print("Program finished") : This line is not indented,so it is outside the if block.

Wrong Indentation

Error: IndentationError: expected an indented block

Correct code:

21
Important Indentation Rules

Use 4 spaces for indentation.

Avoid mixing tabs and spaces. Wrong style:

Python may give an error if tabs and spaces are mixed.

3.5 Variables

A variable is a name used to store data.

Example:

▶ Output:

Rahul 21 5.8
Variable Name Value name ------> "Rahul" age ------> 21 height ------> 5.8
Basic syntax: variable_name = value
Example:

22
 Variable Value Type

city "Delhi" String

marks 85 Integer

is_passed True Boolean

Python Variables Do Not Need Type Declaration

In Python, we do not need to write the data type before the variable name.

Output: 10
Python In the first line, x stores an integer. Later, x stores a string. This is allowed because Python is
dynamically typed. Multiple Variable Assignment

23
Output: 10 20 30 Same Value to Multiple Variables

Output: 100 100 100 3.6 Naming Conventions

Variable names should be meaningful and easy to understand. Good variable names:

Bad variable names:

These names are not always wrong, but they are less clear. Rules for Naming Variables

Rule Valid Example Invalid Example

Can contain letters name —

Can contain numbers student1 1student

Can contain underscore _ student name _ student-name

Cannot contain spaces first name _ first name

24
 Cannot use keywords course name _ class

Case-sensitive name,Name —

Valid variable names:

Invalid variable names:

Python Naming Convention

Python commonly uses snake_case for variable names.

Naming Style Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

25
 snake case _ student name _ total marks _ user email _

camelCase studentName totalMarks userEmail

PascalCase StudentName TotalMarks UserEmail

PascalCase StudentName TotalMarks UserEmail 3.7 Keywords

Keywords are reserved words in Python. They already have special meaning, so we cannot use them as
variable names. Some common Python keywords:
1. if 2. else 3. for 4. while 5. class 6. def 7. return 8. True 9. False [Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]
[Link] [Link] [Link] [Link]

✎ Wrong example:

This gives an error because class is a keyword.

✎ Correct example:

Checking Python Keywords

Python provides a built-in module called keyword.

This prints the list of Python keywords. To check whether a word is a keyword:

26
Output: True
False

3.8 Print Statements

The print() function is used to display output onthe screen. Basic Print

Output: Hello Python Printing Numbers

Output: 100 25.75 Printing Variables

Output: Sneha 22 Printing Text with Variables

27
Output: Name: Arjun Age: 20 Printing Multiple Values

Output: A = 10 B = 20 Using f-strings

f-strings are a clean way to insert variables inside text.

Output: My name is Priya and I am 19 years old.

Another example

Output: The price of Laptop is ₹ 55000.

Print with Separator

The sep parameter controls how multiple values are separated.

28
Output: Python | Java | C++
Default separator is a space.

Output: Python Java C++ Print with End Parameter

By default, print() moves to a new line after printing.

▶ Output:

Hello
Python

Using end:

Output: Hello Python

Another example:

29
Output:
A-B-C

3.9 Input from Users

The input() function is used to take input from theuser.

✎ Example:

Example output: Enter your name: Aman

Hello Aman

Important Point

The input() function always returns data as a string.

Example output: Enter your age: 21 21 <class 'str'> Even though the user entered 21 , Python stores itas
"21".

Taking Integer Input

To convert input into an integer, use int().

30
Example output: Enter your age: 21 Your age is: 21 <class 'int'> Taking Float Input
To convert input into decimal number, use float().

Example output: Enter product price: 99.50 Price is: 99.5 <class 'float'> Example: Add Two Numbers

Example output: Enter first number: 10

Enter second number: 20 Sum is: 30 What Happens Without int() ?

Example output: Enter first number: 10 Enter second number: 20 1020 Here, Python joins the two
strings. It does not performmathematical addition because both values are strings. Correct version:

31
Output: 30

3.10 Basic Program Structure

◆ A basic Python program usually follows this flow:

Start
| v Take input / define data
| v Process data
| v Display output
| v End Simple structure:

Example: Student Marks Program

32
Example output: Enter student name: Ravi Enter math marks: 80 Enter science marks: 90 Enter English
marks: 85 Student Name: Ravi Total Marks: 255 Average Marks: 85.0

3.11 Common Syntax Errors

Syntax errors happen when Python cannot understand the code because syntax rules are broken.

1. Missing Parentheses in print()

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE print "Hello"

Error: SyntaxError: Missing parentheses in call to'print' Correct:

PYTHON CODE print("Hello")

2. Missing Colon

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE
age = 20
if age >= 18

33
print("Eligible")

Correct:

PYTHON CODE
age = 20
if age >= 18:
print("Eligible")
A colon: is required after statements like: if, else,elif, for, while, def, class, try, except, finally

3. Wrong Indentation

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE
if True: print("Hello")

Correct:

PYTHON CODE if True:

print("Hello")

4. Using Keyword as Variable Name

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE for = 10

Correct:

PYTHON CODE number = 10

5. Variable Used Before Assignment

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE
print(name) name = "Aman"
Error: NameError: name 'name' is not defined Correct:

PYTHON CODE name = "Aman" print(name)

Python reads code from top to bottom. So the variable must be created before using it.

34
6. Missing Quotes Around String

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE name = Aman

Python thinks Aman is a variable. Correct:

PYTHON CODE
name = "Aman"

7. Mismatched Quotes

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE message = "Hello Python'

Correct:

PYTHON CODE message = "Hello Python"

Also correct:

PYTHON CODE message = 'Hello Python'

8. Invalid Variable Name

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE student-name = "Nishchal"

Correct:

PYTHON CODE student_name = "Nishchal"

9. Type Conversion Error

Code:

PYTHON CODE age = int(input("Enter your age: "))

If the user enters: twenty Python gives: ValueError: invalid literal for int() Correct input should be
numeric: 20

10. Unclosed Parentheses

⚠ Wrong:

35
PYTHON CODE print("Hello Python"

Correct:

PYTHON CODE print("Hello Python")

11. Extra Closing Bracket

⚠ Wrong:

PYTHON CODE print("Hello"))

Correct:

PYTHON CODE print("Hello")

3.12 Quick Revision Table

Topic Key Point

First Python code Usually starts withprint("Hello, World!")

Python file Saved [Link]

Comments Written using#

Indentation Defines code blocks in Python

Variables Used to store data

Naming convention Prefer meaningfulsnake casenames _

Keywords Reserved words that cannot be used as variable names

print() Displays output

input() Takes user input as string

int() Converts value to integer

float() Converts value to decimal number

Syntax errors Occur when Python rules are broken

36
 4 Data Types in Python

A data type tells Python what kind of value a variableis storing.

Example:

Variable Value Data Type

name "Rahul" String

age 21 Integer

price 99.50 Float

is active _ True Boolean

Simple meaning: Data type = Type/category of data stored in a variable

Example:

37
Output: <class 'int'>
This means x is storing an integer value.

4.1 Numbers

Numbers are used to store numeric values. Python mainly has three number types:

4.1.1 int

int means integer . Integers are whole numbers. Theydo not have decimal points.
Examples:

38
Output: 21 95 -5 0
All these values are integers.

Output: <class 'int'>

Examples of int

Important point: 10 is int 10.0 is not int, it is float

Output: <class 'int'> <class 'float'>

4.1.2 float
float means floating-point number . Float values containdecimal points.

39
Output: 99.5 5.8 -2.5 85.75

Checking type:

Output: <class 'float'>

Examples of float

40
 ★ Important point:

Python may display 99.50 as 99.5.

Example:

Output: 99.5
This does not mean the value is wrong. Python simply removes the unnecessary zero at the end.

4.1.3 complex
complex numbers are numbers with two parts:
Real part + Imaginary part
In mathematics, complex numbers are usually written like this:
3 + 4i
But in Python, we use j instead of i.
Python complex number:

41
Output: (3+4j) <class 'complex'> Here: 3 = real part and 4j = imaginary part

✎ More examples:

42
Output: (2+5j)
(10+0j) (-3+7j) You can access real and imaginary parts like this

Output: 3.0 4.0 Important point: Python uses j for complex numbers, not i. Wrong:

Correct:

4.2 Strings

A string is a sequence of characters. Characters can be: Letters, Numbers, Symbols, Spaces
Examples:

Even though the phone contains numbers, it is inside quotes, so it is a string.

43
Output: <class 'str'>

4.2.1 String Creation

Strings can be created using quotes.

Using Double Quotes

Output: Aman

44
Using Single Quotes

Output: Aman Both are correct.

Output: Python Python

Using Triple Quotes

Triple quotes are used for multi-line strings.

Output: Python is simple. Python is powerful. Python is beginner-friendly.

You can also use triple single quotes:

45
 ▶ Output:

Hello
Welcome to Python

Empty String

A string can also be empty.

Output:
<class 'str'>
There is no visible text in the first output because the string is empty.

4.2.2 String Indexing

Indexing means accessing a single character from a string. Every character in a string has a position
number. This position number is called an index.

✎ Python indexing starts from 0. Example:

◆ Index diagram:

46
 Code:

Output: P y t h o n Positive Indexing

Positive indexing starts from the left side.

✎ Example:

47
Output: Phn

Negative Indexing

Negative indexing starts from the right side.

✎ Example:

Output: n o P

★ Important:

-1 means last character and -2 means second last character

48
Index Error

If you try to access an index that does not exist, Python gives an error.

Error: IndexError: string index out of range

Why?
"Python" has indexes from 0 to 5 only. Index 10 does not exist.

4.2.3 String Slicing

Slicing means taking a part of a string.

Syntax:string[start:end]

start index is included. end index is excluded

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE
word = "Python"
print(word[0:2])

▶ Output:

Py

Explanation:

49
 ✎ More examples: ✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE
word = "Python"
print(word[0:4])
print(word[1:4])
print(word[2:6])
Output: Pyth yth thon Leaving Start Empty
If start is empty, Python starts from the beginning.

▶ Output:

Pyt
Meaning:
Start from beginning
Stop before index 3 Leaving End Empty
If end is empty, Python goes till the end.

50
Output: thon
Meaning: Start from index 2 and Go till the end Full Slice

Output: Python
This returns the full string. Slicing with Negative Index

Output: hon

Slicing with Step

Syntax:

✎ Example:

51
Output: Pto Explanation: Start at index 0, Go before index 6, Pick every 2nd character

Reverse string using slicing:

Output: nohtyP Explanation: [::-1] means read the string from right to left 4.2.4 String Immutability
Strings in Python are immutable. Immutable means: Once created, it cannot be changed directly. name
= "Ravi" Index diagram:

Suppose we want to change R to K . This will not work:

52
Error: TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment Why? Because strings cannot be
changed character by character.

Correct Way

You can create a new string and store it again.

PYTHON CODE
name = "Ravi" name = "Kavi" print(name)
Output: Kavi Important understanding: Old string: "Ravi" New string: "Kavi" Python does not modify
the old string. It creates a new string. Diagram:

So this is allowed: name = "Ravi" name = "Kavi" But this is not allowed: name[0] = "K" Because
changing one character inside the same string is not possible.

4.3 Boolean

Boolean is a data type that has only two possible values:

● True ● False Boolean type is written as: bool

53
Output: True False

Checking type:

Output: <class 'bool'>

◆ Diagram:

4.3.1 True

True represents yes, correct, active, available, or enabled.

Example:

54
 ▶ Output:

True
True
True
Important: True must start with capital T.
Correct: is_active = True
Wrong: is_active = true
Python will not understand true because Python uses True.

4.3.2 False
False represents no, incorrect, inactive, unavailable, or disabled.

55
Output: False False False Important: False must start with capital F. Correct: is_active = False
Wrong: is_active = false Python uses False , not false.

4.4 None Type

None means no value or empty value . It is used when a variable exists, but it does not currently store
any actual value.

Output:None
<class 'NoneType'>
● None is not 0. None is not an empty string.

● None is not False. None means no value.

Value Meaning

0 A number

"" Empty string

False Boolean false

None No value

56
Output:
0
False
None
There is a blank line after 0 because name is an empty string.
Diagram:

✎ Example:

57
Output: None

Later, the variable can store a real value:

▶ Output:

None
Aman
Important: None must start with capital N.
Correct:

Wrong:

4.5 Type Checking with type()

The type() function is used to check the data typeof a value or variable.
Syntax:

58
 ✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE
age = 21 print(type(age))
Output: <class 'int'>

Checking Different Data Types

Output: <class 'int'> <class 'float'> <class 'str'> <class 'bool'> <class 'NoneType'> <class 'complex'>

59
 ✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE x = "100" print(x) print(type(x))

▶ Output:

100
<class 'str'>
Even though it looks like a number, it is inside quotes, so it is a string.

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE x = 100

print(x)
print(type(x))
Output: 100
<class 'int'>
Here, 100 is not inside quotes, so it is an integer.

4.6 Type Conversion

Type conversion means changing one data type into another. Example: String "100" ---> Integer 100
Integer 10 ---> Float 10.0 Number 50 ---> String "50"
Python provides built-in functions for type conversion.

Function Converts Into

int() Integer

60
 float() Float

str() String

bool() Boolean

complex() Complex number

4.6.1 Converting to int

int() converts a value into an integer. Example:

Output: 100 <class 'int'> Before conversion: x = "100" type is str After conversion: y = 100 type is int

Invalid int() Conversion

This works:
PYTHON CODE
number = int("50") print(number)
Output: 50
This does not work:
PYTHON CODE number = int("hello") print(number)
Error: ValueError: invalid literal for int() Why? Because "hello" is not a valid number. This also does not
work:
PYTHON CODE number = int("10.5") print(number)

61
Error: ValueError: invalid literal for int() Why? Because "10.5" is a decimal number written as a string. It
cannot be converted directly into int.

4.6.2 Converting to float

float() converts a value into a decimal number.

Output: 25.5
<class 'float'> Integer to float:

Output: 10.0
<class 'float'> String integer to float:

62
Output: 100.0 <class 'float'> Invalid conversion:

Error: ValueError: could not convert string to float 4.6.3 Converting to str
str() converts a value into a string. Example:

Output:21
<class 'str'>

63
 Checking types:

PYTHON CODE
price = 99.5
converted_price = str(price)
print(type(price))
print(type(converted_price))

▶ Output:

<class 'float'>
<class 'str'>

★ Important:

After converting to str, the value becomes text.

Example:
PYTHON CODE
x = 100
y = "100"
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

▶ Output:

<class 'int'>
<class 'str'>
Both look similar when printed, but their data types are different.

4.6.4 Converting to bool

bool() converts a value into True or False. Example:

PYTHON CODE
x=1
y=0
print(bool(x))
print(bool(y))
Output: True
False
64
 Some simple conversions:

PYTHON CODE print(bool(1))

print(bool(0))
print(bool("Python"))
print(bool(""))

▶ Output:

True
False
True
False

We will study this more deeply in Truthy and FalsyValues in the Control Flow section.

4.6.5 Converting to complex

complex() converts a value into a complex number.

✎ Example:

Output:

65
(10+0j)
<class 'complex'>

String to complex:

▶ Output:

(5+0j) <class 'complex'>

4.7 Mutable vs Immutable Data Types

This is a very important concept in Python. First understand these two words:
Mutable = Can be changed after creation
Immutable = Cannot be changed after creation

Immutable Data Types

Immutable data types cannot be changed directly after they are created. Examples of immutable data
types:
● int ● float ● complex ● str ● bool ● NoneType

We have already studied these types in this chapter.

66
Example with string:
PYTHON CODE name = "Ravi" name[0] = "K"
Error: TypeError: 'str' object does not support item assignment Because string is immutable. Correct
idea:
PYTHON CODE name = "Ravi"
name = "Kavi"
print(name)
Output: Kavi
Here, Python does not change "Ravi" directly. It creates a new string "Kavi" and makes name refer to
that new string.

Immutable Number Example

Numbers are also immutable. Example:

Output: 21

Mutable Data Types

Mutable data types can be changed after creation. Some mutable data types in Python are:

67
● list ● dictionary ● set

These will be studied in detail later in the DataStructures [Link] now, only remember:
1. Mutable objects can be modified. 2. Immutable objects cannot be modified directly.

Type Mutable or Immutable

int Immutable

float Immutable

complex Immutable

str Immutable

bool Immutable

NoneType Immutable

list Mutable

dict Mutable

set Mutable

4.8 Simple Memory Understanding

A variable is like a name tag. It points to a value. Example: x = 10 Means x -----> 10 Now: x = 20
Means x -----> 20 The name x now points to 20 . It does not mean 10 changed into 20. This idea is
very useful for understanding mutable and immutable data later.

4.9 Quick Revision

Topic Meaning

Data type Type/category of value

int Whole numbers

float Decimal numbers

complex Number with real and imaginary parts

str Text / sequence of characters

Indexing Accessing one character from a string

Slicing Accessing a part of a string

68
 String immutability Strings cannot be changed directly

bool StoresTrueorFalse

None Represents no value

type() Checks data type

Type conversion Converts one data type into another

Mutable Can be changed after creation

Immutable Cannot be changed after creation

5 Operators in Python

Operators are special symbols or words used to perform operations on values and variables.

Simple meaning:

Operator = Symbol or keyword that performs an operation

Example:
PYTHON CODE
a = 10
b=5
print(a + b)
Output:
15
Here, + is an operator. It adds a and b.
Diagram:

69
Python operators are mainly divided into these types:
Operators
│

├── Arithmetic operators

├── Comparison operators

├── Logical operators

├── Assignment operators

├── Membership operators

├── Identity operators

├── Bitwise operators

└── Operator precedence

5.1 Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical operations.

1. Addition 2. Subtraction 3. Multiplication 4. Division 5. Power 6. Remainder
Arithmetic operators work mostly with numbers.

List of Arithmetic Operators

Operator Name Example

+ Addition 10 + 5

- Subtraction 10 - 5

* Multiplication 10 * 5

/ Division 10 / 5

// Floor division 10 // 3

70
 % Modulus 10 % 3

** Exponent / Power 2 ** 3

Addition +

The + operator adds two numbers.

PYTHON CODE
a = 10 b = 5 result = a + b print(result)
Output: 15

Subtraction -

The - operator subtracts one number from another.

PYTHON CODE
a = 10 b = 5 result = a - b print(result)
Output: 5

Multiplication *

The * operator multiplies two numbers.

PYTHON CODE a = 10 b = 5 result = a * b print(result)
Output: 50

Division /

The / operator divides one number by another. Divisionusing / always gives a float result.
PYTHON CODE
a = 10 b = 5 result = a / b print(result) print(type(result))
Output: 2.0 <class 'float'> Even though 10 / 5 is mathematically 2 , Python gives 2.0. That means the
result is a float.

Floor Division //

The // operator divides and gives the whole-numberpart. Example:

PYTHON CODE
a = 10 b = 3 result = a // b print(result)
Output: 3 Explanation: 10 / 3 = 3.333... Floor division gives 3
Important point: / gives normal division // gives floor division Example:
PYTHON CODE
print(10 / 3) print(10 // 3)
Output: 3.3333333333333335 3 Modulus %

71
The% operator gives the remainder after division. Example:
PYTHON CODE
a = 10 b = 3 result = a % b print(result)
Output:1 Explanation: 10 divided by 3 => 3 goes into 10 three times: 3 × 3 = 9 Remainder: 10 - 9 = 1

Exponent / Power **

The ** operator is used to calculate power.

PYTHON CODE result = 2 ** 3 print(result)
Output:8 Explanation: 2 ** 3 means 2 raised to the power 3 Example :
PYTHON CODE a = 20 b = 6 print(a + b) print(a - b) print(a * b) print(a / b) print(a // b) print(a % b)
print(a ** 2)
Output: 26 14 120 3.3333333333333335 3 2 400

5.2 Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values. The result of a comparison is always a Boolean
value:
● True

● False

Example:
print(10 > 5)
Output: True
Because 10 is greater than 5.

List of Comparison Operators

Operator Meaning Example

== Equal to 10 == 10

!= Not equal to 10 != 5

> Greater than 10 > 5

< Less than 5 < 10

>= Greater than or equal to 10 >= 10

<= Less than or equal to 5 <= 10

72
Equal To ==

The == operator checks whether two values are equal.

PYTHON CODE print(10 == 10)
print(10 == 5)
Output:
True
False Not Equal To !=

The != operator checks whether two values are not equal.

PYTHON CODE print(10 != 5)
print(10 != 10)
Output:
True
False
Explanation:
10 != 5 True because 10 is not equal to 5
10 != 10 False because 10 is equal to 10

Greater Than >

The > operator checks whether the left value is greater than the right value.
PYTHON CODE
print(10 > 5)
print(5 > 10)
Output:
True
False Less Than <

The < operator checks whether the left value is less than the right value.
PYTHON CODE
print(5 < 10)
print(10 < 5)
Output:
True
False

Greater Than or Equal To >=

The >= operator checks whether the left value is greaterthan or equal to the right value.

73
PYTHON CODE
print(10 >= 5)
print(10 >= 10)
print(5 >= 10)
Output:
True
True
False
Explanation:
10 >= 5 True because 10 is greater than 5
10 >= 10 True because 10 is equal to 10
5 >= 10 False

Less Than or Equal To <=

The <= operator checks whether the left value is less than or equal to the right value.
PYTHON CODE
print(5 <= 10)
print(10 <= 10)
print(20 <= 10)
Output:
True
True
False
Explanation:
5 <= 10 True because 5 is less than 10
10 <= 10 True because 10 is equal to 10
20 <= 10 False

Comparison with Variables

PYTHON CODE
a = 15
b = 20
print(a == b)
print(a != b)
print(a > b)

74
print(a < b)
print(a >= b)
print(a <= b)
Output:
False
True
False
True
False
True

5.3 Logical Operators

Logical operators are used to combine Boolean values.

Python has three logical operators:
● and

● or

● not

These operators work with True and False. List of Logical Operators

Operator Meaning

and True when both sides are True

or True when at least one side is True

not Reverses True/False

and Operator

The and operator gives True only when both valuesare True.
PYTHON CODE
print(True and True)
print(True and False)
print(False and True)
print(False and False)
Output:
True

75
False
False
False
Truth table:

Left Value Right Value Result

True True True

True False False

False True False

False False False

Simple meaning: and means both conditions must be True.

Example:
PYTHON CODE age_valid = True
id_available = True
print(age_valid and id_available)
Output:
True

or Operator

The or operator gives True when at least one value is True.

PYTHON CODE print(True or True)
print(True or False)
print(False or True)
print(False or False)

▶ Output:

True
True
True
False
Truth table:

Left Value Right Value Result

76
 True True True

True False True

False True True

False False False

or means at least one value must be True.

Example:
PYTHON CODE has_email = True
has_phone = False
print(has_email or has_phone)
Output: True

not Operator

The not operator reverses a Boolean value.

PYTHON CODE print(not True)
print(not False)

▶ Output:

False
True

Simple meaning:

not True becomes False

not False becomes True

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE
is_logged_in = True
print(not is_logged_in)
Output: False

Logical Operators with Comparisons

Comparison operators return Boolean values. So they can be used with logical operators.

✎ Example:

77
PYTHON CODE
age = 20
marks = 85
print(age > 18 and marks > 80)
Output:
True
Explanation: age > 18 True
marks > 80 True
True and True = True

5.4 Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

The most basic assignment operator is: =

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE x = 10
print(x)
Output: 10
Here, 10 is assigned to x.

List of Assignment Operators

Operator Example Same As

= x = 10 x = 10

+= x += 5 x=x+5

-= x -= 5 x=x-5

*= x *= 5 x=x*5

/= x /= 5 x=x/5

//= x //= 5 x = x // 5

%= x %= 5 x=x%5

**= x **= 5 x = x ** 5

78
Basic Assignment =

PYTHON CODE x = 10
print(x)
Output: 10

Add and Assign +=

PYTHON CODE
x = 10
x += 5
print(x)
Output: 15
Explanation:
x += 5
Same as:
x=x+5

Subtract and Assign -=

PYTHON CODE
x = 10
x -= 3
print(x)
Output: 7
Explanation: x -= 3
Same as: x = x - 3

Multiply and Assign *=

PYTHON CODE x = 10
x *= 2
print(x)
Output:20
Explanation: x *= 2
Same as: x = x * 2

Divide and Assign /=

PYTHON CODE x = 10
x /= 2

79
print(x)
Output: 5.0
Important: /= gives float result because / gives float result.

Floor Divide and Assign //=

PYTHON CODE x = 10
x //= 3
print(x)
Output: 3
Explanation:x //= 3
Same as:x = x // 3

Modulus and Assign %=

PYTHON CODE x = 10
x %= 3
print(x)
Output: 1
Explanation: x %= 3
Same as: x = x % 3

Power and Assign **=

PYTHON CODE
x=2
x **= 3
print(x)
Output:8
Explanation: x **= 3
Same as: x = x ** 3

5.5 Membership Operators

Membership operators are used to check whether a value exists inside another value.
Python has two membership operators:
1. in 2. not in
For now, we will use membership operators with strings because strings are already covered.

80
in Operator

The in operator checks whether something is present.

Example:
PYTHON CODE text = "Python"
print("P" in text)
print("Py" in text)
print("Java" in text)

▶ Output:

True
True
False

Explanation:

"P" exists in "Python" True

"Py" exists in "Python" True
"Java" does not exist False not in Operator
The not in operator checks whether something is not present.

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE
ext = "Python"
print("Java" not in text)
print("Py" not in text)

▶ Output:

True
False

Membership Is Case-Sensitive

Python checks uppercase and lowercase carefully.

Example:
PYTHON CODE
text = "Python"

81
print("P" in text)
print("p" in text)
Output:
True
False
Explanation:
"P" and "p" are different in Python.

5.6 Identity Operators

Identity operators are used to check whether two variables refer to the same object in memory.
Python has two identity operators:
1. is 2. is not
Important:
== checks value
is checks identity/memory object

is Operator

The is operator checks whether two variables point to the same object.
Example:
PYTHON CODE
a = None
b = None
print(a is b)
Output: True

Explanation:

a refers to None
b refers to None
Both refer to the same None object.

is not Operator

The is not operator checks whether two variables donot point to the same object.
Example:
PYTHON CODE
a = None

82
b = 10
print(a is not b)

▶ Output:

True

Explanation:

a refers to None
b refers to 10
They are not the same object.

Difference Between == and is

== checks whether values are equal.

is checks whether both variables refer to the same object.
PYTHON CODE a = 100
b = 100
print(a == b)
print(a is b)

▶ Possible output:

True
True
For some simple values, Python may reuse the same object internally.
But beginners should remember this rule: Use == for value comparison. Use is mainly with None.

✎ Best example:

PYTHON CODE result = None

print(result is None)
print(result is not None)
Output: True
False

5.7 Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators work on binary numbers.

Binary means numbers written using only:
83
0 and 1
Computers store numbers internally in binary form.
Example:
Decimal 5 = Binary 101
Decimal 3 = Binary 011
Bitwise operators compare or shift bits.

List of Bitwise Operators

Operator Name

& Bitwise AND

` `

^ Bitwise XOR

~ Bitwise NOT

<< Left shift

>> Right shift

Bitwise AND &

Bitwise AND compares bits.

Rule:

Example:
PYTHON CODE
a=5
b=3
print(a & b)

84
Output: 1

So: 5 & 3 = 1 Bitwise OR |

Bitwise OR compares bits.

Example:

Output: 7

85
Explanation:

Bitwise XOR ^

Bitwise XOR gives 1 when bits are different.

Rule:

Example:
PYTHON CODE a = 5 b = 3 print(a ^ b)
Output: 6
Explanation:

86
Bitwise NOT ~

Bitwise NOT flips bits. In Python, the result of ~x is:

Example: x = 5
PYTHON CODE print(~x)
Output: -6
Explanation:
~5 = -(5 + 1)
~5 = -6

★ For beginners, remember:

Bitwise NOT does not simply make 5 into -5.

It gives -(number + 1).

Left Shift <<

Left shift moves bits to the left.

87
Simple meaning:
x << n means x multiplied by 2 power n
Example:
PYTHON CODE
x=5
print(x << 1)
Output: 10

Explanation:

5 << 1
5 × 2 = 10

Binary view:

5 in binary = 101
After left shift by 1:
1010
1010 in decimal = 10

Right Shift >>

Right shift moves bits to the right.

Simple meaning:
x >> n means x divided by 2 power n and gives whole-number result
Example:
PYTHON CODE
x = 10
print(x >> 1)
Output: 5
Explanation:
10 >> 1
10 // 2 = 5
Binary view: 10 in binary = 1010
After right shift by 1:
101
101 in decimal = 5

88
5.8 Operator Precedence

Operator precedence means the order in which Python solves operators.

Example:
PYTHON CODE
result = 10 + 5 * 2
print(result)
Output: 20
A beginner may think:
10 + 5 = 15
15 * 2 = 30
But Python does multiplication first.
Correct solving:
10 + 5 * 2
10 + 10
20
So the result is 20.

Why Operator Precedence Matters

Without precedence, Python would not know which operation to do first.

Example:
10 + 5 * 2
There are two possible ways:
Way 1: (10 + 5) * 2 = 30
Way 2: 10 + (5 * 2) = 20
Python follows fixed precedence rules. So: 10 + 5 * 2 = 20 and Happens Before or
PYTHON CODE result = True or False and False
print(result)
Output: True

Using parentheses:

result = (True or False) and False

print(result)
Output: False

89
Common Operator Precedence Table

Higher operators are solved first.

Priority Operators Meaning

1 () Parentheses

2 ** Power

3 +x,-x,~x Unary plus, unary minus, bitwise NOT

4 *,/,//,% Multiplication, division, floor division, modulus

5 +,- Addition, subtraction

6 <<,>> Bitwise shifts

7 & Bitwise AND

8 ^ Bitwise XOR

9 ` `

10 ==,!=,>,<,>=,<= Comparisons

11 not Logical NOT

12 and Logical AND

13 or Logical OR

Parentheses () Have Highest Priority

Parentheses are used to control the order manually.

PYTHON CODE result = (10 + 5) * 2
print(result)
Output: 30
Explanation: (10 + 5) * 2 = 15 * 2 = 30

Without parentheses:

PYTHON CODE result = 10 + 5 * 2

print(result)
Output: 20 Power Has Higher Priority Than Multiplication
PYTHON CODE result = 2 * 3 ** 2

90
print(result)
Output: 18

6 String Operations

A string is a sequence of characters enclosed in quotes.

name = "Python"
Strings are one of the most used data types in Python because text handling is needed in almost every
program.

6.1 String Creation

Strings can be created using single quotes, double quotes, or triple quotes.
PYTHON CODE
s1 = "Hello"
s2 = 'Hello'
s3 = """Hello Python"""
All three are valid.
Single quotes and double quotes are commonly used for one-line strings. Triple quotes are used for
multi-line strings.
PYTHON CODE
message = """Python is simple.
Python is powerful.
Python is widely used."""

6.2 String Indexing

Indexing means accessing one character from a string. Python starts counting from 0.

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE
word = "Python"
print(word[0])
print(word[3])
Output:

91
P
h
For negative indexing, counting starts from the end.

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE
print(word[-1])
print(word[-2])
Output: n
o

◆ Index diagram:

6.3 String Slicing

Slicing means taking a part of a string.

Syntax:

Important rule: the start index is included , and the end index is excluded.

✎ Example:

PYTHON CODE word = "Python"

print(word[0:3])
print(word[2:])
print(word[:4])
Output:
Pyt
thon

92
Pyth
You can also use step values:
PYTHON CODE print(word[0:6:2])
Output: Pto

To reverse a string:

PYTHON CODE print(word[::-1])

Output:
nohtyP

6.4 String Methods

String methods are built-in functions that work on strings.

Common string methods are used for cleaning, checking, changing case, finding text, and replacing
text. lower()
Converts string to lowercase.
PYTHON CODE
text = "Python"
print([Link]())
Output:
python
upper()

Converts string to uppercase.

PYTHON CODE
text = "Python"
print([Link]())
Output:
PYTHON
strip()

Removes extra spaces from the beginning and end.

PYTHON CODE
text = " Python "
print([Link]())
Output:
Python replace()

93
Replaces one part of a string with another.
PYTHON CODE
text = "I like Java"
print([Link]("Java", "Python"))
Output:
I like Python split()

Splits a string into a list of parts using a separator.

PYTHON CODE
text = "apple,banana,mango"
print([Link](","))
Output:
['apple', 'banana', 'mango']
find()

Finds the position of a substring.

PYTHON CODE
text = "Python"
print([Link]("th"))
Output:
2
If the text is not found, it returns -1.
count()

Counts how many times a character or substring appears.

PYTHON CODE
text = "banana"
print([Link]("a"))
Output: 3
startswith() and endswith()

PYTHON CODE
text = "Python"
print([Link]("Py"))
print([Link]("on"))

▶ Output:

True
94
True
These methods are very useful in text checking and validation.

6.5 String Formatting

String formatting means placing values inside a string in a clean way.

This is better than manually joining many values.
Python has three main ways to format strings:
● f-strings

● format()

● old% formatting

6.5.1 f-strings

f-strings are the most readable and modern way.

Write f before the string and place variables inside {}.
PYTHON CODE
name = "Aman"
age = 20
print(f"My name is {name} and I am {age} years old.")

▶ Output:

My name is Aman and I am 20 years old.

You can also place expressions inside f-strings.
PYTHON CODE
a = 10
b=5
print(f"Sum is {a + b}")
Output:
Sum is 15 6.5.2 format()

The format() method inserts values into placeholders.

PYTHON CODE name = "Aman"
age = 20
print("My name is {} and I am {} years old.".format(name, age))
Output:
My name is Aman and I am 20 years old.

95
You can also use position numbers:
print("My name is {0} and I am {1} years old.".format(name, age))
This is useful when you want control over the order of values.

6.5.3 Old % Formatting

This is the older style of formatting.

PYTHON CODE
name = "Aman"
age = 20
print("My name is %s and I am %d years old." % (name, age))
Output: My name is Aman and I am 20 years old.
Here:
● %s is used for string

● %d is used for integer

This style is still found in older code, but f-strings are preferred in modern Python.

6.6 String Concatenation

Concatenation means joining strings together.

The + operator is used for this.
PYTHON CODE
first = "Python"
second = "Programming"
print(first + " " + second)
Output:
Python Programming
Important point: only strings can be joined directly. 6.7 Escape Characters
Escape characters start with a backslash \ and helpinsert special characters inside strings.
Common escape characters:

Escape Character Meaning

\n New line

\t Tab space

\\ Backslash

96
 \' Single quote

\" Double quote

Common Escape Characters

Escape
Meaning Example Output
Character

\n New Line print("Hello\nPython") <pre>Hello

Python</pre>

\t Horizontal Tab print("Name\tAge") <pre>Name Age</pre>

\\ Prints a Backslash print("C:\\Users\\Admin") C:\Users\Admin

\' Prints a Single Quote print('It\'s Python') It's Python

\" Prints a Double Quote print("He said \"Hello\"") He said "Hello"

\b Backspace (removes print("ABC\bD") ABD

previous character)

\r Carriage Return (moves print("Hello\rHi") Hillo(behavior may vary

cursor to beginning of line) by terminal)

\f Form Feed print("Hello\fPython") Inserts a form-feed

character

\v Vertical Tab print("Hello\vPython") Inserts a vertical tab

\a Alert/Bell print("\a") Produces a system beep

6.8 Raw Strings

Raw strings treat backslashes as normal characters.

Write r before the string.
PYTHON CODE path = r"C:\new_folder\test"
print(path)
Output: C:\new_folder\test 6.9 String Multiplication
A string can be repeated using the * operator.
PYTHON CODE
text = "Hi"
print(text * 3)

97
Output: HiHiHi

Common String Methods

Method Description Example Result

lower() Converts all characters to "Python".lower() "python"

lowercase

upper() Converts all characters to "Python".upper() "PYTHON"

uppercase

title() Converts first letter of every "python programming".title() "Python

word to uppercase Programming"

capitalize() Capitalizes only the first letter "python".capitalize() "Python"

of the string

swapcase() Converts uppercase to "PyThOn".swapcase() "pYtHoN"

lowercase and lowercase to
uppercase

strip() Removes spaces from both " Python ".strip() "Python"

ends

lstrip() Removes spaces from the left " Python".lstrip() "Python"

side

rstrip() Removes spaces from the "Python ".rstrip() "Python"

right side

replace(old, Replaces one substring with "I like "I like Python"
new) another Java".replace("Java","Python")

find() Returns the first index of a "Python".find("th") 2

substring

index() Returns the index of a "Python".index("th") 2

substring (raises error if not
found)

count() Counts occurrences of a "banana".count("a") 3

substring

startswith() Checks whether a string "Python".startswith("Py") True

starts with a substring

endswith() Checks whether a string "Python".endswith("on") True

ends with a substring

98
 split() Splits a string into a list "a,b,c".split(",") ['a', 'b', 'c']

join() Joins iterable elements into a "-".join(["A","B","C"]) "A-B-C"

string

isalpha() ReturnsTrueif all characters "Python".isalpha() True

are alphabets

isdigit() ReturnsTrueif all characters "12345".isdigit() True

are digits

isalnum() ReturnsTrueif all characters "Python3".isalnum() True

are letters or digits

isspace() ReturnsTrueif all characters " ".isspace() True

are whitespace

center(width) Centers the string within the "Python".center(12) " Python "
specified width

zfill(width) Pads the string with leading "25".zfill(5) "00025"

zeros

7 Control Flow

7.1 if Statement

Syntax

The if statement is used when we want to run somecode only when a condition is True. If the condition
is True , Python executes the indented block. If the condition is False , Python skips the indentedblock.

99
Flow Chart

Example
PYTHON CODE age = 20 if age >= 18:
print("Eligible to vote")
Output: Eligible to vote

✎ example:

PYTHON CODE marks = 35 if marks >= 40:

print("Passed") print("Program finished")
Output: Program finished

100
7.2 if-else Statement

Syntax

Explanation

The if-else statement is used when we want to run one block if the condition is True and another block
if the condition is False.
Only one block runs.
If the condition is True , the if block runs.
If the condition is False , the else block runs.

Flow Chart

101
Example
PYTHON CODE
age = 16 if age >= 18:
print("Eligible to vote") else:
print("Not eligible to vote")
Output: Not eligible to vote

102
7.3 elif Statement

Syntax

103
Explanation

elif means else if.

It is used when we need to check multiple conditions .Python checks conditions from top to bottom.
The first condition that becomes True getsexecuted. After that, Python skips the remaining conditions.
The else block runs only when all previous conditionsare False.
Example
PYTHON CODE
marks = 75 if marks >= 90:
print("Grade A") elif marks >= 75:
print("Grade B") elif marks >= 40:
print("Grade C") else:
print("Fail")
Output: Grade B

104
7.4 Nested Conditions

Syntax

With else:

Nested condition means writing one condition inside another condition. The inner condition is checked
only when the outer condition is True . Thisis useful when one decision depends on another decision.

105
Flow Chart

Example

106
Output: Entry allowed

7.5 Ternary Operator

Syntax

Common usage:

The ternary operator is a short way to write a simple if-else statement in one line. It is useful when we
need to choose between two values. Use it only for simple conditions. For complex logic, normal if-else
is better.

107
Flow Chart

Normal if-else:

PYTHON CODE age = 20 if age >= 18:

status = "Adult" else:
status = "Minor" print(status)
Output: Adult Same code using ternary operator:
PYTHON CODE age = 20 status = "Adult" if age >= 18 else "Minor" print(status)
Output: Adult

108
7.6 match-case

Syntax

Explanation

match-case is used to compare one value with multiplepossible cases. It is similar to checking many
fixed options.
The _ case works like a default case. It runs whenno other case matches. match-case was introduced in
Python 3.10.

109
Flow Chart

Example

110
Output: Starting program
PYTHON CODE
day = 3 match day:
case 1:
print("Monday") case 2:
print("Tuesday") case 3:
print("Wednesday") case _:
print("Invalid day")
Output: Wednesday

7.7 Truthy and Falsy Values

Syntax

111
Explanation

In Python, conditions do not always need direct comparison like: if age >= 18: Python can also treat
values as True or False . Theseare called truthy and falsy values. A truthy value behaves like True. A
falsy value behaveslike False .

Common falsy values:

Value Meaning

False Boolean false

0 Zero number

0.0 Zero float

"" Empty string

None No value

Common truthy values:

Value Meaning

True Boolean true

10 Non-zero number

-5 Non-zero number

"Python" Non-empty string

"" String with a space

Important: " " is truthy because it contains a [Link] is not empty.

112
Flow Chart

Example 1: Non-empty string

PYTHON CODE name = "Rahul" if name:
print("Name is available") else:
print("Name is missing")

▶ Output:

Name is available Example 2: Empty string

PYTHON CODE name = "" if name:
print("Name is available") else:
print("Name is missing")
Output: Name is missing

Example 3: Number

PYTHON CODE
amount = 0 if amount:
print("Amount available") else:
print("Amount is zero")
Output: Amount is zero

113
 8 Loops and Iteration

Loops are used when we want to run the same code multiple times.
Q: Print numbers from 1 to 5
Without a loop, we write many print() [Link] loop, we write the logic once and Python repeats
it.

8.1 for Loop

Syntax

Explanation

1. A for loop is used to repeat code over a sequence. 2. A sequence can be a string, range, list, tuple,
etc. 3. In each round, Python takes one value from the sequence. 4. The loop stops automatically when
all values are finished. Flow Chart

114
Example 1: Loop through a string

Output: P y t h o n Example 2: Loop with range()

115
Output: 1 2 3 4 5 8.2 while Loop

Syntax

Explanation

1. A while loop runs as long as the condition is True. 2. Before every round, Python checks the
condition. 3. If the condition is True , the loop block runs. 4. If the condition becomes False , the loop
stops.

Flow Chart

Example 1: Print numbers from 1 to 5

PYTHON CODE number = 1
while number <= 5:
print(number) number += 1

116
Output: 1 2 3 4 5 for Loop vs while Loop

Point forLoop whileLoop

Main use Used to loop over a sequence Used to repeat while a condition isTrue

Best when Number of iterations is known Number of iterations is not fixed

Works String,range(), and other iterable Conditions

with values

Stops Sequence ends Condition becomesFalse

when

Risk Usually safer Can create infinite loop if condition never

becomesFalse

When to Use for and while

Situation Better Loop

Loop through characters in a string forloop

Loop through numbers usingrange() forloop

Repeat until password is correct whileloop

Repeat while balance is available whileloop

Repeat fixed number of times forloop

Repeat based on condition whileloop

8.3 break

❯ Syntax:

Explanation

1. break is used to stop a loop immediately. 2. When Python sees break , it exits the loop. 3. Code
after the loop continues normally.
Flow Chart:

117
Example 1: Stop loop when number is 4

PYTHON CODE for number in range(1, 8):

if number == 4:
break
print(number)

▶ Output:

1
2
3

Explanation:

1. The loop starts from 1.

2. When number becomes 4, break runs.
3. The loop stops before printing 4.

8.4 continue

Syntax

118
Explanation

1. continue skips the current round of the loop.

2. It does not stop the full loop.
3. After continue , Python moves to the next round. Flow Chart

Example 1: Skip number 3

PYTHON CODE for number in range(1, 6):
if number == 3:
continue
print(number)

▶ Output:

1245

Explanation:

1. When number is 3, continue runs.

2. print(number) is skipped for 3.
3. The loop continues with 4 and 5.

119
8.5 pass

Syntax

1. pass means “do nothing”. It is used when Python needsa statement, but we do not
want to write logic yet. It does not stop or skip the loop like break or continue. Flow Chart

Example 1: Empty loop block

PYTHON CODE for number in range(1, 4):
pass
Output: No output appears because pass does nothing.
Example 2: Placeholder inside condition
PYTHON CODE for number in range(1, 4):
if number == 2:
pass
print(number)
Output: 1 2 3 Loop Control Statements Comparison

120
 Statement Meaning Effect on Loop Common Use

break Stop the loop Exits the loop completely Stop when required value is found

continue Skip current round Moves to next iteration Skip unwanted values

pass Do nothing No effect on loop Temporary placeholder

8.6 else with Loops

Syntax

Explanation
1. A loop can have an else block. The else block runswhen the loop finishes normally. 2. If the loop
stops because of break , the else blockdoes not run.
Flow Chart

121
Example 1: Loop finishes normally

Output: 1 2 3 Loop finished

Example 2: Loop stops with break
PYTHON CODE for number in range(1, 5):
if number == 3:
break
print(number)
else:
print("Loop finished")
Output: 12

122
8.7 Nested Loops

Syntax

Explanation

1. Nested loop means one loop inside another loop. 2. The outer loop runs first. 3. For every one round
of the outer loop, the inner loop runs completely. 4. Nested loops are useful for patterns, tables, rows
and columns. Flow Chart

Example 1: Row and column output

PYTHON CODE for row in range(1, 3):
for column in range(1, 4):
123
print(row, column)

▶ Output:

11
12
13
21
22
23

Example 2: Simple pattern

PYTHON CODE
for row in range(1, 4):
print("*" * row)

▶ Output:

**

***

8.8 range()

Syntax

Explanation

1. range() creates a sequence of numbers. 2. It is commonly used with for loops. 3. The stop value is
excluded. 4. step controls the gap between numbers. Flow Chart

124
Example 1: range(stop)

PYTHON CODE for number in range(5):

print(number)

▶ Output:

0
1
2
3
4

Explanation:

1. range(5) starts from 0.

2. It stops before 5. Example 2: range(start, stop)
PYTHON CODE for number in range(1, 6):
print(number)
Output: 1 2 3 4 5 Example 3: range(start, stop, step)
PYTHON CODE for number in range(2, 11, 2):
print(number)

125
Output: 2 4 6 8 10 range() Forms

Syntax Meaning Example Output Values

range(stop) Starts from0, stops beforestop range(5) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

range(start, stop) Starts fromstart, stops beforestop range(1, 5) 1, 2, 3, 4

range(start, stop, step) Uses step/gap between values range(2, 10, 2) 2, 4, 6, 8

Positive and Negative Step in range()

Example Meaning Output Values

range(1, 6, 1) Increase by1 1, 2, 3, 4, 5

range(1, 6, 2) Increase by2 1, 3, 5

range(5, 0, -1) Decrease by1 5, 4, 3, 2, 1

range(10, 0, -2) Decrease by2 10, 8, 6, 4, 2

8.9 enumerate()

Syntax

Explanation

1. enumerate() gives both index and value while looping.

2. It is useful when we need the position of each item.
3. The index starts from 0 by default. Flow Chart

126
Example 1: Enumerate a string
PYTHON CODE
word = "Python"
for index, letter in enumerate(word):
print(index, letter)

▶ Output:

0P
1y
2t
3h
4o
5 n Example 2: Start index from 1
PYTHON CODE
word = "Python"
for index, letter in enumerate(word, start=1):
print(index, letter)

▶ Output:

127
1P
2y
3t
4h
5o
6n enumerate() vs Normal Loop

Normal Loop enumerate()

Gives only value Gives index and value

Good when index is not needed Good when index is needed

Simple for direct looping Better for position-based output

8.10 zip()

Syntax

Explanation

1. zip() is used to loop over two or more sequences together.

2. It takes one item from each sequence at the same time.
3. The loop stops when the shortest sequence ends. Flow Chart

128
Example 1: Zip two strings
PYTHON CODE
letters = "ABC"
numbers = "123"
for letter, number in zip(letters, numbers):
print(letter, number)

▶ Output:

A1
B2
C3

Example 2: Different length sequences

PYTHON CODE letters = "ABCD"

numbers = "12"
for letter, number in zip(letters, numbers):
print(letter, number)

129
 ▶ Output:

A1
B2

Explanation:

1. letters has 4 characters.

2. numbers has 2 characters.
3. zip() stops after the shorter sequence ends. 8.11 Iterator Protocol Basics

Syntax

Explanation

1. An iterator is an object that gives values one by one. 2. iter() creates an iterator from an iterable value.
3. next() gets the next value from the iterator. 4. Loops internally use this idea to get values one by one.

Term Meaning

Iterable Something that can be looped over

Iterator Object that gives values one by one

iter() Creates an iterator

next() Gets the next value

Flow Chart

130
Example 1: Using iter() and next()

131
Output: A B C Example 2: How for loop thinks internally

This loop:

PYTHON CODE
for letter in "ABC":
print(letter)

▶ Output:

A
B
C Internally, the idea is similar to:
PYTHON CODE
iterator = iter("ABC")
print(next(iterator))
print(next(iterator))
print(next(iterator))
Output: A B C Iterable vs Iterator

Term Meaning Example

Iterable Something we can loop over String,range()

Iterator Object that gives values one by one Created usingiter()

132
 iter() Creates an iterator iter("ABC")

next() Gets next value next(iterator)

Example 1: Iterable

Output: A
B C Here, "ABC" is iterable because we can loop over it. Example 2: Iterator

Output: A
BC

133
8.12 StopIteration

When an iterator has no more values, Python raises StopIteration . Example 1: Iterator
ends

▶ Output:

A
B

StopIteration Infinite Loop

An infinite loop is a loop that never stops. This usually happens when the condition in a while loop never
becomes False. Example 1: Infinite loop

Problem:

number starts as 1 => condition is number <= 5 =>number is never increased=> condition always stays
True . loop never stops

134
 Correct version:

Output: 12345

9 Data Structure in Python

9.1 Lists in Python

A list is a data structure used to store multiplevalues in one variable.

Syntax

Explanation

1. Lists are written using square brackets []. 2. List items are separated by commas. 3. Lists are ordered,
so every item has an index. 4. Lists are mutable, meaning we can change them after creation. 5. Lists
can store duplicate values. 6. Lists can store different data types together.

Example 1

Output: ['Rahul', 21, 'Python', 85.5]

135
List Properties Table

Property Meaning Example

Ordered Items have fixed positions items[0]

Mutable Items can be changed items[1] = "new"

Allows duplicates Same value can appear multiple times [10, 10, 20]

Mixed data allowed Can store different data types ["Aman", 20, True]

Indexed Every item has position number 0, 1, 2...

Flow Chart

9.1.1 Creating Lists

Syntax

1. A list can store numbers, strings, Boolean values, or mixed values. 2. An empty list can also be
created. 3. Lists are useful when many related values need to be stored together.
136
Example 1

Output: [10, 20, 30, 40] ['Aman', 'Riya', 'Kabir'] ['Python', 100, 99.5, True] []

Different Ways to Create Lists

Type Example

Empty list items = []

Number list marks = [80, 90, 75]

String list names = ["Aman", "Riya"]

Mixed list data = ["Aman", 20, True]

Nested list matrix = [[1, 2], [3, 4]]

Usinglist() letters = list("ABC")

137
9.1.2 Accessing Values

Syntax

Explanation

1. List items are accessed using index numbers. 2. Python indexing starts from 0. 3. Positive indexing
starts from the left. 4. Negative indexing starts from the right.

Example 1

Output: Aman Kabir Neha

Indexing Table

Code Meaning Result

students[0] First item "Aman"

students[1] Second item "Riya"

students[-1] Last item "Neha"

138
 students[-2] Second last item "Kabir"

students[-2] Second last item "Kabir" 9.1.3 Updating Values

Syntax

1. Lists are mutable.

2. We can change an existing item using its index.
3. The index must exist in the list.
Example 1

Output: [70, 85, 90] Updating Multiple Values

Output: [70, 88, 95, 60]

139
9.1.4 List Methods

Method Purpose Example Result

append() Adds one item at the end [Link](40) Adds40

extend() Adds multiple items [Link]([50, 60]) Adds50, 60

insert() Adds item at specific index [Link](1, 15) Adds15at index1

remove() Removes first matching value [Link](20) Removes20

pop() Removes item by index [Link](1) Removes item at index1

clear() Removes all items [Link]() Empty list

index() Returns index of value [Link](30) Gives position

count() Counts occurrences [Link](10) Count of10

sort() Sorts list [Link]() Ascending order

reverse() Reverses list [Link]() Reverse order

copy() Creates shallow copy new = [Link]() New list copy

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = [10, 20, 30]

[Link](40)
[Link](1, 15)
[Link](20)
print(numbers)
Output: [10, 15, 30, 40]

Useful Functions with Lists

Function Purpose Example

len() Counts items len(numbers)

sum() Adds numeric items sum(numbers)

min() Smallest value min(numbers)

max() Largest value max(numbers)

140
 sorted() Returns sorted copy sorted(numbers)

9.1.5 Slicing

Syntax

list_name[start:end:step] Explanation
1. Slicing is used to get a part of a list.
2. The start index is included.
3. The end index is excluded.
4. Step controls the gap between selected items. Example 1
PYTHON CODE
numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60]
print(numbers[1:4])
print(numbers[:3])
print(numbers[3:])
print(numbers[::2])
print(numbers[::-1])
Output: [20, 30, 40] [10, 20, 30] [40, 50, 60] [10, 30, 50] [60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10]

Slicing Table

Code Meaning Result

numbers[1:4] Index1to before4 [20, 30, 40]

numbers[:3] Start to before index3 [10, 20, 30]

numbers[3:] Index3to end [40, 50, 60]

numbers[::2] Every second item [10, 30, 50]

numbers[::-1] Reverse list [60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10]

9.1.6 List Comprehensions

Syntax

new_list = [expression for item in sequence]

With condition:

new_list = [expression for item in sequence if condition]

141
1. List comprehension is a short way to create a new list. 2. It is commonly used when each item needs
to be processed. 3. It can also filter values using if. 4. It makes code shorter and cleaner.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

squares = [number * number for number in numbers]
print(squares)
Output: [1, 4, 9, 16, 25] Example 2: With Condition
PYTHON CODE numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
even_numbers = [number for number in numbers if number % 2 == 0]
print(even_numbers)
Output: [2, 4, 6] 9.1.7 Nested Lists

Syntax

list_name = [[item1, item2], [item3, item4]]

Explanation

1. A nested list means a list inside another list. 2. It is useful for matrix-like data, rows and columns, or
grouped values. 3. To access nested list values, use multiple indexes.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE
matrix = [
[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]] print(matrix[0]) print(matrix[1][2])
Output: [1, 2, 3]
6

142
Index Diagram

Updating Nested List Value

PYTHON CODE
matrix = [
[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6]]
matrix[1][0] = 40 print(matrix)
Output: [[1, 2, 3], [40, 5, 6]]

9.1.8 Sorting and Reversing

Sorting means arranging values in order. Reversing means changing the order from last to first.

Sorting and Reversing Table

Operation Code Changes Original List? Result

Sort ascending [Link]() Yes Small to large

143
 Sort descending [Link](reverse=True) Yes Large to small

Sorted copy sorted(numbers) No Returns new sorted list

Reverse original [Link]() Yes Reverses same list

Reverse copy numbers[::-1] No Returns reversed copy

Example 1

PYTHON CODE
numbers = [40, 10, 30, 20]
[Link]()
print(numbers)
[Link](reverse=True)
print(numbers)
[Link]()
print(numbers)
Output: [10, 20, 30, 40] [40, 30, 20, 10] [10, 20, 30, 40]

sort() vs sorted()

Point sort() sorted()

Type List method Built-in function

Original list Changes original list Does not change original list

Return value ReturnsNone Returns new sorted list

Usage [Link]() sorted(numbers)

Example 2

PYTHON CODE
numbers = [30, 10, 20]
new_numbers = sorted(numbers)
print(numbers)
print(new_numbers)
Output: [30, 10, 20] [10, 20, 30]

144
9.1.9 Copying Lists

Syntax

new_list = old_list.copy()

Other ways:

new_list = old_list[:]
new_list = list(old_list)

Explanation

1. Copying means creating another list with the same values. 2. Direct assignment does not create a real
copy. 3. Direct assignment makes two variables point to the same list. 4. To create a separate list, use
copy() , slicing, or list().

Direct Assignment

PYTHON CODE
list1 = [10, 20, 30]
list2 = list1
[Link](40)
print(list1)
print(list2)
Output:
[10, 20, 30, 40]
[10, 20, 30, 40]
Explanation:
1. list2 = list1 does not create a new list. 2. Both variables refer to the same list. 3. So changing list2 also
affects list1.

Real Copy Example

145
 ▶ Output:

[10, 20, 30]

[10, 20, 30, 40]

Copying Methods Table

Method Code Meaning

copy() new = [Link]() Creates shallow copy

Slicing new = old[:] Creates shallow copy

list() new = list(old) Creates shallow copy

Direct assignment new = old Not a real copy

9.1.10 Shallow Copy vs Deep Copy

Explanation

This concept matters when a list contains another list. There are two types of copy:
● Shallow copy ● Deep copy

Shallow Copy

A shallow copy creates a new outer list, but nested lists inside are still shared.

146
Example 1: Shallow Copy

PYTHON CODE
list1 = [[10, 20], [30, 40]]
list2 = [Link]()
list2[0][0] = 99
print(list1)
print(list2)
Output:
[[99, 20], [30, 40]]
[[99, 20], [30, 40]]
1. [Link]() creates a new outer list. 2. But the inner lists are still shared. 3. So changing an inner list
affects both lists.

Shallow Copy Diagram

Deep Copy

A deep copy creates a completely separate copy of both the outer list and inner lists.

Example 2: Deep Copy

PYTHON CODE import copy

147
list1 = [[10, 20], [30, 40]]
list2 = [Link](list1)
list2[0][0] = 99
print(list1)
print(list2)
Output: [[10, 20], [30, 40]]
[[99, 20], [30, 40]] Explanation:

1. [Link]() creates a fully independent copy. 2. Inner lists are also copied separately. 3.
Changing list2 does not affect list1.

Shallow Copy vs Deep Copy Table

Point Shallow Copy Deep Copy

Outer list New copy New copy

Inner nested lists Shared New copy

Affects original nested data? Yes No

Common method copy() [Link]()

Useful for Simple lists Nested lists

Important List Operations Table

Operation Code Meaning

Create list items = [10, 20, 30] Creates list

Access item items[0] Gets first item

Update item items[1] = 25 Changes second item

Add item [Link](40) Adds at end

Insert item [Link](1, 15) Adds at index

Remove item [Link](20) Removes value

Remove by index [Link](0) Removes by index

Slice list items[1:3] Gets part of list

Sort list [Link]() Sorts original list

148
 Reverse list [Link]() Reverses original list

Copy list [Link]() Creates shallow copy

Length len(items) Counts items

List Method Return Behavior

Method Changes Original List? Returns

append() Yes None

extend() Yes None

insert() Yes None

remove() Yes None

pop() Yes Removed item

clear() Yes None

sort() Yes None

reverse() Yes None

copy() No New list

9.2 Tuples in Python

A tuple is a data structure used to store multiplevalues in one variable.

Tuples are similar to lists, but the main difference is:
List -> mutable -> can be changed
Tuple -> immutable -> cannot be changed

Syntax

tuple_name = (value1, value2, value3) Explanation

1. Tuples are written using parentheses(). 2. Tuple items are separated by commas. 3. Tuples are
ordered, so items have index positions. 4. Tuples are immutable, so items cannot be changed after
creation. 5. Tuples allow duplicate values. 6. Tuples can store different data types.

149
Example 1

Output: ('Rahul', 21, 'Python', 85.5)

Tuple Properties Table

Property Meaning Example

Ordered Items have fixed positions items[0]

Immutable Items cannot be changed items[1] = 50not allowed

Allows duplicates Same value can appear more than once (10, 10, 20)

Mixed data allowed Can store different data types ("Aman", 20, True)

Indexed Every item has position number 0, 1, 2...

150
Flow Chart

9.2.1 Creating Tuples

Syntax

tuple_name = (item1, item2, item3)

1. Tuples can store numbers, strings, Booleans, or mixed values. An empty tuple can
also be created. 2. A tuple can be created with or without parentheses, but parentheses are
recommended for clarity. 3. A single-item tuple must have a comma.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = (10, 20, 30)

names = ("Aman", "Riya", "Kabir")
mixed = ("Python", 100, 99.5, True)
empty_tuple = ()
print(numbers)
print(names)
print(mixed)
print(empty_tuple)

151
 ▶ Output:

(10, 20, 30) ('Aman', 'Riya', 'Kabir') ('Python', 100, 99.5, True)()

Different Ways to Create Tuples

Type Example

Empty tuple items = ()

Number tuple marks = (80, 90, 75)

String tuple names = ("Aman", "Riya")

Mixed tuple data = ("Aman", 20, True)

Nested tuple matrix = ((1, 2), (3, 4))

Without parentheses items = 10, 20, 30

Usingtuple() letters = tuple("ABC")

9.2.2 Single-Item Tuple

Syntax

tuple_name = (value,)

Explanation

1. A single-item tuple must contain a comma. 2. Without the comma, Python does not treat it as a tuple.
3. Parentheses alone are not enough.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE
a = ("Python")
b = ("Python",)
print(type(a))
print(type(b))
Output: <class 'str'> <class 'tuple'>

9.2.3 Accessing Tuple Values

Syntax

tuple_name[index]

152
1. Tuple values are accessed using index numbers. 2. Python indexing starts from 0. 3. Positive indexing
starts from the left. 4. Negative indexing starts from the right.
Index Diagram

Example 1
PYTHON CODE students = ("Aman", "Riya", "Kabir", "Neha")
print(students[0])
print(students[2])
print(students[-1])
Output: Aman Kabir Neha

9.2.4 Tuple Slicing

Syntax

tuple_name[start:end:step] Explanation
1. Slicing is used to get a part of a tuple. 2. The start index is included. 3. The end index is excluded. 4.
Step controls the gap between selected values. 5. Slicing returns a new tuple.

153
Example 1

▶ Output:

(20, 30, 40) (10, 20, 30) (40, 50, 60) (10, 30, 50) (60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10)

Slicing Table

Code Meaning Result

numbers[1:4] Index1to before4 (20, 30, 40)

numbers[:3] Start to before index3 (10, 20, 30)

numbers[3:] Index3to end (40, 50, 60)

numbers[::2] Every second item (10, 30, 50)

numbers[::-1] Reverse tuple (60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10)

9.2.5 Tuple Immutability

Syntax

tuple_name[index] = new_value
This syntax is not allowed for tuples.

154
Explanation

1. Tuples are immutable. 2. Once a tuple is created, its values cannot be changed directly. 3. We cannot
update, add, or remove tuple items directly. 4. If changes are needed, use a list or create a new tuple.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE
numbers = (10, 20, 30)
numbers[1] = 25
Output: TypeError: 'tuple' object does not supportitem assignment Correct Way
Create a new tuple:
PYTHON CODE
numbers = (10, 20, 30)
numbers = (10, 25, 30)
print(numbers)
Output: (10, 25, 30) Memory Idea
Before: numbers ----> (10, 20, 30) After: numbers ----> (10, 25, 30) The old tuple is not
changed. The variable starts pointing to a new tuple.

9.2.6 Tuple with Mutable Items

Syntax

tuple_name = ([item1, item2], value)

1. A tuple itself is immutable. 2. But if a tuple contains a mutable item like a list, the inner list can be
changed. 3. This happens because the tuple is still pointing to the same inner list.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE data = ([10, 20], "Python")

data[0][1] = 99
print(data)
Output: ([10, 99], 'Python')

Explanation Table

Part Mutable or Immutable?

Outer tuple Immutable

Inner list Mutable

data[0] = [1, 2] Not allowed

155
 data[0][1] = 99 Allowed

data[0][1] = 99 Allowed 9.2.7 Tuple Methods

Method Purpose Example Result

count() Counts how many times a value appears [Link](10) Count of10

index() Returns index of first matching value [Link](20) Position of20

Useful Functions with Tuples

Function Purpose Example

len() Counts items len(numbers)

sum() Adds numeric items sum(numbers)

min() Smallest value min(numbers)

max() Largest value max(numbers)

sorted() Returns sorted list sorted(numbers)

9.2.8 Tuple Operations

Operation Code Meaning

Concatenation tuple1 + tuple2 Joins tuples

Repetition tuple1 * 3 Repeats tuple

Membership value in tuple1 Checks value exists

Length len(tuple1) Counts items

Slicing tuple1[1:4] Gets part of tuple

9.2.9 Tuple Packing

Syntax

tuple_name = value1, value2, value3

Explanation

1. Tuple packing means storing multiple values together in a tuple. 2. Python automatically packs
comma-separated values into a tuple. 3. Parentheses are optional, but recommended for readability.

156
Example 1

PYTHON CODE student = "Aman", 21, "Python"

print(student)
print(type(student))
Output: ('Aman', 21, 'Python')
<class 'tuple'>

9.2.10 Tuple Unpacking

Syntax

var1, var2, var3 = tuple_name

Explanation

1. Tuple unpacking means taking values from a tuple and storing them in separate
variables. 2. The number of variables should match the number of tuple values. 3. Unpacking makes
code cleaner and readable.

157
Example 1

Output: Aman 21 Python

Important Point

This gives an error:

PYTHON CODE student = ("Aman", 21, "Python")
name, age = student
Output: ValueError: too many values to unpack
Because the tuple has 3 values, but only 2 variables are given.

9.2.11 Extended Tuple Unpacking

Syntax

first, *middle, last = tuple_name Explanation

1. Extended unpacking is used when we do not want to manually create variables for
158
every value. 2. The starred variable collects extra values. 3. The starred variable becomes a list.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = (10, 20, 30, 40, 50)

first, *middle, last = numbers
print(first)
print(middle)
print(last)
Output: 10 [20, 30, 40] 50
Important point: The starred variable stores valuesin a list, not a tuple.

9.2.12 Named Tuples

Syntax

from collections import namedtuple

TupleName = namedtuple("TupleName", ["field1", "field2"])

object_name = TupleName(value1, value2) Explanation

1. A named tuple is a tuple with named fields. 2. Normal tuple values are accessed by index. 3. Named
tuple values can be accessed by name. 4. This makes code more readable. 5. Named tuples are
immutable like normal tuples.

Example 1

Output: Aman
21 Python

159
Normal Tuple vs Named Tuple

Normal Tuple Named Tuple

Access by index Access by name

student[0] [Link]

Less readable More readable

Immutable Immutable

Immutable Immutable 9.2.13 Tuple vs List

Point List Tuple

Brackets Uses[] Uses()

Mutability Mutable Immutable

Can update items Yes No

Can add/remove items Yes No

Speed Slightly slower Slightly faster

Best for Data that may change Data that should not change

Best for Data that may change Data that should not change Important Tuple Operations Table

Operation Code Meaning

Create tuple items = (10, 20, 30) Creates tuple

Single-item tuple item = (10,) Creates tuple with one item

Access item items[0] Gets first item

Slice tuple items[1:3] Gets part of tuple

Count item [Link](10) Counts value

Find index [Link](20) Finds position

Pack tuple data = "Aman", 21 Packs values

Unpack tuple name, age = data Extracts values

Concatenate a+b Joins tuples

160
 Repeat a*2 Repeats tuple

Check membership 10 in items ReturnsTrueorFalse

Convert list to tuple tuple(my list) _ Creates tuple

Convert tuple to list list(my tuple) _ Creates list

9.3 Dictionaries in Python

A dictionary is a data structure used to store data in key-value pairs. Syntax

1. A dictionary stores data using keys and values. 2. Each key is connected to one value. 3. Keys are
used to access values. 4. Dictionaries are mutable, so values can be changed. 5. Dictionary keys must
be unique. 6. Dictionaries are written using curly braces {}.

161
Flow Chart

Example 1
PYTHON CODE student = {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21,
"course": "Python"
}
print(student)
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 21, 'course': 'Python'}

162
Dictionary Structure

Dictionary Properties Table

Property Meaning Example

Key-value based Stores data as pairs "name": "Aman"

Mutable Can be changed student["age"] = 22

Ordered Keeps insertion order Python 3.7+

Unique keys Duplicate keys are not allowed Last value replaces old value

Fast lookup Values are accessed using keys student["name"]

Mixed values allowed Values can be any data type string, int, list, tuple, dict

163
9.3.1 Creating Dictionaries Syntax

Explanation

1. Dictionaries are created using {}. 2. Keys and values are separated using a colon:. 3. Each pair is
separated using a comma. 4. Keys are usually strings, but numbers and tuples can also be used. 5.
Values can be any data type.
PYTHON CODE student = {
"name": "Rahul",
"age": 20,
"marks": 85.5,
"is_passed": True
}
print(student)
Output: {'name': 'Rahul', 'age': 20, 'marks': 85.5,'is_passed': True}

Different Ways to Create Dictionaries

Type Example

Empty dictionary data = {}

Normal dictionary student = {"name": "Aman", "age": 21}

Usingdict() student = dict(name="Aman", age=21)

Nested dictionary students = {"s1": {"name": "Aman"}}

Dictionary with list value data = {"marks": [80, 90, 85]}

Dictionary with tuple key points = {(10, 20): "A"}

164
9.3.2 Dictionary Keys and Values

Syntax

Explanation

1. A key is used to identify a value. 2. A value is the data stored against the key. 3. Keys must be unique.
4. Values can be duplicate. 5. Keys should be immutable types like string, number, or tuple.

Output: Aman

Key Rules Table

Rule Allowed? Example

String key Yes "name": "Aman"

Number key Yes 1: "One"

Tuple key Yes (10, 20): "Point"

List key No [1, 2]: "Value"

165
 Duplicate keys Not useful Last value is kept

Duplicate Key Example

Output: {'name': 'Rahul'}

The second value replaces the first value because dictionary keys must be unique.

9.3.3 Accessing Values

Syntax

dictionary_name[key]

Explanation

1. Dictionary values are accessed using keys. 2. Unlike lists and tuples, dictionaries are not accessed
mainly by index. 3. If the key exists, Python returns its value. 4. If the key does not exist, Python gives
KeyError.

166
Example 1

167
Output: Aman 21

Accessing Table

Code Meaning Result

student["name"] Access name "Aman"

student["age"] Access age 21

student["course"] Access course "Python"

KeyError Example

PYTHON CODE student = {

"name": "Aman",
"age": 21
}
print(student["marks"])
Output: KeyError: 'marks' The key "marks" does not exist. 9.3.4 Updating Values

168
Syntax

dictionary_name[key] = new_value
1. Dictionaries are mutable. 2. Existing values can be updated using keys. 3. If the key already exists, its
value is updated. 4. If the key does not exist, a new key-value pair is added.
PYTHON CODE student = {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21
}
student["age"] = 22
student["course"] = "Python"
print(student)
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 22, 'course': 'Python'}

9.3.5 Dictionary Methods

Dictionary methods are built-in operations used to access, update, remove, copy, and manage
dictionary data.
Assume this dictionary:
PYTHON CODE
student = {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21,
"course": "Python"
}

Dictionary Methods Table

Method Purpose Example Result / Effect

keys() Returns all keys [Link]() dict keys(['name', 'age',

'course']) _

values() Returns all values [Link]() dict values(['Aman', 21,

'Python']) _

items() Returns key-value [Link]() dict items([('name','Aman'),...])

pairs _

get() Returns value safely [Link]("name") "Aman"

update() Adds or updates data [Link]({"age": 22}) Updates age

169
 pop() Removes key and [Link]("age") Returns21
returns value

popitem() Removes last inserted [Link]() Removes last pair

pair

clear() Removes all items [Link]() {}

copy() Creates shallow copy new = [Link]() New dictionary

setdefault() Gets value or adds [Link]("city", Adds city if missing

default "Delhi")

fromkeys() Creates dictionary [Link](["a","b"], 0) {'a': 0, 'b': 0}

from keys

Method Behavior Table

Method Changes Original Dictionary? Returns

keys() No View of keys

values() No View of values

items() No View of key-value pairs

get() No Value or default

update() Yes None

pop() Yes Removed value

popitem() Yes Removed key-value pair

clear() Yes None

copy() No New shallow copy

setdefault() May change Existing/default value

fromkeys() Creates new dictionary New dictionary

170
9.3.6 get() Method

Syntax

Explanation

1. get() is used to access dictionary values safely. 2. If the key exists, it returns the value. 3. If the key
does not exist, it returns None by default. 4. We can also provide our own default value. 5. get() avoids
KeyError.

Flow Chart

Example 1
PYTHON CODE
student = {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21
}
print([Link]("name"))
171
print([Link]("marks"))
print([Link]("marks", "Not available"))
Output: Aman None Not available

[] vs get() Table

Access Method If Key Exists If Key Missing

student["name"] Returns value GivesKeyError

[Link]("name") Returns value ReturnsNone

[Link]("marks", 0) Returns value Returns default value

9.3.7 Removing Dictionary Items

Syntax

[Link](key) [Link]() del dictionary[key] [Link]()

Explanation

1. pop(key) removes a specific key and returns its value. 2. popitem() removes the last inserted key-
value pair. 3. del removes a specific key. 4. clear() removes all items.

Removing Items Table

Method / Keyword Purpose Example

pop(key) Removes specific key [Link]("age")

popitem() Removes last pair [Link]()

del Deletes specific key del student["age"]

clear() Empties dictionary [Link]()

Example 1

PYTHON CODE student = {

"name": "Aman",
"age": 21,
"course": "Python"
}
[Link]("age")
print(student)

172
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'course': 'Python'}

9.3.8 Looping Through Dictionaries

Syntax

Explanation

1. A dictionary can be looped through using for. 2. By default, looping over a dictionary gives keys. 3.
Use values() to loop through values. 4. Use items() to loop through both keys and values.

173
Example 1
PYTHON CODE
student = {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21,
"course": "Python"
}
for key, value in [Link]():
print(key, value)
Output: name Aman age 21 course Python

9.3.9 Checking Key Membership

Syntax

Explanation

1. in checks whether a key exists in the dictionary. 2. It checks keys, not values. 3. It returns True or
False.

174
Example 1

Output: True False

Membership Table

Code Meaning

"name" in student Checks if key exists

"marks" not in student Checks if key does not exist

"Aman" in student Checks key, not value

175
9.3.10 Nested Dictionaries

Syntax

Explanation

1. A nested dictionary means a dictionary inside another dictionary.

2. It is useful for storing structured data.
3. To access inner values, use multiple keys.
4. Nested dictionaries are common in real-world data like users, students, products, and
API responses.

176
Example 1
PYTHON CODE students = {
"student1": {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21
},
"student2": {
"name": "Riya",
"age": 20
}
}
print(students["student1"]["name"])
print(students["student2"]["age"])
Output: Aman 20

177
Updating Nested Dictionary

Output: {'student1': {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 22}}

178
9.3.11 Dictionary Comprehensions

Syntax

With condition:

Explanation

1. Dictionary comprehension is a short way to create a dictionary. 2. It is similar to list comprehension. 3.

It creates key-value pairs using a loop. 4. It can also include conditions.

Flow Chart

Take sequence
| v Loop through items
| v Create key-value pair
| v Store in new dictionary
Example 1
PYTHON CODE
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
squares = {number: number * number for number in numbers}
print(squares)
Output:
{1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16}

Example 2: With Condition

PYTHON CODE
numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
even_squares = {number: number * number for number in numbers if number % 2 == 0}
print(even_squares)
Output: {2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}

Dictionary Comprehension Parts

Part Meaning

179
 numberbefore: Key

number * number Value

for number in numbers Loop

if number % 2 == 0 Optional condition

9.3.12 Merging Dictionaries

Merging means combining two or more dictionaries.

Example 1: Using update()

PYTHON CODE
student = {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21
}
extra = {
"course": "Python",
"city": "Delhi"
}
[Link](extra)
print(student)
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 21, 'course': 'Python', 'city': 'Delhi'}

Example 2: Using |

PYTHON CODE
student = {
"name": "Aman",
"age": 21
}
extra = {
"course": "Python",
"city": "Delhi"
}
result = student | extra
print(result)

180
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 21, 'course': 'Python', 'city': 'Delhi'}

Same Key During Merge

If both dictionaries have the same key, the second dictionary value wins.
PYTHON CODE
a = {"name": "Aman", "age": 21}
b = {"age": 22, "course": "Python"}
result = a | b
print(result)
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 22, 'course': 'Python'} 9.3.13 Copying Dictionaries

Syntax

new_dict = old_dict.copy()

Explanation

1. copy() creates a shallow copy of a dictionary. 2. Direct assignment does not create a new dictionary.
3. Direct assignment makes both variables point to the same dictionary.

Direct Assignment Example

PYTHON CODE
student1 = {"name": "Aman", "age": 21}
student2 = student1
student2["age"] = 22
print(student1)
print(student2)
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 22} {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 22}

Real Copy Example

PYTHON CODE
student1 = {"name": "Aman", "age": 21}
student2 = [Link]()
student2["age"] = 22
print(student1)
print(student2)

▶ Output:

{'name': 'Aman', 'age': 21}

181
{'name': 'Aman', 'age': 22}

Copying Table

Method Creates New Dictionary? Notes

dict2 = dict1 No Same dictionary reference

dict2 = [Link]() Yes Shallow copy

dict2 = dict(dict1) Yes Shallow copy

9.3.14 Dictionary vs List

Point List Dictionary

Data storage Stores values Stores key-value pairs

Access by Index Key

Brackets [] {}

Best for Ordered collection of values Labeled/structured data

Example ["Aman", 21] {"name": "Aman", "age": 21}

9.3.15 Important Dictionary Operations

Operation Code Meaning

Create dictionary data = {"name": "Aman"} Creates dictionary

Access value data["name"] Gets value by key

Safe access [Link]("name") AvoidsKeyError

Update value data["name"] = "Rahul" Changes value

Add new pair data["age"] = 21 Adds key-value pair

Remove key [Link]("age") Removes key

Check key "name" in data ReturnsTrueorFalse

Get keys [Link]() Returns all keys

Get values [Link]() Returns all values

182
 Get pairs [Link]() Returns key-value pairs

Merge dictionaries `dict1 dict2`

Copy dictionary [Link]() Creates shallow copy

Empty dictionary [Link]() Removes all items

9.4 Sets in Python

A set is a data structure used to store multiple unique values.

Syntax

Explanation

1. Sets are written using curly braces {}. 2. Set items are separated by commas. 3. Sets store only
unique values. 4. Sets are unordered, so items do not have fixed positions. 5. Sets are mutable, so we
can add or remove items. 6. Set elements must be immutable/hashable values.
Example 1
PYTHON CODE
numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40}
print(numbers)
{40, 10, 20, 30} : The output order may look different because sets are unordered.

Set Properties Table

Property Meaning Example

Unordered Items have no fixed index Cannot useitems[0]

Unique values Duplicate values are removed {10, 10, 20}becomes{10, 20}

Mutable Items can be added/removed [Link](50)

Unindexed No indexing/slicing items[1]not allowed

Mixed data allowed Can store different immutable types {10, "Aman", True}

183
 Fast membership check Good for checking existence 10 in numbers

9.4.1 Creating Sets

Syntax

set_name = {item1, item2, item3}

1. Sets can store numbers, strings, Booleans, and tuples. 2. Sets cannot store mutable values like lists or
dictionaries. 3. Empty set must be created using set(). {} createsan empty dictionary, not an empty
set.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE
numbers = {10, 20, 30}
names = {"Aman", "Riya", "Kabir"}
mixed = {"Python", 100, 99.5, True}
empty_set = set()
print(numbers)
print(names)
print(mixed)
print(empty_set)
Output: {10, 20, 30} {'Aman', 'Kabir', 'Riya'} {True, 99.5, 100, 'Python'} set() Order may differ in output.

Different Ways to Create Sets

Type Example

Empty set items = set()

Number set marks = {80, 90, 75}

String set names = {"Aman", "Riya"}

Mixed set data = {"Aman", 20, True}

From list items = set([10, 20, 10])

From string letters = set("ABC")

From tuple items = set((10, 20, 30))

Empty Set Important Point

PYTHON CODE
184
a = {}
b = set()
print(type(a))
print(type(b))
Output: <class 'dict'> <class 'set'>

9.4.2 Unique Values

Syntax

set_name = {value1, value2, value1}

1. Sets automatically remove duplicate values. 2. Each value appears only once. 3. This makes sets
useful for removing duplicates from data. 4. Sets check uniqueness using the value, not position.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = {10, 20, 10, 30, 20, 40}

print(numbers)
Output: {40, 10, 20, 30} => Duplicate 10 and 20 are removed.

Removing Duplicates from a List

PYTHON CODE numbers = [10, 20, 10, 30, 20, 40]

unique_numbers = set(numbers)
print(unique_numbers)
Output: {40, 10, 20, 30}

9.4.3 Set Elements Must Be Immutable

Syntax

set_name = {immutable_value1, immutable_value2}

Explanation

1. Set elements must be hashable. 2. Immutable values like numbers, strings, and tuples can be stored
in a set. 3. Mutable values like lists, dictionaries, and sets cannot be stored in a set. 4. This is because
sets internally need stable values to check uniqueness.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE valid_set = {10, "Python", (1, 2)}

print(valid_set)
Output: {10, 'Python', (1, 2)}

✎ Invalid example:

185
PYTHON CODE invalid_set = {[1, 2], [3, 4]}
Output: TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Allowed vs Not Allowed Table

Value Type Allowed in Set? Example

Integer Yes {10, 20}

Float Yes {10.5, 20.5}

String Yes {"A", "B"}

Boolean Yes {True, False}

Tuple Yes, if tuple contains immutable items {(1, 2)}

List No {[1, 2]}

Dictionary No {{"a": 1}}

Set No {{1, 2}}

9.4.4 Accessing Set Values

Syntax

Explanation

1. Sets do not support indexing. 2. Sets do not support slicing. 3. Values can be accessed by looping. 4.
Membership can be checked using in. Example 1
PYTHON CODE
languages = {"Python", "Java", "C++"}
for language in languages:
print(language)
Possible output: Java Python C++ Output order may differ. Invalid Access:
PYTHON CODE languages = {"Python", "Java", "C++"}
print(languages[0])
Output: TypeError: 'set' object is not subscriptable

186
Accessing Table

Operation Allowed? Example

Looping Yes for item in items:

Membership check Yes "Python" in items

Indexing No items[0]

Slicing No items[1:3]

9.4.5 Checking Membership

Syntax

Explanation

1. Sets are very useful for checking whether a value exists. 2. in returns True if value exists. 3. not in
returns True if value does not exist. 4. Membership checking in sets is usually faster than lists for large
data.

✎ Example:

Output: True False True 9.4.6 Adding Set Items

187
Syntax

Explanation

1. add() adds one item. 2. update() adds multiple items. 3. If an added value already exists, it is not
added again. 4. Sets automatically maintain uniqueness.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = {10, 20, 30}

[Link](40)
[Link]([50, 60, 20])
print(numbers)
Output: {40, 10, 50, 20, 60, 30}
20 was already present, so it is not duplicated.

add() vs update()

Method Adds Example

add() One item [Link](10)

update() Multiple items [Link]([10, 20])

update() Multiple items [Link]([10, 20]) 9.4.7 Removing Set Items

PYTHON CODE set_name.remove(value)
set_name.discard(value)
set_name.pop()
set_name.clear()
1. remove() removes a specific item. 2. discard() also removes a specific item. 3. pop() removes a
random item because sets are unordered. 4. clear() removes all items.

✎ Example:

188
PYTHON CODE numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40}
[Link](20)
[Link](50)
print(numbers)
Output: {40, 10, 30}
discard(50) does not give an error even though 50 is missing.

Removing Methods Table

Method Purpose If Value Missing

remove(value) Removes specific value GivesKeyError

discard(value) Removes specific value No error

pop() Removes random item Gives error if set is empty

clear() Removes all items No error

9.4.8 Set Operations

Set operations are used to compare or combine sets. Main set operations:
1. Union 2. Intersection 3. Difference 4. Symmetric difference 5. Subset 6. Superset 7. Disjoint
Assume: a = {1, 2, 3} b = {3, 4, 5} Set Operations Table

Operation Symbo Method Meaning Result

Union `a b` [Link](b) All unique values

from both sets

Intersection a&b [Link](b) Common values {3}

Difference a-b [Link](b) Values inabut not inb {1, 2}

Symmetric a^b [Link] Values not common in {1, 2, 4, 5}

difference difference(b) _ both

Subset a <= b [Link](b) Checks if all items False

ofaare inb

Superset a >= b [Link](b) Checks ifacontains all False

items ofb

Disjoint No [Link](b) Checks if no common False

symbol items exist

189
Example 1

PYTHON CODE a = {1, 2, 3}

b = {3, 4, 5}
print(a | b)
print(a & b)
print(a - b)
print(a ^ b)
Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {3} {1, 2} {1, 2, 4, 5}

9.4.9 Union

Syntax

set1 | set2 [Link](set2)

Explanation

1. Union combines two sets. 2. It returns all unique values from both sets. 3. Duplicate/common values
appear only once.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE
a = {1, 2, 3}
b = {3, 4, 5}
result = [Link](b)
print(result)
Output: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
a = {1, 2, 3} b = {3, 4, 5} Union = all unique values = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

9.4.10 Intersection

Syntax

set1 & set2

[Link](set2)
1. Intersection returns only common values. 2. Values must exist in both sets.
PYTHON CODE a = {1, 2, 3}
b = {3, 4, 5}
result = [Link](b)
print(result)
Output: {3}

190
9.4.11 Difference

Syntax

set1 - set2 [Link](set2)

1. Difference returns values present in the first set but not in the second set. 2. a - b and b - a can give
different results.
PYTHON CODE a = {1, 2, 3}
b = {3, 4, 5}
print(a - b)
print(b - a)
Output: {1, 2} {4, 5} a - b = values in a but not in b = {1, 2} b - a = values in b but not in a = {4, 5}

9.4.12 Symmetric Difference Syntax

set1 ^ set2
set1.symmetric_difference(set2)
1. Symmetric difference returns values that are not common. 2. It removes common values from the
final result.
PYTHON CODE a = {1, 2, 3}
b = {3, 4, 5}
result = a.symmetric_difference(b)
print(result)
Output: {1, 2, 4, 5}

9.4.13 Subset, Superset, & Disjoint Sets

Syntax

[Link](set2) [Link](set2) [Link](set2)

1. A subset means all values of one set exist inside another set. 2. A superset means one set contains all
values of another set. 3. Disjoint sets have no common values.
PYTHON CODE a = {1, 2}
b = {1, 2, 3, 4}
c = {5, 6}
print([Link](b))
print([Link](a))
print([Link](c))
Output: True True True

191
Comparison Table

Concept Meaning Example Result

Subset All items ofaare inb {1, 2} <= {1, 2, 3} True

Superset bcontains all items ofa {1, 2, 3} >= {1, 2} True

Disjoint No common items {1, 2}.isdisjoint({3, 4}) True

Disjoint No common items {1, 2}.isdisjoint({3, 4}) True 9.4.14 Set Methods

Method Purpose Example Result / Effect

add() Adds one item [Link](10) Adds10

update() Adds multiple items [Link]([10, 20]) Adds all items

remove() Removes item [Link](10) Error if missing

discard() Removes item safely [Link](10) No error if

missing

pop() Removes random item [Link]() Returns removed

item

clear() Removes all items [Link]() Empty set

copy() Creates shallow copy new = [Link]() New set

union() Combines sets [Link](b) New set

intersection() Common items [Link](b) New set

difference() Items in first but not [Link](b) New set

second

symmetric differe _ nce() Items not common [Link] difference(b) _ New set

intersection updat _ e() Keeps only common [Link] update(b) _ Changesa

items

difference update( _ ) Removes items found [Link] update(b) _ Changesa

in other set

symmetric differe _ nce Keeps non-common [Link] difference u _ _ Changesa

update() _ items pdate(b)

issubset() Checks subset [Link](b) True/False

192
 issuperset() Checks superset [Link](b) True/False

isdisjoint() Checks no common [Link](b) True/False

items

9.4.15 Set Operators

Set operations can also be done using operators.

Operator Meaning Same As

` ` Union

& Intersection [Link](b)

- Difference [Link](b)

^ Symmetric difference [Link] difference(b) _

<= Subset check [Link](b)

< Proper subset check a<b

>= Superset check [Link](b)

> Proper superset check a>b

> Proper superset check a > b 9.4.16 Updating Sets with Operations

Syntax

set1.intersection_update(set2) set1.difference_update(set2) set1.symmetric_difference_update(set2)

1. Normal set operation methods return a new set. 2. Update methods change the original set. 3. These
are useful when we do not need the old set.
PYTHON CODE
a = {1, 2, 3}
b = {3, 4, 5}
a.intersection_update(b)
print(a)
Output: {3}

9.4.17 Copying Sets Syntax

new_set = old_set.copy()
1. copy() creates a shallow copy of a set. Direct assignmentdoes not create a new set. 2. Direct
assignment makes both variables point to the same set.

193
PYTHON CODE a = {10, 20, 30}
b = [Link]()
[Link](40)
print(a)
print(b)
Output: {10, 20, 30}
{40, 10, 20, 30} Copying Table

Code Creates New Set? Meaning

b=a No Same set reference

b = [Link]() Yes Shallow copy

b = set(a) Yes New set

b = set(a) Yes New set 9.4.18 Frozen Sets

A frozenset is an immutable version of a set. Syntax
frozenset_name = frozenset(iterable)
1. A normal set is mutable. A frozenset is immutable. 2. Values cannot be added or removed from a
frozenset. Frozensets can be used as
dictionary keys or set elements. 3. Frozensets support read-only set operations like union, intersection,
and difference.
PYTHON CODE numbers = frozenset([10, 20, 30])
print(numbers)
print(type(numbers))
Output: frozenset({10, 20, 30})
<class 'frozenset'>

Invalid Operation

PYTHON CODE numbers = frozenset([10, 20, 30])

[Link](40)
Output: AttributeError: 'frozenset' object has noattribute 'add' Set vs Frozen Set Table

Point Set Frozenset

Mutable Yes No

Add items Allowed Not allowed

194
 Remove items Allowed Not allowed

Unique values Yes Yes

Unordered Yes Yes

Can be dictionary key No Yes

Can be set element No Yes

Syntax {1, 2, 3} frozenset([1, 2, 3])

Frozenset Methods Table

Method Available in Frozenset? Reason

union() Yes Does not modify original

intersection() Yes Does not modify original

difference() Yes Does not modify original

symmetric difference() _ Yes Does not modify original

issubset() Yes Only checks

issuperset() Yes Only checks

isdisjoint() Yes Only checks

add() No Modifies set

remove() No Modifies set

discard() No Modifies set

clear() No Modifies set

update() No Modifies set

9.4.19 Set Comprehensions

Syntax

new_set = {expression for item in sequence}

With condition:
new_set = {expression for item in sequence if condition}

195
1. Set comprehension is a short way to create a set. 2. It is similar to list comprehension. 3. It
automatically keeps only unique values. 4. It can include conditions.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = [1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4]

squares = {number * number for number in numbers}
print(squares)
Output: {16, 1, 4, 9} :Duplicate input values donot create duplicate set values.

Example 2: With Condition

PYTHON CODE numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

even_numbers = {number for number in numbers if number % 2 == 0}
print(even_numbers)
Output: {2, 4, 6} List Comprehension vs Set Comprehension

Point List Comprehension Set Comprehension

Brackets [] {}

Allows duplicates Yes No

Ordered Yes No fixed order

Result type List Set

Example [x for x in data] {x for x in data}

9.4.20 Set Conversion

Syntax

set(iterable)
list(set_name)
tuple(set_name)
1. set() converts an iterable into a set. 2. This is often used to remove duplicates. 3. A set can be
converted back to a list or tuple. 4. Order may change after converting to a set.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE
numbers = [10, 20, 10, 30, 20]
unique_numbers = set(numbers)
print(unique_numbers)

196
print(list(unique_numbers))
Output: {10, 20, 30} [10, 20, 30] Order may differ.

Conversion Table

Conversion Code Result Type

List to set set([1, 2, 2]) Set

Tuple to set set((1, 2, 2)) Set

String to set set("banana") Set of unique characters

Set to list list({1, 2, 3}) List

Set to tuple tuple({1, 2, 3}) Tuple

9.4.21 Set vs List vs Tuple

Point List Tuple Set

Brackets [] () {}

Ordered Yes Yes No fixed order

Mutable Yes No Yes

Allows duplicates Yes Yes No

Indexing Yes Yes No

Slicing Yes Yes No

Best for Changeable ordered data Fixed ordered data Unique unordered data

Example [10, 20] (10, 20) {10, 20}

Important Set Operations Table

Operation Code Meaning

Create set items = {10, 20, 30} Creates set

Empty set items = set() Creates empty set

Add one item [Link](40) Adds one value

Add multiple items [Link]([40, 50]) Adds many values

197
 Remove safely [Link](20) Removes without error

Remove with error [Link](20) Error if missing

Random remove [Link]() Removes random item

Empty set [Link]() Removes all items

Check value 10 in items Membership check

Union `a b`

Intersection a&b Common values

Difference a-b Values ina, not inb

Symmetric difference a^b Non-common values

Subset a <= b Checks subset

Superset a >= b Checks superset

Copy set [Link]() Creates shallow copy

Frozen set frozenset(items) Immutable set

9.5 Collections Module in Python

The collections module provides special data structuresthat are more powerful than normal lists, tuples,
dictionaries, and sets.

198
Syntax

1. collections is a built-in Python module. 2. It gives ready-made advanced data structures. 3. These
structures help solve common problems easily. 4. They are useful for counting, grouping, ordering, fast
queue operations, and
combining dictionaries.

Collections Module Overview

Tool Main Use

Counter Counting frequency

defaultdict Dictionary with default values

OrderedDict Dictionary that manages order

deque Fast queue and stack operations

ChainMap Combines multiple dictionaries as one view

ChainMap Combines multiple dictionaries as one view 9.5.1 Counter

Counter is used to count how many times each valueappears.

199
Syntax

Explanation

1. Counter counts repeated values. 2. It returns a dictionary-like object. 3. Items become keys. 4. Their
counts become values. 5. It is commonly used for frequency counting.

Flow Chart

Input data
| v Counter checks each item
| v Counts repeated items
| v Returns item-count pairs

Example 1

PYTHON CODE from collections import Counter

letters = "banana"
count = Counter(letters)
print(count)
Output: Counter({'a': 3, 'n': 2, 'b': 1})

Example 2

PYTHON CODE from collections import Counter

items = ["apple", "banana", "apple", "mango", "banana", "apple"]
count = Counter(items)
print(count)
Output: Counter({'apple': 3, 'banana': 2, 'mango': 1})

200
Common Counter Methods

Method Meaning Example

most common() _ Returns most frequent items [Link] common() _

most common(n) _ Returns topnfrequent items [Link] common(2) _

elements() Returns items repeated by count [Link]()

update() Adds more counts [Link](data)

subtract() Subtracts counts [Link](data)

9.5.2 defaultdict

defaultdict is a dictionary that gives a default valuewhen a key does not exist.

Syntax

from collections import defaultdict dictionary_name = defaultdict(default_type)

Explanation

1. Normal dictionaries give KeyError if a key does notexist. 2. defaultdict avoids this problem. 3. It
automatically creates a default value for missing keys. 4. Common default types are int, list , and set.

Flow Chart

Example 1: Using int

PYTHON CODE from collections import defaultdict

201
marks = defaultdict(int)
marks["math"] += 10
marks["science"] += 20
print(marks)
Output:defaultdict(<class 'int'>, {'math': 10, 'science':20}) Here, missing keys start with default value
0. Common Default Types

Default Type Default Value Common Use

int 0 Counting

list [] Grouping values

set set() Grouping unique values

str "" Empty text

Example 2: Using list

PYTHON CODE from collections import defaultdict

students = defaultdict(list)
students["Python"].append("Aman")
students["Python"].append("Riya")
students["Java"].append("Kabir")
print(students)
Output: defaultdict(<class 'list'>, {'Python': ['Aman','Riya'], 'Java': ['Kabir']})

Normal Dictionary vs defaultdict

Point Normal Dictionary defaultdict

Missing key GivesKeyError Creates default value

Best for Simple key-value data Grouping/counting

Needs manual checking Yes No

9.5.3 OrderedDict

OrderedDict is a dictionary that remembers and managesthe order of items.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE from collections import OrderedDict

dictionary_name = OrderedDict()
202
Explanation

1. OrderedDict stores key-value pairs in order. 2. Normal dictionaries also preserve insertion order in
modern Python. 3. OrderedDict is still useful because it has extra order-relatedmethods. 4. It can move
items to the beginning or end. 5. It can remove items from either side.
Example 1
PYTHON CODE from collections import OrderedDict
student = OrderedDict()
student["name"] = "Aman"
student["age"] = 21
student["course"] = "Python"
print(student)
Output: OrderedDict([('name', 'Aman'), ('age', 21),('course', 'Python')])

Useful OrderedDict Methods

Method Meaning Example

move to end(key) _ _ Moves key to the end [Link] to end("name") _ _

move to end(key, _ _ Moves key to the [Link] to end("name", _ _

last=False) beginning last=False)

popitem() Removes last item [Link]()

popitem(last=False) Removes first item [Link](last=False)

Normal Dictionary vs OrderedDict

Point Normal Dictionary OrderedDict

Preserves insertion order Yes, in modern Python Yes

Move key to end Not directly Yes

Remove first item easily Not directly Yes

Best for General dictionary use Order-sensitive dictionary logic

9.5.4 deque
deque means double-ended queue.
It allows fast adding and removing from both ends.

203
Syntax

from collections import deque

deque_name = deque(iterable)
1. deque is used when we need fast insert/remove fromleft and right. 2. It works like a queue and stack.
3. Lists are slower when removing from the beginning. 4. deque is useful for queues, recent history,
undo operations,and sliding windows.
Example 1
PYTHON CODE from collections import deque
numbers = deque([10, 20, 30])
[Link](40)
[Link](5)
print(numbers)
Output: deque([5, 10, 20, 30, 40])

Common deque Methods

Method Meaning Example

append() Adds item at right end [Link](10)

appendleft() Adds item at left end [Link](10)

pop() Removes item from right end [Link]()

popleft() Removes item from left end [Link]()

extend() Adds multiple items at right [Link]([1, 2])

extendleft() Adds multiple items at left [Link]([1, 2])

rotate(n) Rotates items [Link](1)

clear() Removes all items [Link]()

List vs deque

Point List deque

Add at end Fast Fast

Remove from end Fast Fast

Add at beginning Slower Fast

204
 Remove from beginning Slower Fast

Best for General storage Queue operations

9.5.5 ChainMap
ChainMap combines multiple dictionaries into one view.

Syntax

from collections import ChainMap chain_name = ChainMap(dict1, dict2, dict3)

1. ChainMap groups multiple dictionaries together. 2. It does not merge them permanently. 3. It creates
a combined view. 4. When searching for a key, Python checks dictionaries from left to right. 5. If the
same key exists in multiple dictionaries, the first one is used.
Example 1
PYTHON CODE from collections import ChainMap
defaults = {
"theme": "light",
"language": "English"
}
user_settings = {
"theme": "dark"
}
settings = ChainMap(user_settings, defaults)
print(settings["theme"])
print(settings["language"])
Output: dark English Explanation:
1. "theme" exists in user_settings , so "dark" is used. 2. "language" is not in user_settings , so Python
checks defaults.

Useful ChainMap Features

Feature Meaning Example

maps Shows all dictionaries [Link]

new child() _ Adds new dictionary in front [Link] child({...}) _

parents Removes first dictionary from view [Link]

205
 10 Functions in Python

A function is a reusable block of code that performsa specific task. Instead of writing the same code
again and again, we write it once inside a function and call it whenever needed.

Basic idea

Function = reusable block of code

Simple flow

Define function
| v Call function
| v Function code runs
| v Result/output is produced 10.1 What is a Function?

Syntax

1. A function groups related code together. 2. A function runs only when it is called. 3. Functions help
avoid repeated code. 4. Functions make code clean, reusable, and easy to understand. 5. Python has
built-in functions and user-defined functions.

Built-in vs User-defined Functions

Type Meaning Example

Built-in function Already provided by Python print(),len(),type()

User-defined function Created by programmer def greet():

Flow Chart

Start
| v Function is defined
| v Function is called

206
| v Function body executes
| v Program continues
PYTHON CODE def greet():
print("Hello, welcome to Python")
greet()
Output: Hello, welcome to Python

10.2 Defining Functions

Syntax

1. def is used to define a function. 2. The function name comes after def. 3. Parentheses() are required.
4. A colon: marks the start of the function body. 5. The function body must be indented.

PYTHON CODE def say_hello():

print("Hello")
This only defines the function. It does not run yet. To run it, we must call it.
say_hello()
Output: Hello

Empty Function

If we want to create a function but write logic later, use pass.

PYTHON CODE def future_function():

207
pass

10.3 Calling Functions

Syntax

function_name()
1. Calling a function means executing it. 2. A function can be called once or many times. 3. The function
body runs every time the function is called. 4. If a function is defined but never called, its code will not
execute.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def greet():

print("Hello")
greet()
greet()
greet()
Output:Hello
Hello Hello

10.4 Parameters

A parameter is a variable written inside the functiondefinition. It receives values when the function is
called. Syntax
PYTHON CODE def function_name(parameter):
statement

Explanation

1. Parameters make functions flexible. 2. Parameters allow us to send data into a function. 3. A function
can have one or more parameters. 4. Parameters are written inside parentheses during function
definition.

Flow Chart

Function definition has parameter

| v Function call sends value
| v Parameter receives value
| v Function uses that value

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def greet(name):

208
print("Hello", name)
greet("Aman")
Output: Hello Aman Here, name is a parameter.

10.5 Arguments

An argument is the actual value passed to a functionduring function call.

Syntax

function_name(argument)

Explanation

1. Parameter is written in function definition. 2. Argument is passed during function call. 3. Arguments
provide real values to parameters.

Parameter vs Argument

Term Where It Appears Meaning

Parameter Function definition Variable that receives value

Argument Function call Actual value passed

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def greet(name):

print("Hello", name)
greet("Riya")
Output: Hello Riya

Code Role

name Parameter

"Riya" Argument

10.6 Positional Arguments

Positional arguments are matched based on their position.

Syntax

function_name(argument1, argument2)

209
Explanation

1. Python passes arguments in the same order as parameters. 2. The first argument goes to the first
parameter. 3. The second argument goes to the second parameter. 4. Order matters in positional
arguments.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def student_info(name, age):

print("Name:", name)
print("Age:", age)
student_info("Aman", 21)
Output: Name: Aman Age: 21

Flow Chart

student_info("Aman", 21)
||
vv
name age

10.7 Return Values

A return value is the result sent back by a function.

Syntax

def function_name():

return value
1. return sends a value back to the place where the function was called. 2. A function can return one
value or multiple values. 3. After return , the function stops executing. 4. If there is no return , Python
returns None automatically.

210
Flow Chart

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def add(a, b):

result = a + b
return result
answer = add(10, 20)
print(answer)

▶ Output:

30

Example 2: Function without return

PYTHON CODE def greet():

print("Hello")
result = greet()
print(result)
Output: Hello
None
Because greet() does not return any value, Python returns None.

211
10.8 Returning Multiple Values

Python functions can return multiple values. Syntax:

1. Multiple values can be returned using commas. 2. Python returns them as a tuple. 3. Returned values
can be unpacked into variables. Example 1
PYTHON CODE def calculate(a, b):
total = a + b difference = a - b return total, difference sum_result, diff_result = calculate(20, 10)
print(sum_result) print(diff_result)
Output: 30 10

10.9 Default Parameters

A default parameter has a predefined value. If no argument is passed, the default value is used.

Syntax

1. Default parameters make arguments optional. 2. If an argument is provided, Python uses the given
value. 3. If no argument is provided, Python uses the default value. 4. Non-default parameters must
come before default parameters.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def greet(name="Guest"):

print("Hello", name)
greet("Aman")

212
greet()

▶ Output:

Hello Aman
Hello Guest Correct and Incorrect Order

Code Valid? Reason

def show(name, age=18): Yes Default parameter comes after normal parameter

def show(name="Guest", Yes Both have defaults

age=18):

def show(name="Guest", age): No Non-default parameter cannot come after default

parameter

def show(name="Guest", age): No Non-default parameter cannot come after default parameter
Important Warning: Avoid Mutable Default Values Do not use mutable objects like list or dictionary as
default values. Wrong style:

Output: ['A']
['A', 'B'] The same list is reused between function calls. Better style:

213
Output: ['A']
['B']

10.10 Keyword Arguments

Keyword arguments pass values using parameter names. Syntax

1. Keyword arguments use names while calling a function. 2. Order does not matter when keyword
arguments are used. 3. They make function calls more readable. 4. Positional arguments must come
before keyword arguments.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def student_info(name, age, course):

print("Name:", name)
print("Age:", age)
print("Course:", course)
student_info(age=21, course="Python", name="Aman")
Output: Name: Aman

214
Age: 21 Course: Python
Positional vs Keyword Arguments

Type Example Order Matters?

Positional argument student info("Aman", 21, "Python") _ Yes

Keyword argument student info(age=21, name="Aman", _ course="Python") No

Important Rule

Correct:

Incorrect:

Positional arguments cannot come after keyword arguments.

10.11 *args

*args is used when we do not know how many positional arguments will be passed.

Syntax

1. *args collects extra positional arguments. 2. The collected values are stored as a tuple. 3. The name
args is a convention; the * is important. 4. Use *args when the number of arguments is flexible.

Flow Chart

Function call has many positional arguments

| v *args collects them
| v Values are stored as a tuple

215
Example 1

PYTHON CODE def add_numbers(*numbers):

total = 0
for number in numbers:
total += number
return total
print(add_numbers(10, 20, 30))
print(add_numbers(5, 15))
Output: 60 20 Here, numbers behaves like a tuple.

10.12 **kwargs

**kwargs is used when we do not know how many keywordarguments will be passed.

Syntax

Explanation

1. **kwargs collects extra keyword arguments. 2. The collected values are stored as a dictionary. 3.
Keys are argument names. 4. Values are argument values. 5. The name kwargs is a convention; the ** is
important.

Flow Chart

Function call has many keyword arguments

| v **kwargs collects them
| v Values are stored as a dictionary

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def show_profile(**details):

for key, value in [Link]():
print(key, value)
show_profile(name="Aman", age=21, course="Python")
Output:
name Aman
age 21

216
course Python
Here, details behaves like a dictionary.

10.13 *args vs **kwargs

Point *args **kwargs

Collects Positional arguments Keyword arguments

Stored as Tuple Dictionary

Symbol Single star* Double star**

Example call func(10, 20, 30) func(name="Aman", age=21)

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def show_data(*args, **kwargs):

print(args)
print(kwargs)
show_data(10, 20, name="Aman", age=21)
Output: (10, 20) {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 21}

10.14 Function Parameter Order

When using different types of parameters together, the order matters.

Syntax

Explanation

1. Normal parameters come first. 2. Default parameters come after normal parameters. 3. *args comes
after normal/default parameters. 4. **kwargs comes last. 5. This order keeps function calls clear and
valid.

Parameter Order Table

Order Parameter Type Example

1 Normal parameter name

2 Default parameter age=18

217
 3 *args *marks

4 **kwargs **details

Example 1

▶ Output:

Name: Aman Age: 21 Marks: (80, 90, 85) Details: {'course': 'Python', 'city': 'Delhi'}

10.15 Docstrings

A docstring is a string written inside a function to explain what the function does.

Syntax

1. A docstring is written using triple quotes. 2. It is usually written as the first statement inside a
function. 3. It explains the purpose of the function. 4. It helps other programmers understand the
function. 5. It can be viewed using help() or .__doc__.

218
Example 1

Output: 30
Return the sum of two numbers.

Good Docstring Style

10.16 Function Naming Rules

Function names follow the same basic rules as variable names.

Syntax

def function_name():

219
statement
1. Function names should be meaningful. 2. Use snake_case for function names. 3. Function names
should usually describe an action. 4. Avoid using Python keywords as function names. 5. Avoid unclear
names like x(), abc() , or test1().

11 Advanced Functions

Advanced functions help us write more flexible, reusable, and compact code.
Before starting, remember:
In Python, functions are objects. This means:
1. A function can be stored in a variable. 2. A function can be passed as an argument. 3. A function can
be returned from another function. 4. A function can be written inside another function.

11.1 Functions as First-Class Objects

Syntax

def function_name():

statement
new_name = function_name
In Python, functions behave like normal objects. We can store a function in a variable and call it using
that variable.

Flow Chart

Create function
| v Assign function to variable
| v Call function using new variable

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def greet():

print("Hello Python")
message = greet
message()
Output: Hello Python Here, message refers to the same function as greet.

220
11.2 Lambda Functions

A lambda function is a small anonymous function. Anonymousmeans it does not need a normal function
name.

Syntax

lambda arguments: expression

1. Lambda functions are used for small one-line functions. 2. They can take any number of arguments.
3. They can contain only one expression. 4. They automatically return the result of the expression. 5.
Lambda functions are commonly used with map(), filter() ,and sorting.

Example 1

Normal function:

Output: 25 Same logic using lambda:

Output: 25 Example 2

221
Output: 30
Lambda is best for simple logic. For complex logic, use normal def functions.

11.3 map()

map() applies a function to every item of an iterable.

Syntax

map(function, iterable)

Explanation

1. map() takes a function and an iterable. 2. It applies the function to each item. 3. In Python 3, map()
returns a map object, which isan iterator. 4. To display all results at once, convert it using list().

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]

squares = map(lambda number: number * number, numbers)
print(list(squares))
Output: [1, 4, 9, 16]

Example 2

names = ["aman", "riya", "kabir"]

upper_names = map([Link], names)
print(list(upper_names))
Output: ['AMAN', 'RIYA', 'KABIR']

map() Table

Part Meaning

lambda number: number * number Function to apply

222
 numbers Iterable

map() Applies function to every item

list() Converts result into a list

11.4 filter()

filter() is used to select items from an iterablebased on a condition. Syntax

filter(function, iterable) Explanation
1. filter() takes a function and an iterable. 2. The function must return True or False. 3. Items that return
True are kept. 4. Items that return False are removed. 5. In Python 3, filter() returns a filter object,
whichis an iterator.

Flow Chart

Iterable values
| v filter() checks condition
| ├── True -> keep item | └── False -> remove item | v Filtered result Example 1
PYTHON CODE numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] even_numbers = filter(lambda number: number % 2 == 0,
numbers) print(list(even_numbers))
Output: [2, 4, 6] map() vs filter()

Point map() filter()

Purpose Transforms every item Selects matching items

Output length Usually same as input Can be smaller

Function returns New value TrueorFalse

Example use Square every number Keep even numbers

11.5 reduce()

reduce() combines all items of an iterable into asingle final value. reduce() is not directly available like
map() and filter() . It must be importedfrom functools.

Syntax

from functools import reduce

reduce(function, iterable)

223
Explanation

1. reduce() takes a function and an iterable. 2. It combines values step by step. 3. It returns one final
result. 4. It is useful for cumulative calculations. 5. For simple addition, sum() is usually better.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE from functools import reduce

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4]
total = reduce(lambda a, b: a + b, numbers)
print(total)
Output: 10 Working idea: 1 + 2 = 3 3 + 3 = 6 6 + 4 = 10

map() vs filter() vs reduce()

Function Purpose Final Result

map() Transform items Iterator of transformed items

filter() Select items Iterator of selected items

reduce() Combine items Single value

11.6 Recursion

Recursion means a function calling itself. Syntax

A correct recursive function must have a stopping condition.

1. Recursion is used when a problem can be broken into smaller versions of the same
problem. 2. A recursive function calls itself. 3. Every recursion must have a base case. 4. The base case
stops the recursion. 5. Without a base case, recursion continues until Python raises RecursionError.

Part Meaning

224
 Base case Condition that stops recursion

Recursive case Function calling itself

Example 1: Factorial

Factorial means: 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1
PYTHON CODE def factorial(number):
if number == 1:
return 1
return number * factorial(number - 1)
print(factorial(5))
Output: 120
factorial(5) = 5 * factorial(4) = 5 * 4 * factorial(3) = 5 * 4 * 3 * factorial(2) = 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * factorial(1)
= 5 * 4 * 3 * 2 * 1 = 120

11.7 Nested Functions

A nested function is a function defined inside another function. Syntax

PYTHON CODE def outer_function():
def inner_function():
statement
inner_function()

225
1. A nested function is created inside another function. 2. The inner function can be used only inside the
outer function. 3. Nested functions are useful for hiding helper logic. 4. They are also used in closures
and decorators.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def outer():

print("Outer function started")
def inner():
print("Inner function executed")
inner()
outer()
Output: Outer function started
Inner function executed Important point: inner() cannot be called directly outside outer(). 11.8 Closures
A closure is created when an inner function remembers variables from its outer function, even after the
outer function has finished. Syntax

1. A closure needs a nested function. 2. The inner function uses a variable from the outer function. 3.
The outer function returns the inner function. 4. The inner function remembers the outer variable. 5.
Closures are useful for creating customized functions.

226
Output: 10

11.9 Function Annotations

Function annotations are used to add type hints to function parameters and return values. Syntax
def function_name(parameter: type) -> return_type:
statement
1. Function annotations describe expected data types. They make code easier to
understand. 2. They help editors and tools detect possible mistakes. 3. Python does not automatically
enforce these types at runtime. 4. Annotations are stored in the function’s __annotations__ attribute.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def add(a: int, b: int) -> int:

return a + b
print(add(10, 20))
Output: 30

227
Output: {'a': <class 'int'>, 'b': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'int'>} Important point: Type hints are hints.
Python does not stop wrong types automatically.

11.10 Higher-Order Functions

A higher-order function is a function that does at least one of these:

1. Takes another function as an argument. 2. Returns another function.

Syntax

OR

228
Explanation

1. Higher-order functions are possible because Python functions are objects. 2. They are used in map(),
filter(), reduce() , decorators,and callbacks. 3. They make code flexible and reusable. 4. They are
common in functional programming.

Example 1: Function as Argument

PYTHON CODE def shout(text):

return [Link]()
def process_text(function, text):
return function(text)
result = process_text(shout, "hello")
print(result)
Output: HELLO
Here, process_text() is a higher-order function because it accepts another function.

12 Scope and Namespaces in Python

Scope means the area of a program where a variable can be accessed.

Namespace means a place where names are stored andmapped to objects.
name -> object/value
Example: x = 10
Here, Python stores the name x and connects it tothe value 10. 12.1 Local Scope
A local scope is created inside a function. Variablescreated inside a function are local variables.

Syntax

Explanation

1. A local variable is created inside a function. 2. It can be used only inside that function. 3. It cannot be
accessed directly outside the function. 4. Local variables are created when the function is called. 5.
229
They are destroyed after the function finishes.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def show_name():

name = "Aman"
print(name)
show_name()
Output: Aman Invalid outside access:
PYTHON CODE print(name)
Output: NameError: name 'name' is not defined.

12.2 Global Scope

A global scope is the main area of the program. Variablescreated outside all functions are global
variables.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE variable_name = value

def function_name():
statement

Explanation

1. A global variable is created outside functions. 2. It can be accessed inside functions. 3. It can also be
accessed outside functions. 4. Reading a global variable inside a function does not require the global
keyword. 5. To modify a global variable inside a function, we need the global keyword.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE course = "Python"

def show_course():
print(course)
show_course()
print(course)
Output: Python Python
NOTE: Global variables are accessible throughout the file after they are defined.

12.3 Local vs Global Scope

Point Local Scope Global Scope

230
 Created where? Inside function Outside functions

Accessible where? Only inside that function Inside and outside functions

Lifetime Exists during function call Exists while program runs

Example name = "Aman"inside function course = "Python"outside function

12.4 Variable Shadowing

Variable shadowing happens when a local variable has the same name as a global variable.

Explanation

1. If a local and global variable have the same name, Python uses the local variable
inside the function. 2. The global variable is not changed. 3. This is called shadowing.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE name = "Global Aman"

def show_name():
name = "Local Aman"
print(name)
show_name()
print(name)

▶ Output:

Local Aman Global Aman

NOTE: Inside the function, the local variable gets priority over the global variable.

12.5 global Keyword

The global keyword is used to modify a global variable inside a function.

Syntax

global variable_name

Explanation

1. Use global when you want to assign a new value toa global variable inside a
function. 2. Without global , assignment inside a function createsa local variable. 3. Reading a global
variable does not need global . Usingtoo many global variables is
not recommended.

231
Example 1

PYTHON CODE count = 0

def increase_count():
global count count += 1
increase_count() print(count)
output: 1

Without global

PYTHON CODE count = 0

def increase_count():
count += 1
increase_count()
Output: UnboundLocalError: cannot access local variable 'count' where it is not associated with a
value
NOTE: Use global only when you really need to modify a global variable. Better style is usually to return
a value:
PYTHON CODE def increase_count(count):
return count + 1
count = 0 count = increase_count(count)
print(count)
Output: 1

12.6 Enclosing Scope

An enclosing scope exists when a function is definedinside another function. Syntax

232
1. Enclosing scope belongs to the outer function. 2. Inner functions can access variables from the outer
function. 3. This scope is between local and global scope. 4. Enclosing scope is important for nested
functions and closures.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def outer():

message = "Hello"
def inner():
print(message)
inner() outer()
Output: Hello

12.7 nonlocal Keyword

The nonlocal keyword is used to modify a variablefrom the nearest enclosing function scope.

Syntax

nonlocal variable_name
1. nonlocal is used inside nested functions. It allows the inner function to modify a
variable from the outer function. 2. It does not work with global variables. 3. The variable must already
exist in the enclosing function. nonlocal is commonly used
in closures.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def outer():

count = 0 def inner():
nonlocal count count += 1 print(count)
inner() outer()
Output:1

Without nonlocal

PYTHON CODE def outer():

count = 0
def inner():
nonlocal count count += 1 print(count)
inner()
outer()
Output: UnboundLocalError: cannot access local variable 'count' where it is not associated with a value

233
global vs nonlocal

Keyword Used For Scope Affected

global Modify global variable Global scope

nonlocal Modify enclosing function variable Enclosing scope

Neither Normal local variable Local scope

12.8 Built-in Scope

Built-in scope contains names already provided by Python.

Examples: print, len, type, range, sum, max, min

Explanation

1. Built-in names are available automatically. 2. We do not need to define them. 3. Python searches
built-in scope last in the LEGB rule. 4. Avoid using built-in names as variable names.

Example 1

Output: 3 Bad Practice

This is bad because the list is already a built-in name. Do not use names like list, dict, str, int, sum, or
max as variable names. 12.9 LEGB Rule
LEGB is the order Python follows while searching for a variable name. L -> Local E -> Enclosing G ->
Global B -> Built-in When Python sees a variable name, it searches in this order:
1. Local scope : inside the current function. 2. Enclosing scope : inside outer functions. 3. Global scope
: main program/file. 4. Built-in scope : built-in Python names.
Example 1
PYTHON CODE x = "global"
def outer():

234
x = "enclosing"
def inner():
x = "local"
print(x)
inner()
outer()
Output: local ⇒ Python finds x in the local scopefirst, so it does not search further.

LEGB Search Table

Search Order Scope Example

1 Local Variable inside current function

2 Enclosing Variable inside outer function

3 Global Variable outside functions

4 Built-in print,len,type

12.10 Namespace Concept

A namespace is a system that stores names and theirrelated objects.

Syntax Idea

name -> object

1. A namespace maps names to values or objects. 2. Python uses namespaces to avoid name conflicts.
3. Different scopes have different namespaces. 4. Local, global, and built-in scopes each have their
own namespaces. 5. The same name can exist in different namespaces without conflict.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE x = 100 def show():

x = 50 print(x)
show() print(x)
Output: 50
100
1. The global namespace has x = 100 . The local namespaceinside show() has x = 50. 2. Both names are
x , but they belong to different namespaces.

235
Namespace Table

Namespace Contains

Local namespace Names inside a function

Global namespace Names created at file/program level

Built-in namespace Python built-in names

Enclosing namespace Names inside outer functions

12.11 locals() and globals()

Python provides two built-in functions to inspect namespaces.

Syntax

1. locals() returns the current local namespace as a dictionary. 2. globals() returns the global
namespace as a dictionary. 3. These are mainly used for debugging and learning. 4. Usually, we should
not modify program logic using them.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE course = "Python"

def show():
name = "Aman" print(locals())
show()
Output: {'name': 'Aman'}

12.12 NameError & UnboundLocalError

These errors are common in scope-related topics. NameError

NameError occurs when Python cannot find a name inLEGB search.
PYTHON CODE print(age)

236
Output: NameError: name 'age' is not defined

UnboundLocalError

UnboundLocalError occurs when Python treats a variableas local because it is assigned inside a
function, but it is used before assignment.
PYTHON CODE x = 10 def show():
print(x) x = 20
show()
output: UnboundLocalError: cannot access local variable 'x' where it is not associated with a value

Error Meaning

NameError Name not found in any scope

UnboundLocalError Local variable used before assignment

12.13 Important Scope Summary Table

Concept Meaning

Local scope Variable inside current function

Global scope Variable outside all functions

Enclosing scope Variable inside outer function

Built-in scope Python built-in names

global Modifies global variable inside function

nonlocal Modifies enclosing function variable

LEGB Search order for names

Namespace Mapping of names to objects

locals() Shows local namespace

globals() Shows global namespace

NameError Name not found

UnboundLocalError Local variable used before assignment

237
 13 Modules and Packages in Python

A module is a Python file containing reusable code.

A package is a folder that contains multiple modules.
Module -> single .py file
Package -> folder containing modules
Example:
[Link] -> module
my_package/ -> package

Why Modules and Packages Are Used

1. To organize large programs. 2. To reuse code. 3. To avoid writing the same logic again. 4. To separate
code into meaningful files. 5. To use built-in Python features from the standard library.

13.1 Importing Modules

Importing means using code from another module.

Syntax

import module_name
1. import loads a module. 2. After importing, we can use functions, classes, and variables from that
module. 3. We access module members using dot. notation. 4. Import statements are usually written at
the top of the file.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import math

print([Link](25))
Output: 5.0 => Here, math is a module and sqrt() is a function inside it.

13.2 Different Ways to Import

Python provides different import styles.

Import Styles Table

Import Style Syntax Example How to Use

Normal import import module import math [Link](25)

238
 Import with alias import module as alias import math as m [Link](25)

Import specific item from module import item from math import sqrt sqrt(25)

Import multiple items from module import a, b from math import sqrt, pow sqrt(25)

Import all from module import * from math import * sqrt(25)

Example 1

PYTHON CODE from math import sqrt

print(sqrt(36))
Output: 6.0

Important Point

Avoid using from module import * in large programs. It can make code unclear and may cause name
conflicts.

13.3 Standard Library Modules

The standard library is a collection of modules that come with Python. We do not need to install them
separately. Explanation
1. Standard library modules are built into Python.
2. They help with math, dates, files, operating system tasks, random values, JSON, and
more.
3. We can use them by importing them.

Common Standard Library Modules

Module Purpose Example Use

math Mathematical operations [Link](25)

random Random values [Link](1, 10)

datetime Date and time [Link]()

os Operating system tasks [Link]()

sys Python runtime information [Link]

json Work with JSON data [Link](data)

statistics Basic statistics [Link](data)

239
 collections Advanced data structures Counter,deque

itertools Iterator tools [Link]()

pathlib Work with file paths Path("[Link]")

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import random

number = [Link](1, 10)
print(number)
Output: A random number between 1 and 10
Actual output changes every time because it is random.

13.4 Creating Your Own Modules

A Python file can be used as a module. File Structure

project/
│

├── [Link]

└── [Link] [Link] PYTHON CODE def add(a, b):

return a + b

[Link]

PYTHON CODE import calculator

result = [Link](10, 20) print(result)
Output: 30 Explanation
1. [Link] is a module. 2. [Link] imports the calculator module. 3. The function add() is accessed
using [Link](). 4. Both files should be in the same folder for this simple import to work.

13.5 Importing Specific Code from Your Own Module

Syntax

from module_name import function_name File structure: project/ │ ├── [Link] └── [Link]
Example 1 [Link]
PYTHON CODE def add(a, b):
return a + b
def subtract(a, b):
return a - b

240
[Link]\
PYTHON CODE from calculator import add
print(add(10, 20))
Output: 30

13.6 Module Search Path

When we import a module, Python searches for it in specific locations.

Explanation

Python searches in this general order:

1. Current working directory. 2. Paths listed in PYTHONPATH , if set. 3. Standard library directories. 4.
Installed third-party package directories.

Syntax

13.7 Exploring a Module with dir()

dir() shows the names available inside a module. Syntax

dir(module_name) Explanation
1. dir() helps us inspect a module. 2. It shows functions, variables, classes, and special names inside the
module. 3. It is useful while learning or debugging.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import math

print(dir(math))
Output: List of names available inside the math module NOTE: dir() does not explain what each name
does. For explanation, use help().

13.8 __name__ == "__main__"

This is used to control whether code should run directly or only when imported.

241
Syntax

1. Every Python file has a special variable called __name__. 2. If the file is run directly, __name__
becomes "__main__". 3. If the file is imported, __name__ becomes the modulename. 4. This is useful for
testing module code safely. 5. It prevents some code from running during import.

Example 1

[Link]

When running [Link] directly: 30

When importing [Link] into another file, thefunction is available, but the test print does not run
automatically.

Flow Chart

Python file runs

| v Is file run directly?
| ├── Yes -> __name__ is "__main__" | └── No -> __name__ is module name

13.9 Package Structure

A package is a folder containing Python modules.

242
Basic Package Structure

project/ │ ├── [Link] │ └── mypackage/

├── __init__.py ├── [Link] └── [Link]

Explanation

1. mypackage is a package. 2. [Link] and [Link] are modules inside thepackage. 3.

__init__.py marks the folder as a regular Python package. 4. [Link] can import modules from the
package.

Example 1

mypackage/[Link]
PYTHON CODE def add(a, b):
return a + b
[Link]
PYTHON CODE from [Link] import add
print(add(10, 20))
Output: 30

13.10 __init__.py

__init__.py is a special file used in Python packages.

Explanation

1. __init__.py is placed inside a package folder. 2. It tells Python that the folder is a regular package. 3. It
can be empty. 4. It can also contain package-level initialization code. 5. It can control what is exposed
when importing from the package.
mypackage/
├── __init__.py

├── [Link]

└── [Link]

Example 1

mypackage/__init__.py
PYTHON CODE from .calculator import add
[Link]
PYTHON CODE from mypackage import add
print(add(10, 20))
Output: 30

243
13.11 Absolute Imports

An absolute import uses the full path from the project/package root. Syntax
from [Link] import name Explanation
1. Absolute imports are clear and easy to understand. 2. They show the full location of the imported
module. 3. They are generally preferred in larger projects. 4. They reduce confusion compared to
complex relative imports.

Example 1

Inside [Link]:
from [Link] import add

This means:

From package app, inside module calculator, import add

13.12 Relative Imports

A relative imports code based on the current module’s location inside a package.

Syntax

from .module import name

from ..package import module

Explanation

1. Relative imports use dots. 2. One dot. means current package. 3. Two dots.. means parent package.
4. Relative imports are used inside packages. 5. They are not meant for simple standalone scripts.

Syntax Meaning

. Current package

.. Parent package

... Grandparent package

Example Structure

project/ │ └── app/

├── __init__.py ├── [Link] └── [Link] Inside [Link]:

from .calculator import add

This means: Import add from [Link] in the samepackage

244
Important Point Relative imports work properly when the module is part of a package. They may fail if
the file is run directly as a script. Better way to run a package module: python -m [Link]

13.13 Package Management Basics

Package management means installing, updating, removing, and tracking external Python packages.
Python commonly uses pip for package management.

Explanation

1. The Python standard library comes with Python. 2. Third-party packages must be installed
separately. 3. pip is used to install third-party packages. 4. Virtual environments are used to keep
project dependencies separate. 5. [Link] is used to record project dependencies.

13.14 pip Basics

pip is Python’s package installer.

Common pip Commands

Task Command

Check pip version python -m pip --version

Install package python -m pip install package name _

Install specific version python -m pip install package name==1.2.3 _

Upgrade package python -m pip install --upgrade package name _

Uninstall package python -m pip uninstall package name _

Show installed packages python -m pip list

Show package details python -m pip show package name _

NOTE: Use python -m pip instead of only pip. Thismakes sure pip belongs to the
Python version you are using.

13.15 Virtual Environment Basics

A virtual environment is an isolated Python environment for a project.

1. Different projects may need different package versions. 2. It prevents package conflicts. 3. It keeps
the global Python installation clean. 4. It makes projects easier to share and manage.

245
Create Virtual Environment

System Command

Windows python -m venv venv

macOS/Linux python3 -m venv venv

Activate Virtual Environment

System Command

Windows PowerShell venv\Scripts\Activate.ps1

Windows CMD venv\Scripts\[Link]

macOS/Linux source venv/bin/activate

Deactivate

deactivate

13.16 [Link]

[Link] stores a list of packages neededfor a project.

Syntax

package_name==version

Example

requests==2.32.3
numpy==2.0.0

Task Command

Save installed packages python -m pip freeze > [Link]

Install from file python -m pip install -r [Link]

Explanation

1. [Link] helps share project dependencies.

2. Another user can install the same packages using one command.
3. It is commonly used in Python projects.

246
13.17 Third-Party Packages

Third-party packages are packages created by other developers.

They are not part of the Python standard library.

Package Common Use

requests Sending HTTP requests

numpy Numerical computing

pandas Data analysis

flask Web development

django Web applications

pytest Testing

pytest Testing 13.18 Circular Import Warning

A circular import happens when two modules import each other. Example Structure
[Link] imports [Link]
[Link] imports [Link]
1. Circular imports can cause errors or incomplete imports. 2. They usually happen when modules
depend on each other too much. 3. Good project structure helps avoid circular imports. 4. Shared code
can be moved into a separate module.

Example Problem

[Link] -> imports [Link]

[Link] -> imports [Link]
Python may not finish loading one module before the other needs it. Better Structure
[Link] -> shared logic [Link] imports [Link] [Link] imports [Link]

14 Object-Oriented Programming in Python

Object-Oriented Programming, or OOP , is a programmingstyle where code is organized using classes

and objects.

247
14.1.1 OOPS Fundamentals

Basic idea

Class -> blueprint Object -> real item created from class

✎ Example idea:

Class: Student; Objects: student1 student2 student3 Why OOP is Used

1. To organize large programs. 2. To reuse code. 3. To group data and behavior together. 4. To model
real-world entities. 5. To make code easier to maintain. 14.1.1 Classes
A class is a blueprint for creating objects.

Syntax

1. A class defines the structure of an object. 2. A class can contain attributes and methods. 3. Class
names usually use PascalCase. 4. A class does not represent one real object by itself. 5. Objects are
created from classes.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

pass
student1 = Student()
print(type(student1))
Output: <class '__main__.Student'>

Class Naming Style

Good Class Name Reason

Student Clear class name

BankAccount Uses PascalCase

EmployeeRecord Meaningful name

248
EmployeeRecord Meaningful name 14.1.2 Objects
An object is an instance created from a class. Syntax
object_name = ClassName()
1. An object is created from a class. 2. One class can create many objects. 3. Each object can have its
own data. 4. Objects are also called instances.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

pass
student1 = Student()
student2 = Student()
print(student1)
print(student2)
Output: <__main__.Student object at ...> <__main__.Student object at ...> The memory address may be
different in every run.

Class vs Object

Point Class Object

Meaning Blueprint Real instance

Created using classkeyword Class name with()

Example Student student1 = Student()

Memory No object data yet Stores actual object data

Memory No object data yet Stores actual object data 14.1.3 Attributes
Attributes are variables that belong to an object or class.

Syntax

object_name.attribute_name = value Explanation

1. Attributes store data about an object. 2. Each object can have different attribute values. 3. Attributes
are accessed using dot. notation.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

pass
student1 = Student()
[Link] = "Aman"

249
[Link] = 21
print([Link])
print([Link])
Output: Aman
21

Attribute Table

Code Meaning

[Link] Accessesnameattribute

[Link] Accessesageattribute

[Link] = "Aman" Creates/updates attribute

14.1.4 Methods

A method is a function defined inside a class.

Syntax

1. Methods define object behavior. 2. Methods are functions inside a class. 3. Instance methods usually
take self as the first parameter. 4. Methods are called using an object.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def greet(self):
print("Hello")
student1 = Student()
[Link]()
Output: Hello

250
14.1.5 self
self refers to the current object. Syntax
def method_name(self):
statement
1. self represents the object that is calling the method. 2. It is used to access object attributes and
methods. 3. Python automatically passes the object as self. 4. self is not a keyword, but it is the
standard convention. 5. Always use self for instance methods.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def show_name(self):
print([Link])
student1 = Student() [Link] = "Aman" student1.show_name()
Output: Aman

14.1.6 __init__
__init__ is a special method used to initialize objectdata.

Syntax

1. __init__ runs automatically when an object is created. 2. It is used to set initial attribute values. 3. It is
commonly called a constructor. 4. Technically, __init__ initializes the object afterit is created. 5. The
actual object creation is handled by __new__ ,which is advanced and usually not
needed in core notes.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, name, age):
[Link] = name [Link] = age
student1 = Student("Aman", 21) print([Link]) print([Link])

251
Output: Aman
21

14.1.7 Instance Variables

Instance variables are variables that belong to a specific object. Syntax

self.variable_name = value
1. Instance variables are usually created inside __init__. 2. Each object gets its own copy. 3. Changing
one object’s instance variable does not affect another object. 4. They are accessed using
object.variable_name.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
student1 = Student("Aman")
student2 = Student("Riya")
print([Link])
print([Link])
Output: Aman
Riya
NOTE: [Link] and [Link] are separateinstance variables.

14.1.8 Class Variables

Class variables are variables shared by all objects of a class.

Syntax

Explanation

1. Class variables are defined directly inside the class. 2. They are shared by all objects. 3. They are
useful for common data. 4. They can be accessed using the class name or object name. 5. Prefer
accessing class variables using the class name.

252
Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

school_name = "ABC School"
def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
student1 = Student("Aman")
student2 = Student("Riya")
print(student1.school_name)
print(student2.school_name)
print(Student.school_name)
Output: ABC School ABC School ABC School

Instance Variable vs Class Variable

Point Instance Variable Class Variable

Belongs to Object Class

Created where Usually inside init __ __ Inside class, outside methods

Shared? No Yes

Access [Link] [Link]

Example [Link] school name _

Important Warning

Avoid mutable class variables unless shared data is intentional.

This list is shared by all objects, which can cause unexpected behavior.

14.1.9 Methods vs Functions

A function is independent. A method belongs to a class or object.

253
Comparison Table

Point Function Method

Defined where? Outside class Inside class

Called using Function name Object or class

First parameter No automaticself Instance method getsself

Example greet() [Link]()

14.2 OOPS Principles

14.2.1 Encapsulation

Encapsulation means binding data and methods together inside a class and controlling how data is
accessed or modified. Basic Idea
Data + Methods = Encapsulation
1. Encapsulation keeps related data and behavior inside one class. 2. It helps protect data from direct
unwanted changes. 3. Python does not have strict private variables like Java or C++. 4. Python uses
naming conventions to show access level. 5. Encapsulation is commonly handled using:
1. Public attributes 2. Protected attributes 3. Private/name-mangled attributes 4. Getter and setter
methods 5. @property
PYTHON CODE class BankAccount:
def __init__(self, balance):
self.__balance = balance
def deposit(self, amount):
if amount > 0:
self.__balance += amount
def get_balance(self):
return self.__balance
account = BankAccount(1000)
[Link](500)
print(account.get_balance())
Output: 1500
Here, __balance is not directly accessed from [Link] is accessed using methods.

Public, Protected, and Private Members

Python uses naming conventions for access control.

254
Access Level Table

Type Syntax Meaning Example

Public name Can be accessed normally [Link]

Protected name _ Meant for internal use self. salary _

Private / Name mangling name __ Avoid accidental outside access self. pin __

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self):
[Link] = "Aman"
self._marks = 85
self.__grade = "A"
student = Student()
print([Link])
print(student._marks)
Output: Aman
85 Direct access to __grade will fail: print(student.__grade) Output: AttributeError: 'Student' object has
no attribute'__grade'

Important Point

Double underscore does not make data fully private. It performs name mangling to avoid accidental
access. Internally, Python changes: __grade -> _Student__grade So technically it can still be accessed,
but it should not be used directly.

Getter and Setter Methods

Getter and setter methods are used to read and update private data safely.

255
1. Getter method reads private data. 2. Setter method updates private data. 3. Setter can validate data
before updating. 4. This protects the object from invalid values.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, marks):
self.__marks = marks
def get_marks(self):
return self.__marks
def set_marks(self, marks):
if marks >= 0:
self.__marks = marks
else:
print("Marks cannot be negative")
student = Student(80)
student.set_marks(90)
print(student.get_marks())
Output: 90

Encapsulation Using @property

@property allows a method to behave like an attribute.

Syntax

256
1. @property is a clean way to control access to data. 2. It allows validation before changing data. 3. It
supports getter and setter behavior. 4. It makes code look simple while still protecting data.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, marks):
[Link] = marks
@property
def marks(self):
return self._marks
@[Link]
def marks(self, value):
if value < 0:
raise ValueError("Marks cannot be negative")
self._marks = value
student = Student(85)
[Link] = 95
print([Link])
Output: 95

14.2.2 Inheritance

Inheritance allows one class to reuse the properties and methods of another class.

257
Syntax

Explanation

1. Inheritance supports code reuse. 2. The parent class is also called base class or superclass. 3. The
child class is also called derived class or subclass. 4. The child class can use parent class attributes
and methods. 5. The child class can also define its own attributes and methods. 6. The child class can
override parent methods. 7. Inheritance represents an is-a relationship.

Basic Example

PYTHON CODE class Animal:

def eat(self):
print("Eating")
class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("Barking")
dog = Dog()
[Link]()
[Link]()
Output: Eating
Barking

Inheritance Flow

Parent class | v Child class

| v Child class can reuse parent features

Why Inheritance is Used

Use Meaning

Code reuse Child class reuses parent code

Extensibility Child class can add new features

258
 Maintainability Common logic stays in parent class

Polymorphism Same method can behave differently

Real-world modeling Representsis-arelationship

Example: Dog is an Animal Car is a Vehicle Student is a Person Types of Inheritance in Python
Python supports these major types of inheritance:

Type Meaning

Single inheritance One child inherits from one parent

Multilevel inheritance Child inherits from parent, and another child inherits from that child

Hierarchical inheritance Multiple child classes inherit from one parent

Multiple inheritance One child inherits from multiple parents

Hybrid inheritance Combination of two or more inheritance types

Single Inheritance

Single inheritance means one child class inherits from one parent class.

Syntax

Example 1
PYTHON CODE class Animal:
def eat(self):
print("Eating")
class Dog(Animal):

259
def bark(self):
print("Barking")
dog = Dog()
[Link]()
[Link]()
Output: Eating
Barking

Multilevel Inheritance

Multilevel inheritance means a class inherits from a child class, forming a chain.

Syntax

Example 1
PYTHON CODE class Animal:
def eat(self):
print("Eating")
class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("Barking")
class Puppy(Dog):

260
def weep(self):
print("Weeping")
puppy = Puppy()
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()
Output: Eating Barking Weeping

Hierarchical Inheritance

Hierarchical inheritance means multiple child classes inherit from one parent class.

Syntax

Example 1
PYTHON CODE class Animal:
def eat(self):
print("Eating")
class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("Barking")
class Cat(Animal):
def meow(self):
261
print("Meowing")
dog = Dog() cat = Cat() [Link]() [Link]() [Link]() [Link]()
Output: Eating
Barking
Eating
Meowing Diagram
Animal
/\
vv
Dog Cat

Multiple Inheritance

Multiple inheritance means one child class inherits from more than one parent class.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE class Parent1:

pass
class Parent2:
pass
class Child(Parent1, Parent2):
pass
1. Python supports multiple inheritance. 2. A child class can use methods from multiple parent classes.
3. If parents have methods with the same name, Python uses MRO. 4. MRO means Method Resolution
Order.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Father:

def father_skill(self):
print("Gardening")
class Mother:
def mother_skill(self):
print("Painting")
class Child(Father, Mother):
def child_skill(self):
print("Coding")
child = Child()

262
child.father_skill() child.mother_skill() child.child_skill()
Output: Gardening Painting Coding Diagram
Father Mother
\/vv
Child

Hybrid Inheritance

Hybrid inheritance is a combination of two or more types of inheritance.

1. Hybrid inheritance mixes different inheritance types. 2. It can include multiple, multilevel, or
hierarchical inheritance together. 3. It is powerful but can become complex. 4. MRO is important in
hybrid inheritance.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Person:

def show_person(self):
print("Person")
class Student(Person):
def show_student(self):
print("Student")
class Employee(Person):
def show_employee(self):
print("Employee")
class TeachingAssistant(Student, Employee):
def show_ta(self):
print("Teaching Assistant")
ta = TeachingAssistant() ta.show_person() ta.show_student() ta.show_employee() ta.show_ta()
Output:
Person
Student
Employee
Teaching Assistant

Diagram

Person / \
vv
Student Employee

263
\/
vv
TeachingAssistant

14.17 Method Resolution Order - MRO

MRO is the order Python follows while searching for methods in inheritance.

Syntax

OR
1. MRO decides which method is called first. 2. It is important in multiple inheritance. 3. Python uses the
C3 linearization algorithm for MRO. 4. The search starts from the child class. 5. Then Python checks
parent classes according to MRO. 6. Finally, it checks the base object class.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class A:

def show(self):
print("A")
class B(A):
def show(self):
print("B")
class C(A):
def show(self):
print("C")
class D(B, C):

264
pass
obj = D()
[Link]()
print([Link]())
Output: B
[<class '__main__.D'>, <class '__main__.B'>, <class '__main__.C'>, <class '__main__.A'>, <class
'object'>]

MRO Flow

D -> B -> C -> A -> object

Since B comes before C, [Link]() runs.

Diamond Problem

The diamond problem happens when a child class inherits from two classes that both inherit from the
same parent.

1. Class B and class C both inherit from A. 2. Class D inherits from both B and C. 3. If the same method
exists in multiple classes, Python uses MRO to decide. 4. Python handles this safely using MRO. 5.
super() also follows MRO.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class A:

def show(self):
print("A")
class B(A):
def show(self):

265
print("B")
class C(A):
def show(self):
print("C")
class D(B, C):
pass d = D() [Link]()
Output: B Because the MRO is: D -> B -> C -> A -> object

Constructor in Inheritance

When a child object is created, Python runs the child class __init__ method. If the child class does not
have __init__ , Pythonuses the parent class __init__.

Case 1: Child Has No __init__

PYTHON CODE class Person:

def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
class Student(Person):
pass
student = Student("Aman")
print([Link])
Output: Aman
The child class uses the parent class constructor.

Case 2: Child Has Its Own __init__

PYTHON CODE class Person:

def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, course):
[Link] = course
student = Student("Python")
print([Link])
Output:
Python
Here, parent __init__ does not run automatically becausethe child has its own __init__.

266
super()
super() is used to call the next method in the MRO,usually from the parent class.

Syntax

super().method_name()

Explanation

1. super() is commonly used to call parent class methods. 2. It is commonly used inside __init__. 3. It
avoids directly writing the parent class name. 4. In multiple inheritance, super() follows MRO. 5. It helps
avoid repeating parent class logic.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Person:

def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
class Student(Person):
def __init__(self, name, course):
super().__init__(name)
[Link] = course
student = Student("Aman", "Python")
print([Link])
print([Link])
Output:
Aman
Python

14.2.3 Method Overriding

Method overriding means a child class defines a method with the same name as a parent class method.

267
Syntax

Explanation

1. The method name is the same in parent and child. 2. The child class provides its own version. 3.
When called on child object, child method runs. 4. This supports polymorphism. 5. Parent method can
still be called using super().

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Animal:

def sound(self):
print("Animal sound")
class Dog(Animal):
def sound(self):
print("Bark")
dog = Dog()
[Link]()
Output:Bark

Overriding with super()

PYTHON CODE class Animal:

def sound(self):
print("Animal sound"

268
class Dog(Animal):
def sound(self):
super().sound()
print("Bark")
dog = Dog()
[Link]()
Output: Animal sound
Bark 14.2.4 Polymorphism
Polymorphism means the same method or operation behaves differently for different objects.
Explanation
1. Polymorphism means “many forms”. 2. The same method name can work differently in different
classes. 3. Python supports polymorphism through:
1. Method overriding 2. Duck typing 3. Operator overloading
PYTHON CODE class Dog:
def sound(self):
print("Bark")
class Cat:
def sound(self):
print("Meow")
animals = [Dog(), Cat()]
for animal in animals:
[Link]()
Output: Bark
Meow

Polymorphism Types in Python

Type Meaning Example

Method overriding Child changes parent method [Link]()

Duck typing Object is accepted if it has required method [Link]()

Operator overloading Operator works differently by class obj1 + obj2

14.2.5 Duck Typing

Duck typing means Python focuses on what an object can do, not its exact type.

269
Basic Idea

If an object has the needed method, Python can use it.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Duck:

def speak(self):
print("Quack")
class Person:
def speak(self):
print("Hello")
def call_speak(obj):
[Link]()
call_speak(Duck())
call_speak(Person())
Output: Quack Hello
Python does not care whether the object is Duck or Person . It only checks whether speak() exists.

14.2.6 Abstraction

Abstraction means hiding internal implementation and showing only essential features.

Explanation

1. Abstraction focuses on what an object does. 2. It hides how the object does it internally. 3. Python
supports abstraction using abstract base classes. 4. Abstract base classes are created using the abc
module. 5. A class with abstract methods cannot be instantiated directly. 6. Child classes must
implement abstract methods.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE from abc import ABC, abstractmethod

class Payment(ABC):
@abstractmethod
def pay(self, amount):
pass
class UpiPayment(Payment):
def pay(self, amount):
print("Paid", amount, "using UPI")
payment = UpiPayment()
[Link](500)

270
Output: Paid 500 using UPI

Important Point

Payment cannot be used directly because it has an abstract method.

This gives an error:
payment = Payment()

▶ Output:

TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Payment with abstract method pay

Encapsulation vs Abstraction

Point Encapsulation Abstraction

Meaning Protecting and controlling data Hiding implementation details

Focus Data access Essential behavior

Achieved by Private variables, methods,@property Abstract classes, interfaces

Example Hide balance __ Definepay()without showing payment logic

Encapsulation = How data is protected Abstraction = How unnecessary details are hidden

14.2.7 Composition

Composition means one class contains an object of another class. Basic Idea
Inheritance = is-a relationship
Composition = has-a relationship
1. Composition is used when one object is made of another object. 2. It represents a has-a
relationship. 3. It is often preferred over inheritance when there is no true is-a relationship.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Engine:

def start(self):
print("Engine started")
class Car:
def __init__(self):
[Link] = Engine()
def start(self):
[Link]() car = Car() [Link]()

271
Output:Engine started Explanation: Car has an Engine. So this is composition.

Association, Aggregation, & Composition

Relationship Meaning Example

Association One class uses another class Teacher teaches Student

Aggregation One class has another, but both can exist independently Department has Teachers

Composition One class owns another strongly House has Rooms

Important Difference

Point Aggregation Composition

Relationship Weak has-a Strong has-a

Child object can exist alone? Yes Usually no

Example Team has Players Car has Engine

isinstance() and issubclass()

These functions are useful when working with inheritance. Syntax
isinstance(object, ClassName) issubclass(ChildClass, ParentClass)
1. isinstance() checks whether an object belongs to aclass. 2. It also returns True if the object belongs
to a childclass. 3. issubclass() checks whether one class inherits fromanother class. 4. Both return True
or False.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Animal:

pass
class Dog(Animal):
pass
dog = Dog() print(isinstance(dog, Dog)) print(isinstance(dog, Animal)) print(issubclass(Dog, Animal))
Output: True
True True

Inheritance vs Composition

Point Inheritance Composition

Relationship Is-a Has-a

272
 Code style Child class extends parent Class contains another object

Example Dog is an Animal Car has an Engine

Reuse method Inherit methods Use contained object methods

Flexibility Can become tightly connected Usually more flexible

Use Inheritance When

Child really is a type of parent.

Example:Dog is an Animal
Student is a Person Use Composition When
One object has or uses another object.
Example:
Car has an Engine
Computer has a Processor

Complete Inheritance Types Summary

Type Structure Example

Single A -> B Animal -> Dog

Multilevel A -> B -> C Animal -> Dog -> Puppy

Hierarchical A -> B,A -> C Animal -> Dog,Animal -> Cat

Multiple A + B -> C Father + Mother -> Child

Hybrid Combination Person -> Student/Employee -> TeachingAssistant

OOP Principles Summary

Principle Meaning Python Feature

Encapsulation Control access to data name, name, getter/setter, _ __ @property

Inheritance Reuse parent class code class Child(Parent)

Polymorphism Same method, different behavior Overriding, duck typing

Abstraction Hide implementation details ABC,@abstractmethod

Composition Build one object using another Object inside object

273
Important OOP Scenario Table

Scenario Use

Need to protect data Encapsulation

Need to reuse common code Inheritance

Need same method with different behavior Polymorphism

Need to force child class method structure Abstraction

Need one object inside another Composition

Need multiple parent classes Multiple inheritance

Need to resolve method search order MRO

Need parent constructor logic super()

Need to check object/class relationship isinstance(),issubclass()

14.3 Special Methods / Magic Methods / Dunder Methods

Special methods are predefined methods in Python with double underscores before and after their
names.
They are also called:
● Special methods ● Magic methods ● Dunder methods

dunder means double underscore.

Syntax

Explanation

1. Special methods allow objects to work with Python’s built-in operations. 2. They are called
automatically by Python. 3. They usually start and end with double underscores. 4. We normally do not
call them directly. 5. Instead, we use operators or built-in functions.

274
Example Idea

print(obj) -> calls obj.__str__()

len(obj) -> calls obj.__len__()
obj[0] -> calls obj.__getitem__(0)
obj1 + obj2 -> calls obj1.__add__(obj2)

Common Special Methods Table

Special Method Triggered By Purpose

init __ __ ClassName() Initializes object

str __ __ str(obj),print(obj) User-friendly string

repr __ __ repr(obj) Developer-friendly string

len __ __ len(obj) Returns length

getitem __ __ obj[index] Indexing/slicing

add __ __ obj1 + obj2 Addition

sub __ __ obj1 - obj2 Subtraction

call __ __ obj() Makes object callable

enter __ __ with obj: Starts context manager

exit __ __ End ofwithblock Exits context manager

14.3.1 __str__

__str__ returns a user-friendly string representationof an object.

Syntax

275
Explanation

1. __str__ is called by str(obj). 2. It is also called by print(obj). 3. It should return a string. 4. It is mainly
for users. 5. It should be readable and simple.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, name, course):
[Link] = name [Link] = course
def __str__(self):
return f"{[Link]} is studying {[Link]}"
student = Student("Aman", "Python") print(student)
Output: Aman is studying Python

14.3.2 __repr__

__repr__ returns a developer-friendly string representationof an object.

Syntax

1. __repr__ is called by repr(obj) . It is mainly usedfor debugging. 2. It should return a string. A good
__repr__ often lookslike valid Python code. 3. If __str__ is not defined, Python may use __repr__ while
printing.
PYTHON CODE class Student:
def __init__(self, name, course):
[Link] = name [Link] = course
def __repr__(self):
return f"Student(name={[Link]!r}, course={[Link]!r})" student = Student("Aman", "Python")
print(repr(student))
Output:Student(name='Aman', course='Python')

14.3.3 __len__
__len__ defines the behavior of len(obj).

276
Syntax

Explanation

1. __len__ is called by len(obj). 2. It must return a non-negative integer. 3. It is useful for custom
container-like classes. 4. If __bool__ is not defined, Python may use __len__ to decide truthiness. 5. If
__len__ returns 0 , the object is considered False in Boolean context.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Team:

def __init__(self, members):
[Link] = members
def __len__(self):
return len([Link])
team = Team(["Aman", "Riya", "Kabir"])
print(len(team))
Output:3

14.3.4 __getitem__

__getitem__ defines indexing and slicing behavior.

Syntax

def __getitem__(self, index):

return value
1. __getitem__ is called when we use obj[index]. 2. It allows custom objects to support indexing. 3. It can
also support slicing. It is useful for custom sequence-like classes. 4. If implemented carefully, it can
also help an object work in loops.
PYTHON CODE class Team:
def __init__(self, members):
[Link] = members
def __getitem__(self, index):
return [Link][index]

277
team = Team(["Aman", "Riya", "Kabir"])
print(team[0])
print(team[1])
print(team[0:2])
Output: Aman Riya ['Aman', 'Riya']

14.3.5 __add__

__add__ defines custom behavior for the + operator.

Syntax

def __add__(self, other):

return result
1. __add__ is called when obj1 + obj2 is used. 2. It is used for operator overloading. 3. It should return a
new result. 4. If the other object type is not supported, return NotImplemented. 5. It should be used only
when addition makes logical sense.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Money:

def __init__(self, amount):
[Link] = amount
def __add__(self, other):
if not isinstance(other, Money):
return NotImplemented
return Money([Link] + [Link])
def __str__(self):
return f"Amount: {[Link]}"
money1 = Money(100)
money2 = Money(50)
result = money1 + money2
print(result)
Output: Amount: 150

14.3.6 __sub__

__sub__ defines custom behavior for the - operator.

Syntax

def __sub__(self, other):

278
return result
1. __sub__ is called when obj1 - obj2 is used. 2. It is also part of operator overloading. 3. It should return
a meaningful result. 4. Return NotImplemented if the other type is unsupported.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Money:

def __init__(self, amount):
[Link] = amount
def __sub__(self, other):
if not isinstance(other, Money):
return NotImplemented
return Money([Link] - [Link])
def __str__(self):
return f"Amount: {[Link]}"
money1 = Money(100)
money2 = Money(40)
result = money1 - money2
print(result)
Output: Amount: 60

14.3.7 __call__

__call__ allows an object to be called like a function.

Syntax

def __call__(self):
statement

Explanation

1. __call__ runs when an object is called using parentheses. 2. It makes an object callable. 3. It is useful
when an object stores data and also performs an action. 4. It is commonly used in decorators,
callbacks, and callable classes.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Greeter:

def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
def __call__(self):
print("Hello", [Link])
279
greet_aman = Greeter("Aman")
greet_aman()
Output: Hello Aman

14.3.8 __enter__ and __exit__

__enter__ and __exit__ are used to create [Link] managers work with the with
statement.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE def __enter__(self):

return self
def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
statement

Explanation

1. __enter__ runs at the start of the with block. 2. __exit__ runs when the with block ends. 3. __exit__ runs
even if an error occurs inside the with block. 4. __exit__ receives exception details if an error occurs. 5.
If __exit__ returns True , the exception is suppressed. 6. If __exit__ returns False or None , the exception
continues.
PYTHON CODE class SimpleContext:
def __enter__(self):
print("Entering")
return self
def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
print("Exiting")
with SimpleContext():
print("Inside with block")
Output: Entering Inside with block Exiting

14.3.9 Context Manager Real Use

A common real-world example of a context manager is file handling.

280
Example 1

Explanation

1. open() returns a file object. 2. The file object works as a context manager. 3. The file opens at the
start of the with block. 4. The file closes automatically at the end. 5. This is safer than manually closing
the file.

14.3.10 Operator Overloading

Operator overloading means giving custom behavior to operators for user-defined classes.

Explanation

1. Operators like +, -, *, ==, < , and [] can be customized. 2. This is done using special methods. 3.
Operator overloading should be logical. 4. Do not overload operators in a confusing way. 5. Operators
internally call matching dunder methods.

Operator Overloading Table

Operator / Operation Special Method Example

+ add __ __ obj1 + obj2

- sub __ __ obj1 - obj2

* mul __ __ obj1 * obj2

/ truediv __ __ obj1 / obj2

// floordiv __ __ obj1 // obj2

% mod __ __ obj1 % obj2

** pow __ __ obj1 ** obj2

== eq __ __ obj1 == obj2

!= ne __ __ obj1 != obj2

< lt __ __ obj1 < obj2

281
 <= le __ __ obj1 <= obj2

> gt __ __ obj1 > obj2

>= ge __ __ obj1 >= obj2

[] getitem __ __ obj[index]

() call __ __ obj()

len() len __ __ len(obj)

str() str __ __ str(obj)

repr() repr __ __ repr(obj)

14.3.11 Comparison Special Methods

Comparison methods allow objects to be compared.

Syntax

Explanation

1. __eq__ defines equality using ==. 2. __lt__ defines less than using <. 3. Other comparison methods
work similarly. 4. These methods should return True or False. 5. Return NotImplemented if comparison
with the othertype is unsupported.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, name, marks):
[Link] = name
[Link] = marks
def __eq__(self, other):
if not isinstance(other, Student):
return NotImplemented

282
return [Link] == [Link]
student1 = Student("Aman", 85)
student2 = Student("Riya", 85)
print(student1 == student2)
Output: True
Here, two students are considered equal because their marks are equal.

Comparison Methods Table

Method Operator

eq __ __ ==

ne __ __ !=

lt __ __ <

le __ __ <=

gt __ __ >

ge __ __ >=

14.3.12 Reverse and In-place Operator Methods

Python also supports reverse and in-place operator methods.

Explanation

1. Reverse methods are used when the left object does not support the operation. 2. In-place methods
are used for operators like +=, -=, *=. 3. These are advanced but useful to know.

Table

Type Example Operator Method

Normal addition obj + other add __ __

Reverse addition other + obj radd __ __

In-place addition obj += other iadd __ __

Normal subtraction obj - other sub __ __

Reverse subtraction other - obj rsub __ __

In-place subtraction obj -= other isub __ __

283
14.3.13 __bool__
__bool__ defines truth value behavior of an object.

Syntax

Explanation

1. __bool__ is called by bool(obj). 2. It is also used in if obj: conditions. 3. It must return True or False. 4.
If __bool__ is not defined, Python may use __len__. 5. If both are missing, most objects are considered
True.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Cart:

def __init__(self, items):
[Link] = items
def __bool__(self):
return len([Link]) > 0
cart = Cart(["Book"])
if cart:
print("Cart has items")
Output: Cart has items

14.3.14 __iter__ and __next__

These methods make an object iterable. Syntax
PYTHON CODE def __iter__(self):
return self
def __next__(self):
return next_value
1. __iter__ returns an iterator object. __next__ returnsthe next value. 2. When no value is left, __next__
should raise StopIteration. 3. These methods are used by loops. They are part of the iterator protocol.
PYTHON CODE class CountUpTo:

284
def __init__(self, limit):
[Link] = 1
[Link] = limit
def __iter__(self):
return self
def __next__(self):
if [Link] > [Link]:
raise StopIteration
value = [Link]
[Link] += 1
return value
counter = CountUpTo(3)
for number in counter:
print(number)
Output: 1 2 3

14.3.15 __contains__

__contains__ defines behavior for the in operator.

Syntax

def __contains__(self, item):

return True_or_False

Explanation

1. __contains__ is called by item in obj. 2. It should return True or False. 3. It is useful for custom
container-like classes.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Team:

def __init__(self, members):
[Link] = members
def __contains__(self, member):
return member in [Link]
team = Team(["Aman", "Riya", "Kabir"])
print("Aman" in team)
print("Neha" in team)

285
Output:
True
False

Important Rules for Special Methods

Rule Explanation

Return correct type str and repr must return string __ __ __ __

len must return integer __ __ It should return non-negative integer

UseNotImplemented For unsupported operator types

Avoid confusing behavior Operators should behave logically

Do not call directly Uselen(obj), notobj. len () __ __

Do not call directly Use len(obj) , not obj.__len__() Special Methods Summary

Method Meaning Common Use

str __ __ User-friendly string print(obj)

repr __ __ Developer-friendly string repr(obj)

len __ __ Defines length len(obj)

getitem __ __ Defines indexing obj[index]

add __ __ Defines addition obj1 + obj2

sub __ __ Defines subtraction obj1 - obj2

call __ __ Makes object callable obj()

enter __ __ Starts context manager with obj:

exit __ __ Ends context manager End ofwith

eq __ __ Equality comparison obj1 == obj2

lt __ __ Less-than comparison obj1 < obj2

bool __ __ Truth value if obj:

iter __ __ Returns iterator for item in obj:

286
 next __ __ Returns next item Iterator protocol

contains __ __ Membership test item in obj

15 Advanced OOP in Python

Advanced OOP topics help us write cleaner, safer, and more reusable class-based code.
This section includes:
1. @classmethod 2. @staticmethod 3. @property 4. Abstract base classes 5. Mixins 6. Metaclasses 7.
Data classes

15.1 @classmethod

A class method is a method that receives the classas its first argument.
The first parameter is usually named cls.

Syntax

class ClassName:
@classmethod def method_name(cls):
statement

Explanation

1. @classmethod is used to create a class method. 2. A class method receives the class automatically
as cls. 3. It can access class variables. 4. It can modify class variables. 5. It can be called using the
class name or object name. 6. It is commonly used to create alternate constructors.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

school_name = "ABC School"
def __init__(self, name):
[Link] = name
@classmethod
def change_school(cls, new_school):
cls.school_name = new_school
Student.change_school("XYZ School")
student1 = Student("Aman")

287
print(student1.school_name)
print(Student.school_name)
Output:
XYZ School
XYZ School

Important Points

Point Explanation

First parameter cls

Receives Class

Can access class variables Yes

Can access instance variables directly No

Can be called by class Yes

Can be called by object Yes

15.2 Class Method as Alternate Constructor

An alternate constructor means creating an object in a different way.

Syntax

1. A class normally creates objects using __init__. 2. Sometimes data comes in a different format. 3. A
class method can convert that data and return an object. 4. cls(...) creates an object of the current
class. 5. This is useful for flexible object creation.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, name, age):
288
[Link] = name [Link] = age
@classmethod def from_string(cls, data):
name, age = [Link]("-") return cls(name, int(age))
student = Student.from_string("Aman-21") print([Link]) print([Link])
Output:Aman
21

15.3 @staticmethod

A static method is a method inside a class that doesnot receive self or cls.

Syntax

class ClassName:
@staticmethod def method_name():
statement
1. @staticmethod creates a static method. 2. It does not receive the object as self. 3. It does not receive
the class as cls. 4. It behaves like a normal function placed inside a class. 5. It is used when the method
is logically related to the class but does not need object
or class data.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class MathHelper:

@staticmethod
def add(a, b):
return a + b
print([Link](10, 20))
Output: 30

Important Points

Point Explanation

First parameter No automatic first parameter

Receives object? No

Receives class? No

Can access instance variables directly? No

Can access class variables directly? No

289
15.4 Instance Method vs Class Method vs Static Method

Point Instance Method Class Method Static Method

Decorator No decorator @classmethod @staticmethod

First parameter self cls No automatic parameter

Receives Object Class Nothing automatically

Access instance data Yes No direct access No

Access class data Yes Yes No direct access

Common use Object behavior Class-level behavior Helper logic

Call style [Link]() [Link]() [Link]()

15.5 @property

@property allows a method to be accessed like an attribute.

Syntax

class ClassName:
@property def attribute_name(self):
return value

Explanation

1. @property is used to create managed attributes. 2. It allows method logic to run when accessing an
attribute. 3. It helps with encapsulation. 4. It can be used for validation. 5. It makes code cleaner than
normal getter methods.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, marks):
self._marks = marks
@property
def marks(self):
return self._marks
student = Student(85)
print([Link])
Output: 85
290
 ★ Important point:

[Link] looks like an attribute, but internally it calls the marks() method.

15.6 @property Setter

A setter is used to control how a property value is updated.

Syntax

@property def name(self):

return self._name
@[Link] def name(self, value):
self._name = value

Explanation

1. A getter returns the value. 2. A setter updates the value. 3. The setter can validate the value before
saving it. 4. This protects objects from invalid data. 5. The property name and setter name must match.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class Student:

def __init__(self, marks):
[Link] = marks
@property
def marks(self):
return self._marks
@[Link]
def marks(self, value):
if value < 0:
raise ValueError("Marks cannot be negative")
self._marks = value
student = Student(80)
[Link] = 95
print([Link])
Output: 95

Getter and Setter Table

Part Purpose

291
 @property Reads value

@[Link] Updates value

self. marks _ Internal storage attribute

[Link] Public property access

15.7 Read-only Property

A property becomes read-only if we define only getter and no setter.

Syntax

@property
def property_name(self):
return value

Explanation

1. If no setter is defined, the property cannot be assigned directly. 2. This is useful for calculated values.
3. It protects values from direct modification.
PYTHON CODE class Rectangle:
def __init__(self, length, width):
[Link] = length
[Link] = width
@property
def area(self):
return [Link] * [Link]
rectangle = Rectangle(10, 5)
print([Link])
Output:
50
Invalid update:
[Link] = 100
Output:
AttributeError: property 'area' of 'Rectangle' object has no setter

15.8 Abstract Base Classes

An abstract base class defines a common structurethat child classes must follow. Syntax

292
1. Abstract base classes are created using ABC. 2. Abstract methods are created using
@abstractmethod. 3. A class with abstract methods cannot be instantiated directly. 4. Child classes
must implement all abstract methods. 5. Abstract base classes are useful when many classes should
follow the same
structure.
Abstract class
| v Defines required method
| v Child class must implement method
| v Child object can be created
PYTHON CODE from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
class Shape(ABC):
@abstractmethod def area(self):
pass
class Square(Shape):
def __init__(self, side):
[Link] = side
def area(self):
return [Link] * [Link]
square = Square(5)
print([Link]())
Output: 25

293
15.9 Why Abstract Base Classes Are Used

Abstract base classes are used when we want to force child classes to implement required methods.
Every payment class must have pay() method. UPI payment -> pay() Card payment -> pay() Cash
payment -> pay()

Benefit Explanation

Common structure All child classes follow same design

Prevents incomplete classes Child must implement abstract methods

Improves readability Required methods are clear

Supports polymorphism Same method name works across classes

15.10 Mixins

A mixin is a small class that provides extra reusablebehavior to another class.

Syntax

class MixinName:
def method_name(self):
statement
class MainClass(MixinName):
pass
1. A mixin is used to add extra features. 2. A mixin is usually not meant to be used alone. 3. Mixins are
commonly used with multiple inheritance. 4. A mixin should be small and focused. 5. Mixin class names
often end with Mixin.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class JsonMixin:

def to_json(self):
return self.__dict__
class Student(JsonMixin):
def __init__(self, name, age):
[Link] = name [Link] = age
student = Student("Aman", 21)
print(student.to_json())
Output: {'name': 'Aman', 'age': 21}

294
Important Points

Point Explanation

Purpose Add reusable behavior

Usually used alone? No

Common with Multiple inheritance

Naming style Ends withMixin

Best design Small and focused

15.11 Mixin vs Normal Parent Class

Point Normal Parent Class Mixin

Purpose Represents main inheritance relationship Adds extra behavior

Relationship Usuallyis-a Usually feature-based

Used alone Often yes Usually no

Example DoginheritsAnimal StudentusesJsonMixin

Size Can be large Should be small

15.12 Metaclasses

A metaclass is the class of a class. Basic Idea

Object is created from class. Class is created from metaclass.
1. In Python, classes are also objects. 2. The default metaclass in Python is type. 3. A metaclass
controls how a class is created. 4. Metaclasses are advanced. 5. Most normal Python programs do not
need custom metaclasses. 6. For Core Python, understanding the basic idea is enough.

295
Output: <class '__main__.Student'>
<class 'type'>

Code Meaning

type(student) studentis an object ofStudent

type(Student) Studentis an object oftype

15.13 Data Classes

A data class is a class mainly used to store data. It reduces repeated code like __init__, __repr__ , and
comparison methods.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass
class ClassName:
field_name: type

Explanation

1. Data classes are created using @dataclass. 2. They are useful for classes that mainly store data. 3.
Fields are declared using type annotations. 4. Python automatically creates __init__. 5. Python
automatically creates useful __repr__. 6. Data classes were introduced in Python 3.7.

296
Example 1

PYTHON CODE from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass
class Student:
name: str
age: int
course: str
student = Student("Aman", 21, "Python")
print(student)

15.14 Normal Class vs Data Class

Comparison Table

Point Normal Class Data Class

Need to write init __ __ Yes Automatically generated

Useful repr __ __ Need to write manually Automatically generated

Type annotations Optional Used for fields

Best for Behavior-heavy classes Data-storing classes

Less repeated code No Yes

15.15 Default Values in Data Classes

Data class fields can have default values. Syntax

@dataclass
class ClassName:
field1: type
field2: type = default_value
1. Fields can have default values. 2. Fields without default values must come before fields with default
values. 3. This rule is similar to function parameters.

15.16 Mutable Defaults in Data Classes

Do not directly use mutable default values like lists in data classes. Wrong Style

297
This is not allowed in modern Python data classes. Correct Style : Use field(default_factory=list).

Output: ['Python']

298
[] 1. Mutable defaults can accidentally be shared. 2. default_factory=list creates a new list for each
object. 3. This avoids shared mutable data problems.

15.17 Frozen Data Classes

A frozen data class creates objects that cannot be modified after creation.

Syntax

Explanation

1. frozen=True makes data class objects immutable-like. 2. After object creation, fields cannot be
reassigned normally. It is useful for fixed data. 3. It is similar in idea to immutability, but internal mutable
fields can still be modified if
they exist.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE from dataclasses import dataclass

@dataclass(frozen=True)
class Point:
x: int
y: int
point = Point(10, 20)
print(point)
Output: Point(x=10, y=20) Invalid update: point.x = 50 Output: [Link]:
cannot assign to field 'x'

299
 16 File Handling and Error Management

This chapter has three main parts:

1. File Operations 2. Exception Handling 3. File Formats
File handling is used to store and read data from files.
Exception handling is used to handle runtime errors safely.

16.1 File Operations

16.1.1 File Handling

File handling means working with files using Python.

Python can:
1. Open files 2. Read files 3. Write files 4. Append data 5. Close files 6. Work with text files, binary files,
CSV, JSON, and XML

16.1.2 Opening Files

A file is opened using the open() function. Syntax

file = open("file_name", "mode")

With encoding:

file = open("file_name", "mode", encoding="utf-8") Explanation

1. open() opens a file.
2. The first argument is the file name or path. 3. The second argument is the file mode. 4. Encoding is
commonly used for text files. 5. utf-8 is a common and recommended encoding.

Example 1

file = open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") This opens [Link] in read mode.

16.1.3 Closing Files

Syntax

[Link]()
1. Closing a file releases system resources. If a file is not closed, data may not be
saved properly. 2. The with statement is preferred because it closesthe file automatically.

Example 1

file = open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") [Link]()

300
16.1.4 Reading Files

Reading means getting data from a file.

Method Meaning

read() Reads the entire file

readline() Reads one line

readlines() Reads all lines into a list

Example 1

file = open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") content = [Link]() print(content) [Link]() Output:

Hello Python Welcome to file handling

16.1.5 Reading Line by Line

Reading line by line is useful for large files.

Syntax

for line in file:

statement
1. This reads one line at a time. 2. It is memory-friendly. 3. It is better than reading a very large file at
once.

Example 1

with open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") as file:

for line in file:
print([Link]())
Output: Hello Python
Welcome to file handling
strip() removes extra newline characters from the line.

16.1.6 Writing Files

Writing means saving data into a file.

Syntax

open("file_name", "w")
1. "w" means write [Link] the file does not exist, Pythoncreates it. 2. If the file already exists, old
content is removed. 3. New content is written from the beginning.

301
Example 1

with open("[Link]", "w", encoding="utf-8") as file:

[Link]("Hello Python")
This writes text into [Link]. NOTE: Write mode overwrites old file content.

16.1.7 Appending Files

Appending means adding new data at the end of an existing file.

Syntax

open("file_name", "a")

Explanation

1. "a" means append mode. New data is added at the end. 2. Old content is not removed. If the file does
not exist, Python creates it.

Example 1

with open("[Link]", "a", encoding="utf-8") as file:

[Link]("\nNew line added")

16.1.8 File Modes

File modes tell Python how the file should be opened.

Mode Meaning File Must Exist? Old Content

"r" Read text file Yes Not changed

"w" Write text file No Removed if file exists

"a" Append text file No Kept

"x" Create new file No Error if file exists

"b" Binary mode Depends Depends

"t" Text mode Depends Depends

"+" Read and write Depends Depends

Common Mode Combinations

Mode Meaning

"rt" Read text file

302
 "wt" Write text file

"at" Append text file

"rb" Read binary file

"wb" Write binary file

"r+" Read and write existing file

"w+" Write and read, overwrites file

"a+" Append and read

Important point: Default mode is "rt", which meansread text.

16.1.9 with Statement

The with statement is the recommended way to workwith files.

Syntax

with open("file_name", "mode") as file:

statement
1. with automatically closes the file. It is safer thanmanually using close(). 2. It works even if an error
happens inside the block. It makes file handling cleaner.

Example 1

with open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") as file:

content = [Link]() print(content)

No need to write:

[Link]()

16.1.10 File Object Methods

Method Meaning

read() Reads entire file

read(size) Reads given number of characters/bytes

readline() Reads one line

readlines() Reads all lines into a list

write(text) Writes text

303
 writelines(list) Writes multiple strings

seek(position) Moves file pointer

tell() Returns current file pointer position

close() Closes file

flush() Forces buffered data to be written

16.1.11 Binary Files

Binary files store data in bytes.

● Images ● Videos ● Audio files ● PDF files ● Executable files

Syntax

open("file_name", "rb") open("file_name", "wb")

Explanation

1. "rb" means read binary. "wb" means write binary. 2. Binary mode works with bytes, not normal
strings. 3. Encoding is not used in binary [Link] files are useful for non-text data.

16.1.12 File Paths

Type Meaning Example

Relative path Path from current folder "[Link]"

Absolute path Full path from root/drive "C:/Users/Aman/[Link]"

Folder path File inside folder "files/[Link]"

Parent folder path File in parent folder "../[Link]"

16.1.13 Basic os Module

The os module helps work with the operating system.

Syntax

import os

Common os Functions

Function Meaning

[Link]() Gets current working directory

304
 [Link]() Lists files and folders

[Link]("folder") Creates folder

[Link]("[Link]") Deletes file

[Link]("old", "new") Renames file/folder

[Link](path) Checks if path exists

[Link](path) Checks if path is a file

[Link](path) Checks if path is a folder

[Link](a, b) Joins paths safely

[Link](a, b) Joins paths safely 16.1.14 Basic pathlib Module pathlib is a modern way to work with
file paths.

Syntax

from pathlib import Path

1. pathlib works with paths as [Link] is cleanerthan manually joining strings. 2. It is recommended for
modern Python [Link] works across operating systems.

Common pathlib Methods

Code Meaning

Path("[Link]") Creates path object

[Link]() Checks if path exists

[Link] file() _ Checks if path is file

[Link] dir() _ Checks if path is folder

[Link] text() _ Reads text file

[Link] text() _ Writes text file

[Link]() Creates folder

[Link]() Deletes file

[Link]() Deletes file 16.1.15 Encoding

Encoding decides how text is stored in bytes.
Syntex: open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8")

305
1. Text files store text using an encoding. 2. utf-8 supports most common characters. 3. Always mention
encoding when working with text files. 4. Encoding problems can cause UnicodeDecodeError.

Example 1

with open("[Link]", "w", encoding="utf-8") as file:

[Link]("Python is easy")

16.2 Exception Handling

An exception is an error that happens while the program is running. Exception handling allows us to
handle errors safely without crashing the whole program.

Example Runtime Error

number = int("abc")
Output: ValueError: invalid literal for int() withbase 10: 'abc'

Why Exception Handling is Used

1. To prevent sudden program crashes. 2. To handle risky code safely. 3. To clean up resources
properly. 4. To continue program execution when possible.

16.2.1 try-except

try-except is used to handle exceptions.

Syntax

try:
risky_code
except ExceptionType:
handling_code
1. Code that may cause an error is written inside try. 2. Error handling code is written inside except. 3. If
an exception occurs, Python jumps to the matching except block. 4. If no exception occurs, the except
block is skipped.

Flow Chart

try block runs

| v Error occurs?
| ├── Yes -> except block runs | └── No -> except block skipped

Example 1

PYTHON CODE try:

number = int("abc") except ValueError:
print("Invalid number")
306
Output: Invalid number 16.2.2 Catching Exception Object
We can store the exception object using as. Syntax
except ExceptionType as error:
statement

Example 1

PYTHON CODE try:

number = int("abc")
except ValueError as error:
print(error)
Output: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'abc'

16.2.3 Multiple except Blocks

Multiple except blocks are used to handle differenterrors differently. Syntax

PYTHON CODE try:
risky_code except ErrorType1:
handling_code except ErrorType2:
handling_code

Explanation

1. Different exceptions can need different handling. 2. Specific exceptions should come before general
exceptions. 3. Python runs only the first matching except block. 4. Exception should usually come last.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE try:

numbers = [10, 20, 30] print(numbers[5]) except IndexError:
print("Invalid index") except ValueError:
print("Invalid value") except Exception:
print("Some other error occurred")
Output: Invalid index

16.2.4 Handling Multiple Exceptions Together

Multiple exception types can be handled in one except block.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE except (ErrorType1, ErrorType2):

statement

307
Example 1

PYTHON CODE try:

value = int("abc") except (ValueError, TypeError):
print("Invalid conversion")
Output: Invalid conversion

16.2.5 else in Exception Handling

The else block runs only when no exception occurs.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE try:

risky_code except ExceptionType:
handling_code else:
code_if_no_error
1. else runs only if the try block has no [Link] is useful for success logic. 2. It keeps error handling
separate from normal code.
PYTHON CODE try:
number = int("100") except ValueError:
print("Invalid number") else:
print("Conversion successful:", number)
Output: Conversion successful: 100

16.2.6 finally
The finally block always runs. Syntax
PYTHON CODE try:
risky_code except ExceptionType:
handling_code finally:
cleanup_code

Explanation

1. finally runs whether an exception occurs or not. 2. It is used for cleanup operations. 3. It is useful for
closing files, network connections, or database connections. 4. With file handling, with is usually
cleaner than manually using finally.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE try:

file = open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") print([Link]()) except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found") finally:
308
print("Finally block executed")
Output: Finally block executed The file output depends on whether the file exists.

16.2.7 try-except-else-finally Flow

try
| v Error occurs?
| ├── Yes -> except -> finally | └── No -> else -> finally

Structure

PYTHON CODE try:

risky_code except ExceptionType:
error_handling else:
success_code finally:
cleanup_code

16.2.8 Raising Exceptions

Raising an exception means creating an error manually.

Syntax

raise ExceptionType("message")
1. raise is used to manually trigger an exception. 2. It is useful for validation. 3. It stops normal flow and
sends control to exception handling. 4. We can raise built-in or custom exceptions.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE age = -5 if age < 0:

raise ValueError("Age cannot be negative")
Output: ValueError: Age cannot be negative

16.2.9 Re-raising Exceptions

Re-raising means raising the same exception again after catching it.

Syntax

raise
1. Plain raise is used inside an except block. 2. It re-raises the current exception. 3. It is useful when we
want to log an error but still allow it to continue upward.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE try:

number = int("abc") except ValueError:

309
print("Logging error") raise
Output: Logging error ValueError: invalid literal for int() with base 10: 'abc'

16.2.10 Custom Exceptions

A custom exception is a user-defined exception class.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE class CustomError(Exception):

pass

Explanation

1. Custom exceptions are created by inheriting from Exception. 2. They make errors more meaningful. 3.
They are useful in larger projects. 4. Custom exception names usually end with Error.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class InsufficientBalanceError(Exception):

pass
balance = 500 withdraw_amount = 1000 if withdraw_amount > balance:
raise InsufficientBalanceError("Not enough balance")
Output: InsufficientBalanceError: Not enough balance 16.2.11 Exception Hierarchy
BaseException
| v Exception
| ├── ArithmeticError ├── LookupError ├── OSError ├── RuntimeError ├── ValueError └── TypeError

Exception When It Happens

ValueError Correct type, invalid value

TypeError Operation with wrong type

NameError Name not defined

IndexError Invalid list/tuple index

KeyError Missing dictionary key

FileNotFoundError File does not exist

ZeroDivisionError Division by zero

ImportError Import fails

ModuleNotFoundError Module not found

310
 PermissionError No permission for file operation

UnicodeDecodeError Text decoding fails

UnicodeDecodeError Text decoding fails 16.2.12 Bare except Warning

A bare except catches almost everything and shouldusually be avoided.
Bad Style
PYTHON CODE try:
number = int("abc") except:
print("Error")
Better Style
PYTHON CODE try:
number = int("abc") except ValueError:
print("Invalid number")

Why Bare except is Bad

Problem Explanation

Too broad Catches errors you did not expect

Hides bugs Makes debugging difficult

Poor readability Does not show what error is handled

Can catch system-exit style errors Not safe for normal use

16.2.13 File Handling with Exception Handling

Error Meaning

FileNotFoundError File does not exist

PermissionError No permission

IsADirectoryError Expected file but got folder

UnicodeDecodeError Encoding issue

OSError General operating system error

Example 1

PYTHON CODE try:

311
with open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") as file:
content = [Link]() except FileNotFoundError:
print("File not found") else:
print(content)

16.3 File Formats

16.3.1 Text Files

A text file stores human-readable text.

Examples:
● .txt ● .log ● .md ● .csv ● .json ● .xml Explanation

1. Text files store characters. 2. Text files should be opened with encoding. 3. Common modes are "r",
"w" , and "a". 4. Text mode is default in Python.

16.3.2 CSV Files

CSV means Comma-Separated Values . CSV files store table-like data.

Example CSV Data
name,age,course Aman,21,Python
1. CSV files store rows and columns. Values are commonly separated by commas. 2. Python provides
the built-in csv module. CSV is commonlyused for spreadsheets
and data export. Use newline="" when opening CSV files for writing.
Reading CSV File
PYTHON CODE import csv
with open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") as file:
reader = [Link](file)
for row in reader:
print(row)
Possible output: ['name', 'age', 'course']
['Aman', '21', 'Python'] ['Riya', '20', 'Java'] Writing CSV File
PYTHON CODE import csv
with open("[Link]", "w", encoding="utf-8", newline="") as file:
writer = [Link](file)
[Link](["name", "age", "course"]) [Link](["Aman", 21, "Python"]) 16.3.3 [Link]
vs [Link]

Tool Output Type Best Use

312
 [Link]() List for each row Simple row-based reading

[Link]() Dictionary for each row Column-name based reading

[Link]() Writes rows Simple CSV writing

[Link]() Writes dictionaries Column-name based writing

16.3.4 JSON Files

JSON means JavaScript Object Notation . JSON is commonlyused for APIs and configuration files.

Example JSON Data

PYTHON CODE {
"name": "Aman", "age": 21, "course": "Python"}

Explanation

1. JSON stores data in key-value format. It looks similar to Python dictionaries. 2. Python provides the
built-in json module. 3. JSON is very common in web development and APIs. JSON keys must be
strings.

Python and JSON Conversion

Python JSON

dict object

list array

str string

int,float number

True true

False false

None null

Reading JSON File

PYTHON CODE import json

with open("[Link]", "r", encoding="utf-8") as file:
data = [Link](file) print(data["name"])

Writing JSON File

PYTHON CODE import json

313
student = {
"name": "Aman", "age": 21, "course": "Python"}
with open("[Link]", "w", encoding="utf-8") as file:
[Link](student, file, indent=4)

16.3.5 [Link]() vs [Link]()

Function Meaning Input

[Link]() Reads JSON from file File object

[Link]() Reads JSON from string JSON string

[Link]() Writes JSON to file File object

[Link]() Converts Python object to JSON string Python object

16.3.6 XML Files

XML means Extensible Markup Language.

XML stores data using tags.

Example XML Data

<student>
<name>Aman</name> <age>21</age> <course>Python</course> </student>

17 Advanced Python Concepts

Advanced Python concepts help us write cleaner, memory-efficient, reusable, and professional Python
code. This chapter covers:
1. Decorators 2. Generators and Iterators 3. Context Managers 4. Regular Expressions

17.1 Decorators

17.1.1 Decorators

A decorator is a function that takes another function and adds extra behavior to it without changing the
original function code.

Basic Idea

Decorator = function that modifies/enhances another function

314
Syntax

This=>

is equal to:

1. Decorators are based on functions being first-class objects. A decorator takes a

function as input. 2. It usually defines an inner wrapper function. It returns the wrapper function. 3. The
wrapper adds extra behavior before or after the original function.

Flow Chart

Original function

315
| v Decorator receives function
| v Wrapper adds extra behavior
| v Decorated function is returned

17.1.2 Function Decorators

A function decorator is used to add extra behavior to a function. Syntax

PYTHON CODE def my_decorator(func):

def wrapper():
print("Before function") func() print("After function") return wrapper
@my_decorator def greet():
print("Hello") greet()
Output: Before function
Hello After function
1. my_decorator receives greet. wrapper adds extra behavior. 2. greet() now actually calls wrapper() .
Inside wrapper ,the original greet() is called.

17.1.3 Decorators with Function Arguments

If the decorated function has arguments, the wrapper should accept *args and **kwargs. Syntax
PYTHON CODE def decorator_name(func):
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
return func(*args, **kwargs) return wrapper

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def show_call(func):

316
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
print("Function is being called") return func(*args, **kwargs) return wrapper
@show_call def add(a, b):
return a + b
print(add(10, 20))
Output: Function is being called
30

17.1.4 [Link]

[Link] preserves the original function’smetadata. Without wraps , the decorated function may
lose its original name and docstring.

Syntax

1. Decorators replace the original function with a wrapper. 2. Because of this, metadata like function
name and docstring can be lost. 3. @wraps(func) copies metadata from the original functionto the
wrapper. 4. Professional decorators should usually use [Link].
PYTHON CODE from functools import wraps
def my_decorator(func):
@wraps(func) def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
return func(*args, **kwargs) return wrapper
@my_decorator def greet():
"""This function greets the user.""" print("Hello")
print(greet.__name__) print(greet.__doc__)
317
Output: greet
This function greets the user.

17.1.5 Decorators with Arguments

Decorators can also accept their own arguments. This requires one extra outer function. Syntax
PYTHON CODE def decorator_with_args(value):
def actual_decorator(func):
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
statement
return func(*args, **kwargs)
return wrapper
return actual_decorator
1. The outer function receives decorator arguments. The middle function receives the
original function. 2. The inner wrapper runs extra [Link] is useful when decorator behavior needs
customization.
PYTHON CODE from functools import wraps
def repeat(times):
def decorator(func):
@wraps(func)
def wrapper(*args, **kwargs):
for _ in range(times):
func(*args, **kwargs)
return wrapper
return decorator
@repeat(3)
def greet():
print("Hello")
greet()
Output: Hello
Hello Hello 17.1.6 Multiple Decorators
A function can have more than one decorator. Syntax
PYTHON CODE @decorator1
@decorator2 def function_name():
statement

318
NOTE: Decorators are applied from bottom to top.
PYTHON CODE @decorator1 @decorator2 def greet():
pass

is equal to:

PYTHON CODE greet = decorator1(decorator2(greet))

17.1.7 Class Decorators

A class decorator modifies or enhances a class.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE @decorator_name

class ClassName:
statement
1. A class decorator receives a class as input. It can add or modify class behavior. 2. It returns the
modified class. Class decorators are less common than function
decorators. 3. They are useful for logging, registration, validation, and configuration.

17.1.8 Built-in and Standard Decorators

Decorator From Purpose

@staticmethod Built-in Creates static method

@classmethod Built-in Creates class method

@property Built-in Creates managed attribute

@property [Link] _ Built-in Adds setter to property

@dataclass dataclasses Generates data class methods

@abstractmethod abc Defines abstract method

@wraps functools Preserves function metadata

@lru cache _ functools Caches function results

17.2 Generators and Iterators

Generators and iterators are used to work with values one at a time. They are memory-efficient because
they do not need to store all values at once.

319
17.2.1 Iterable vs Iterator

Explanation

An iterable is an object we can loop over. An iterator is an object that gives values one by one using
next().

Term Meaning Example

Iterable Can be looped over list, tuple, string, dictionary, set, range

Iterator Gives next value usingnext() object fromiter()

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = [10, 20, 30]

iterator = iter(numbers)
print(next(iterator))
print(next(iterator))
print(next(iterator))
Output: 10 20 30

17.2.2 Iterator Protocol

The iterator protocol uses two methods:

1. __iter__() 2. __next__()

Syntax

PYTHON CODE def __iter__(self):

return self
def __next__(self):
return next_value

Explanation

1. __iter__() returns an iterator object. 2. __next__() returns the next value. 3. When no values are left,
__next__() raises StopIteration. 4. for loops use this protocol internally.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class CountUpTo:

def __init__(self, limit):
[Link] = 1
[Link] = limit
def __iter__(self):
320
return self
def __next__(self):
if [Link] > [Link]:
raise StopIteration
value = [Link]
[Link] += 1
return value
counter = CountUpTo(3)
for number in counter:
print(number)
Output: 1 2 3

17.2.3 __iter__
__iter__ returns an iterator object.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE def __iter__(self):

return self

Explanation

1. __iter__() is called by iter(object). 2. It is also used automatically for loops. 3. If the object itself is the
iterator, it returns self. 4. If the object is only iterable, it can return a separate iterator object.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = [10, 20, 30]

iterator = iter(numbers)
print(iterator)
Output: A list_iterator object

17.2.4 __next__

__next__ returns the next value from an iterator.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE def __next__(self):

return value
1. __next__() is called by next(iterator). 2. It returns one value at a time. 3. It should raise StopIteration
when there are no valuesleft. 4. Without StopIteration , the iteration may not stopcorrectly.

321
Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = iter([10, 20])

print(next(numbers))
print(next(numbers))
print(next(numbers))
Output: 10 20 StopIteration The third next() raises StopIteration because no valuesare left.

17.2.5 Generator Functions

A generator function is a function that uses yield.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE def generator_name():

yield value

Explanation

1. A generator function returns a generator object. 2. It does not run fully at once. 3. It pauses at yield.
4. When next() is called again, it continues from whereit paused. 5. Generators are memory-efficient.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE def count_up_to_three:

yield 1
yield 2
yield 3

Correct code:

PYTHON CODE def count_up_to_three():

yield 1
yield 2
yield 3
counter = count_up_to_three()
print(next(counter))
print(next(counter))
print(next(counter))
Output: 1 2 3

17.2.6 yield

yield is used to return a value from a generator withoutending the function permanently. Syntax

322
yield value
1. yield gives one value at a time. It pauses the function. 2. The function state is saved. 3. On the next
call, execution continues after the previous yield. 4. When the function finishes, Python raises
StopIteration.

return vs yield

Point return yield

Used in Normal functions Generator functions

Gives Final result One value at a time

Function state Ends function Pauses function

Memory use May store full result Memory-efficient

Output Normal value Generator object

17.2.7 Generator Expressions

A generator expression is a short way to create a generator.

Syntax

(expression for item in iterable)

Explanation

1. Generator expressions look like list comprehensions. 2. They use parentheses(). 3. They produce
values lazily. 4. They do not create a full list in memory. 5. They are useful for large data.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE squares = (number * number for number in range(1, 5))

for value in squares:
print(value)
Output: 1 4 9 16

17.2.8 yield from

yield from is used to yield values from another iterableor generator.

Syntax

yield from iterable

1. yield from simplifies nested loops in generators It passes values from another iterable
directly. 2. It is useful when one generator uses another generator. 3. It makes generator code cleaner.

323
17.2.9 One-time Consumption of Iterators

Iterators and generators are usually consumed once.

Explanation

1. Once a value is taken from an iterator, it is not repeated. 2. After all values are consumed, the iterator
is exhausted. 3. To iterate again, create a new iterator or generator.

Example 1

values = (x for x in range(3))

print(list(values))
print(list(values))

▶ Output:

[0, 1, 2]
[]
The second list is empty because the generator was already consumed.

17.2.10 itertools

itertools is a standard library module for workingwith iterators.

Syntax

import itertools

Explanation

1. itertools provides memory-efficient iterator tools. 2. It is useful for combinations, permutations,

counting, grouping, and chaining. 3. Many itertools functions return iterators. 4. Results may need to be
converted using list() fordisplay.

Common itertools Tools

Tool Meaning

count() Infinite counting

cycle() Repeats iterable forever

repeat() Repeats a value

chain() Joins iterables lazily

islice() Slices an iterator

combinations() Unique combinations

324
 permutations() All possible arrangements

product() Cartesian product

groupby() Groups consecutive matching items

17.2.11 Memory Efficiency

Generators are memory-efficient because they produce values only when needed.
1. Lists store all values in memory. 2. Generators produce one value at a time. 3. This is called lazy
evaluation. 4. Generators are useful for large files, large ranges, and data streams.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE numbers = (number for number in range(1000000)) print(next(numbers))

print(next(numbers))
Output: 0 1 Only needed values are produced.

17.3 Context Managers

A context manager is an object that manages setup and cleanup automatically.

The most common example is file handling using with.

Syntax

with resource as name:

statement
1. Context managers are used with the with statement. 2. They handle setup before the block starts. 3.
They handle cleanup after the block ends. 4. Cleanup happens even if an error occurs. 5. They are
useful for files, database connections, locks, and network connections.

Flow Chart

with block starts

| v __enter__ runs
| v Block code runs
| v __exit__ runs

Example 1

PYTHON CODE with open("[Link]", "w", encoding="utf-8") as file:

[Link]("Hello Python")
The file closes automatically after the with block.

17.3.1 __enter__

__enter__ runs at the beginning of a with block.

325
Syntax

1. __enter__() is called when the with block [Link] usually prepares or opens a
resource. 2. The value returned by __enter__() is stored after as . It is part of the context manager
protocol.

17.3.2 __exit__

__exit__ runs when the with block ends.

Syntax

1. __exit__() is called at the end of the with [Link] is used for cleanup. 2. It receives exception details if
an error occurs. If it returns True , the exception is
suppressed. 3. If it returns False or None , the exception continuesnormally.

__exit__ Parameters

Parameter Meaning

exc type _ Exception class/type

exc value _ Exception object/message

traceback Traceback object

None, None, None Passed if no exception occurred

17.3.3 Custom Context Manager Using Class

Syntax

PYTHON CODE class ClassName:

326
def __enter__(self):
return self
def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
cleanup_code

Example 1

PYTHON CODE class SimpleContext:

def __enter__(self):
print("Entering") return self
def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
print("Exiting")
with SimpleContext():
print("Inside block")
Output: Entering
Inside block Exiting

17.3.4 contextlib
contextlib is a standard library module for creatingand working with context managers.

Syntax

from contextlib import contextmanager

1. contextlib provides utilities for context managers. 2. It helps create context managers without writing
a full class. 3. The most common tool is @contextmanager . It is usefulfor simple setup-cleanup
logic.

17.3.5 @contextmanager
@contextmanager converts a generator function intoa context manager.

Syntax

from contextlib import contextmanager

@contextmanager def manager_name():
setup_code yield value cleanup_code

Explanation

1. Code before yield works like __enter__ . The yieldedvalue is used after as. 2. Code after yield works
like __exit__ . Cleanup shouldbe placed in finally for safety. 3. This is useful for simple context
managers.

327
Class Context Manager vs @contextmanager

Point Class-based @contextmanager

Uses enter , exit __ __ __ __ yield

Best for Complex managers Simple managers

Code length More Less

Code length More Less 16.3.6 Resource Management

Resource management means safely opening and closing resources.

Resource Why Context Manager Helps

File Closes automatically

Database connection Disconnects safely

Lock Releases lock

Network connection Closes connection

Temporary setup Cleans up after use

17.4 Regular Expressions

A regular expression, or regex , is a pattern used to search, match, extract, replace, or split text.

Basic Idea

Regex = pattern matching for text

Example Uses

1. Validate email format. 2. Extract phone numbers. 3. Find dates in text. 4. Replace unwanted
characters. 5. Split text using complex patterns.

17.4.1 re Module

Python provides the built-in re module for regularexpressions.

Syntax

import re

Explanation

1. re is Python’s regular expression module. 2. It provides functions like search(), match(), findall(), sub()
, and split(). 3. Regex patterns are usually written as raw strings. 4. Raw strings use prefix r.

328
Raw String Example

pattern = r"\d+" This is preferred over: pattern = "\\d+"

NOTE: Use raw strings for regex patterns to avoidescape-character confusion.

17.4.2 Pattern Matching

Pattern matching means checking whether text follows a specific pattern.

PYTHON CODE import re
text = "My age is 21"
result = [Link](r"\d+", text)
print([Link]())
Output: 21

17.4.3 Regex Metacharacters

Metacharacters are special characters with special meaning in regex.

Pattern Meaning Example Match

. Any character except newline a,1,@

^ Start of string ^Hello

$ End of string world$

* Zero or more a*

+ One or more a+

? Zero or one a?

{n} Exactly n times a{3}

{n,} n or more times a{2,}

{n,m} Between n and m times a{2,4}

[] Character set [abc]

[^] Not in set [^0-9]

` ` OR

() Group (ab)+

\ Escape character \.

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17.4.4 Common Regex Character Classes

Pattern Meaning

\d Digit, same as[0-9]

\D Non-digit

\w Word character: letters, digits, underscore

\W Non-word character

\s Whitespace

\S Non-whitespace

\b Word boundary

\A Start of string

\Z End of string

17.4.5 Groups and Capturing

Groups are created using parentheses().

They are used to capture parts of a match.

Syntax

(pattern)

Explanation

1. Parentheses create groups. 2. Capturing groups store matched parts. 3. group(0) gives the full match.
4. group(1) gives the first captured group. 5. group(2) gives the second captured group.

17.4.6 Non-capturing Groups

A non-capturing group groups a pattern without storing it.

Syntax

(?:pattern)

Explanation

1. Non-capturing groups are used for grouping only. 2. They do not create a captured group number. 3.
They are useful when we need grouping but do not need to extract that part.

17.4.7 search()

search() looks for the first match anywhere in thestring.

330
Syntax

[Link](pattern, text)

Explanation

1. Searches the entire string. Returns the first match object. 2. Returns None if no match is found. 3. Use
.group() to get matched text.

17.4.8 match()
match() checks for a match only at the beginning ofthe string.

Syntax

[Link](pattern, text)

Explanation

1. Checks only from the start of the string. Returns match object if pattern matches at
the beginning. 2. Returns None if pattern appears later.

17.4.9 fullmatch()

fullmatch() checks whether the whole string matchesthe pattern.

Syntax

[Link](pattern, text)

Explanation

1. It checks the entire string. 2. It returns a match only if the full string matches. 3. It is useful for
validation.

17.4.10 findall()
findall() returns all non-overlapping matches as alist.

Syntax

[Link](pattern, text)

Explanation

1. Finds all matches. 2. Returns a list. 3. If the pattern has capturing groups, it returns captured groups.
4. If no match is found, it returns an empty list.

17.4.11 finditer()

finditer() returns an iterator of match objects.

Syntax

[Link](pattern, text)

331
1. It finds all matches. It returns match objects one by one. 2. It is useful when we need match positions.
3. It is more memory-friendly for large text than findall().

17.4.12 sub()

sub() replaces matched text with new text.

Syntax

[Link](pattern, replacement, text)

Explanation

1. Finds matches using pattern. Replaces them with replacement text. 2. Returns the modified string.
Original string is not changed.

17.4.13 split()
split() splits a string using a regex pattern.

Syntax

[Link](pattern, text)
1. Splits text wherever the pattern matches. 2. More powerful than normal string split(). 3. Useful when
separators are multiple or irregular.

17.4.14 [Link]()

[Link]() creates a reusable regex pattern object.

Syntax

pattern = [Link](r"pattern")

Explanation

1. Compiled patterns can be reused. 2. This makes code cleaner when using the same pattern many
times. 3. It can be useful for repeated matching. 4. Pattern objects have methods like search(), findall(),
sub() , and split()

Concurrent and Asynchronous

18
Programming

Concurrent programming means handling multiple tasks during the same time period. It does not
always mean tasks are running at the exact same instant.

332
Basic Terms

Term Meaning

Concurrency Managing multiple tasks at once

Parallelism Running multiple tasks at the same time

I/O-bound task Task waiting for input/output, like file, network, database

CPU-bound task Task doing heavy calculation

Thread Lightweight unit of execution inside a process

Process Independent program execution with separate memory

Async programming Single-threaded cooperative concurrency usingasyncandawait

Choosing the Right Tool

Task Type Better Tool

Waiting for network/API/file/database threading,ThreadPoolExecutor, orasyncio

Heavy CPU calculation multiprocessingorProcessPoolExecutor

Many async network operations asyncio

Simple parallel task execution [Link]

18.1 Multithreading

Multithreading means running multiple threads inside the same process.

Python provides the threading module for thread-basedconcurrency. The official docs describe
threading as thread-based parallelism andalso point to ThreadPoolExecutor as a higher-level interface.

Syntax

import threading
1. A thread is a small unit of execution. 2. Multiple threads can run inside one process. 3. Threads share
the same memory. 4. Threads are useful for I/O-bound tasks. 5. Threads can cause race conditions
when shared data is modified. 6. Locks are used to protect shared data.

Flow Chart

Main program
| v Create threads

333
| v Start threads
| v Threads run tasks
| v Join threads
| v Program continues

18.1.1 threading Module

The threading module provides classes and tools forworking with threads.

Tool Purpose

Thread Creates and manages a thread

Lock Prevents multiple threads from changing shared data at the same time

RLock Re-entrant lock; same thread can acquire it multiple times

Semaphore Limits how many threads can access a resource

Event Allows communication between threads

Condition Allows threads to wait for a condition

current thread() _ Returns current thread object

active_count() Returns number of active threads 18.1.2 Creating Threads

Syntax

thread = [Link](target=function_name) [Link]() [Link]()

Explanation

1. target is the function that the thread will run. 2. start() starts the thread. 3. join() waits for the thread to
finish. 4. Without join() , the main program may continue whilethe thread is still running.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import threading

def show_message():
print("Thread is running")
thread = [Link](target=show_message)
[Link]()
[Link]()
print("Main program finished")
Output:

334
Thread is running
Main program finished

18.1.3 Managing Threads

Method / Attribute Meaning

start() Starts thread execution

join() Waits for thread to finish

is alive() _ Checks whether thread is still running

name Thread name

daemon IfTrue, thread stops when main program exits

18.1.4 Race Conditions

A race condition happens when multiple threads access and modify shared data at the same time,
causing incorrect results.

Explanation

1. Threads share memory. 2. If two threads change the same variable together, the result can become
unpredictable. 3. This problem is called a race condition. 4. Locks are used to avoid race conditions.

Example Idea

Thread 1 reads count = 0

Thread 2 reads count = 0
Thread 1 updates count to 1
Thread 2 updates count to 1
Expected result: 2
Actual result: 1

18.1.5 Locks

A lock allows only one thread to access a critical section at a time.

Syntax

lock = [Link]() with lock:

shared_data_update
1. A lock protects shared data. 2. Only one thread can hold the lock at a time. 3. Other threads must
wait. 4. Use with lock: because it releases the lock automatically.

335
Example 1

PYTHON CODE import threading

count = 0
lock = [Link]()
def increase():
global count
for _ in range(100000):
with lock:
count += 1
thread1 = [Link](target=increase)
thread2 = [Link](target=increase)
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()
[Link]()
print(count)
Output: 200000

18.1.6 Synchronization

Synchronization means coordinating threads so they work safely together.

Synchronization Tools Table

Tool Purpose

Lock Allows one thread at a time

RLock Allows same thread to acquire lock multiple times

Semaphore Allows limited number of threads

Event One thread signals another thread

Condition Threads wait until a condition becomes true

Queue Thread-safe data exchange between threads

18.2 Multiprocessing

Multiprocessing means running multiple processes.

336
Python provides the multiprocessing module for process-based parallelism. ProcessPoolExecutor is
also documented as a higher-levelinterface for running tasks in background processes.

Syntax

import multiprocessing

Explanation

1. A process has its own Python interpreter and memory space. 2. Processes do not share normal
memory like threads. 3. Multiprocessing is useful for CPU-bound tasks. 4. It can use multiple CPU
cores. 5. Communication between processes needs special tools like Queue, Pipe, Manager,
or shared memory.

Thread vs Process

Point Thread Process

Memory Shared memory Separate memory

Creation cost Lighter Heavier

Best for I/O-bound tasks CPU-bound tasks

Communication Easier but risky Needs special tools

Race condition risk Higher with shared data Lower by default

18.2.1 Managing Processes

Method / Attribute Meaning

start() Starts process

join() Waits for process to finish

is alive() _ Checks whether process is running

terminate() Stops process forcefully

pid Process ID

name Process name

exitcode Process exit status

18.2.2 Process Pools

A process pool manages multiple worker processes.

337
Syntax

from multiprocessing import Pool

1. A pool reuses worker processes. It is useful when many tasks need to be processed.
2. It avoids manually creating many process objects. 3. For many cases, ProcessPoolExecutor is simpler
andmore modern.

18.2.3 Memory Sharing Basics

Processes have separate memory by default.

1. Normal variables are not automatically shared between processes. 2. Each process gets its own
memory space. 3. To share data, special multiprocessing tools are needed. 4. Shared memory should
be used carefully.

Memory Sharing Tools

Tool Purpose

[Link] Send data between processes

[Link] Two-way communication

[Link] Shared list/dict-like objects

[Link] Shared single value

[Link] Shared array

[Link] memory _ Direct shared memory block

18.3 Concurrent Futures

The [Link] module provides a high-levelinterface for running callables asynchronously

using threads, processes, or interpreters. The main executors are ThreadPoolExecutor and
ProcessPoolExecutor.

Syntax

from [Link] import ThreadPoolExecutor

from [Link] import ProcessPoolExecutor

Explanation

1. [Link] is easier than manually creatingthreads/processes.

2. It uses executors to manage workers. It returns Future objects. 3. A Future represents a result that
may not be readyyet. 4. It is useful for running many tasks concurrently.

338
18.3.1 ThreadPoolExecutor
ThreadPoolExecutor runs tasks using a pool of threads. Best for I/O-bound tasks

Example 1

PYTHON CODE from [Link] import ThreadPoolExecutor

def square(number):
return number * number
with ThreadPoolExecutor() as executor:
results = [Link](square, [1, 2, 3, 4])
print(list(results))
Output: [1, 4, 9, 16]

18.3.2 ProcessPoolExecutor
ProcessPoolExecutor runs tasks using a pool of [Link] for CPU-bound tasks
PYTHON CODE from [Link] import ProcessPoolExecutor
def square(number):
return number * number
if __name__ == "__main__":
with ProcessPoolExecutor() as executor:
results = [Link](square, [1, 2, 3, 4])
print(list(results))
Output: [1, 4, 9, 16]

18.3.3 Futures

A Future represents a task that may complete later.

Method Meaning

result() Gets result, waits if needed

done() Checks whether task is completed

cancel() Attempts to cancel task

cancelled() Checks whether task was cancelled

exception() Returns exception if task failed

add done callback() _ _ Runs callback when task finishes

339
Example 1

PYTHON CODE from [Link] import ThreadPoolExecutor

def square(number):
return number * number
with ThreadPoolExecutor() as executor:
future = [Link](square, 5)
print([Link]())
Output: 25

18.4 Async Programming

Async programming is used to write concurrent code using async and await.
Python’s official asyncio documentation describesit as a library for writing concurrent code using async
/ await , commonly used for high-performancenetwork servers, web servers, database libraries, and
distributed task queues. Best for I/O-bound tasks with many waiting operations

18.4.1 asyncio
asyncio is Python’s standard library module for asynchronousprogramming.

Syntax

import asyncio
1. asyncio runs asynchronous tasks. 2. It uses an event loop. 3. It is usually single-threaded cooperative
concurrency. 4. Tasks pause when they reach await. 5. While one task is waiting, another task can run.
Flow Chart Event loop starts
| v Task 1 runs
| v Task 1 awaits
| v Task 2 runs
| v Tasks complete

18.4.2 async and Coroutines

A coroutine is created using async def.

Syntax

async def function_name():

statement

Explanation

1. async def defines a coroutine function. 2. Calling a coroutine function returns a coroutine object.

340
3. The coroutine does not run immediately just because it is called. 4. It must be awaited or run by the
event loop. 5. [Link]() is commonly used to start the main coroutine.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import asyncio

async def greet():
print("Hello async")
[Link](greet())
Output: Hello async

18.4.3 await

await pauses a coroutine until an awaitable finishes.

Syntax

await awaitable

Explanation

1. await can be used only inside async def . It pausesthe current coroutine. 2. It allows the event loop to
run other tasks. 3. It is used with coroutines, tasks, and async operations.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import asyncio

async def main():
print("Start")
await [Link](1)
print("End")
[Link](main())
Output: Start
End

18.4.4 Event Loop

The event loop manages and runs async tasks.

1. The event loop schedules coroutines. It switches between tasks when they await. 2. [Link]()
creates and manages the event loop formost programs. 3. Beginners should usually use [Link]()
insteadof manually creating loops.

18.4.5 Tasks

A task schedules a coroutine to run concurrently.

341
Syntax

task = asyncio.create_task(coroutine())
1. A task wraps a coroutine. It schedules the coroutine to run on the event loop. 2. Multiple tasks can
run concurrently. await task getsthe final result.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import asyncio

async def work(name):
await [Link](1)
print(name, "done")
async def main():
task1 = asyncio.create_task(work("Task 1"))
task2 = asyncio.create_task(work("Task 2"))
await task1
await task2
[Link](main())

▶ Output:

Task 1 done Task 2 done Both tasks wait concurrently.

18.4.6 [Link]()
[Link]() runs multiple awaitables concurrentlyand collects their results.

18.4.7 Async Futures

An [Link] represents a result that may beavailable later.

1. [Link] is a low-level awaitable object. 2. It is mainly used inside asyncio libraries and
frameworks. 3. In normal application code, prefer coroutines and tasks. 4. Do not confuse
[Link] with [Link].
Python’s docs note that [Link] is usuallyfor low-level callback-based code and recommend not
exposing Future objects in user-facing APIs.

Future Comparison

Type Module Used With

[Link] [Link] Thread/process executors

[Link] asyncio Event loop and async tasks

[Link] asyncio Event loop and async tasks 18.4.8 Async Context Managers
342
Async context managers are used with async with . Theyuse:
__aenter__
__aexit__
not normal __enter__ and __exit__.

Syntax

PYTHON CODE class ClassName:

async def __aenter__(self):
return self async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
pass

Explanation

1. async with is used for async resource management. 2. __aenter__ runs when the async context starts.
3. __aexit__ runs when the async context ends. 4. These methods can use await. 5. They are common in
async database connections, HTTP clients, and network
resources.

Example 1

PYTHON CODE import asyncio

class AsyncManager:
async def __aenter__(self):
print("Entering async context")
return self
async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc_value, traceback):
print("Exiting async context")
async def main():
async with AsyncManager():
print("Inside async context")
[Link](main())
Output: Entering async context Inside async context Exiting async context

18.4.9 Async vs Threading vs Multiprocessing

Feature Threading Multiprocessing Asyncio

Unit Thread Process Coroutine/task

Memory Shared Separate Shared in same thread

343
 Best for I/O-bound blocking work CPU-bound work I/O-bound non-blocking work

Runs in Same process Separate processes Event loop

Communication Shared data, queue Queue, pipe, manager Awaitables, tasks

Main risk Race conditions Process overhead Blocking the event loop

Common tool threading multiprocessing asyncio

Important Async Rule

Do not put long blocking code inside async functions.

If blocking code runs inside the event loop, it delays other async tasks. Python’s asyncio development
docs note that CPU-intensive work can block the event loop and delay other tasks, and executors can
be used to run such work elsewhere.

344
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