Chapter 2: Properties of Materials

Easy Notes for Revision

2.1 Atomic Structure & the Periodic Table

Parts of an atom
Particle Charge Where is it?
Proton +1 (positive) Inside nucleus
Neutron 0 (no charge) Inside nucleus
Electron –1 (negative) Moving in shells around nucleus

•​ An atom has no overall charge → number of protons = number of electrons.

•​ Electrons are held in place around the nucleus by electrostatic forces (the pull between + and –
charges).

Atomic number & mass number

Atomic number = number of protons in the atom.
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons.
Formula: Number of neutrons = Mass number − Atomic number

Worked example — Lithium (Li)

•​ Atomic number = 3 → 3 protons, 3 electrons
•​ Mass number = 7
•​ Neutrons = 7 − 3 = 4

Electron shells (energy levels)

•​ Electrons sit in shells (also called energy levels) around the nucleus.
–​ Shell 1 (closest to nucleus): holds maximum 2 electrons
–​ Shell 2: holds maximum 8 electrons
–​ Shell 3: holds maximum 8 electrons
•​ Rule: fill the shell closest to the nucleus FIRST, then move outward.
–​ This model was developed by Niels Bohr (1913) — he won a Nobel Prize for it.

Electronic structure (writing shell arrangement)

We write the number of electrons in each shell, separated by commas, starting from the
inside shell.
•​ Example: Boron has 5 electrons → electronic structure = 2,3
(2 in shell 1, 3 in shell 2)
•​ Example: Sodium (11 electrons) → 2,8,1
 CHEAT SHEET
•​ Protons = + charge, Neutrons = no charge, Electrons = − charge
•​ Atomic number = protons = electrons
•​ Mass number = protons + neutrons
•​ Neutrons = Mass number − Atomic number
•​ Shell capacity: 1st = 2, 2nd = 8, 3rd = 8
•​ Electronic structure = electrons per shell, e.g. 2,8,1

2.2 Trends in Groups (Periodic Table)

A 'Group' = a column in the Periodic Table. Elements in the same group have the same number of
electrons in their outer shell, so they behave in similar ways.

Group 1 — Alkali Metals (Li, Na, K)

•​ Going DOWN the group: atomic number increases, atom size increases.
•​ Going DOWN the group: melting point and boiling point DECREASE.
•​ Going DOWN the group: reactivity INCREASES (gets more reactive).
•​ Why more reactive going down? The outer electron is further from the nucleus, so the pull
(electrostatic force) holding it is weaker → easier to lose that electron.
•​ All Group 1 elements have ONE electron in their outer shell, e.g. Li = 2,1 | Na = 2,8,1 | K = 2,8,8,1

Group 7 — Halogens (F, Cl, Br)

•​ Going DOWN the group: melting point and boiling point
INCREASE.
•​ Going DOWN the group: reactivity DECREASES (gets less
reactive).
•​ Why less reactive going down? These atoms need to GAIN one
electron to be stable. The outer shell is further from the nucleus
going down, so it is harder to pull in (attract) an extra electron.
•​ All Group 7 elements have SEVEN electrons in outer shell, e.g.
F = 2,7 | Cl = 2,8,7
Group 8 — Noble Gases (He, Ne, Ar)
•​ Outer shell is completely FULL of electrons.
•​ This makes them very stable → inert (do not react, do not form compounds).
•​ Going down the group: melting point and boiling point increase.

CHEAT SHEET
•​ Group 1 (alkali metals): 1 outer electron — reactivity ↑ down the group, melting/boiling
point ↓ down the group
•​ Group 7 (halogens): 7 outer electrons — reactivity ↓ down the group, melting/boiling
point ↑ down the group
•​ Group 8 (noble gases): full outer shell — unreactive (inert)
•​ Rule: further the outer electron is from nucleus → weaker electrostatic pull

2.3 Why Elements React (Ionic & Covalent Bonding)

Stability rule
•​ Atoms are most stable when their OUTERMOST shell is completely full.
•​ Noble gases already have a full outer shell, so they don't react.
•​ Other atoms react so they can become stable (fill their outer shell) — they do this by:
–​ losing or gaining electrons (→ forms an ION) — this makes an IONIC bond
–​ sharing electrons — this makes a COVALENT bond
Ions
An ion is an atom that has LOST or GAINED electrons, so it now has a charge.
Action Result Example
Loses electron(s) Becomes POSITIVE ion (+) Na → Na+
Gains electron(s) Becomes NEGATIVE ion (–) Cl → Cl-

•​ Sodium atom Na [2,8,1] loses 1 electron → sodium ion Na+ [2,8] (full outer shell, stable)
•​ Chlorine atom Cl [2,8,7] gains 1 electron → chloride ion Cl- [2,8,8] (full outer shell, stable)

Ionic bonding (metal + non-metal)

•​ A metal atom LOSES electrons and a non-metal atom GAINS electrons.
•​ The resulting + ion and – ion are strongly attracted to each other (opposite charges attract) → this
attraction is the IONIC BOND.

Example: Na + Cl → NaCl (sodium chloride)

Example: Mg loses 2 electrons, O gains 2 electrons → Mg2+ and O2- → MgO (magnesium oxide)
Example: Mg loses 2 electrons but Cl only gains 1 each, so 2 Cl atoms are needed → MgCl2
(magnesium chloride)

Covalent bonding (non-metal + non-metal)

•​ Two non-metal atoms SHARE a pair of electrons instead of losing/gaining them.
•​ Sharing fills both atoms' outer shells at the same time.
•​ The group of atoms joined this way is called a MOLECULE.
•​ A diagram showing shared electrons as dots and crosses is called a dot-and-cross diagram.

Molecule Formula Sharing

Hydrogen chloride HCl 1 pair shared (H + Cl)
Hydrogen H2 1 pair shared (H + H)
Ammonia NH3 3 pairs shared (3H + N)
Water H2O —
Methane CH4 —
Carbon dioxide CO2 —
Hydrogen Chloride (HCL)

Ammonia (NH3)

CHEAT SHEET
•​ Atoms react to get a FULL outer shell ​
(= stable)
•​ IONIC bond = metal + non-metal ​
→ electrons transferred (lost/gained) ​
→ forms ions ​
→ opposite charges attract
•​ COVALENT bond = non-metal + non-metal ​
→ electrons SHARED ​
→ forms a molecule
•​ Lose electron → + ion.
•​ Gain electron → − ion.
•​ Charge of ion = number of electrons lost or
gained
2.4 Simple & Giant Structures
Giant ionic structures
•​ In an ionic compound (e.g. NaCl), + and – ions are pulled together strongly in ALL directions.
•​ Millions of ions arrange in a regular repeating pattern called a LATTICE.
•​ This is why ionic crystals have a regular, neat shape.

Simple covalent molecules

•​ Inside the molecule (e.g. CO2): covalent bonds are STRONG.
•​ Between separate molecules: forces are WEAK — these are called intermolecular forces.

Giant covalent structures (macromolecules)

Some covalent substances are NOT small molecules — instead millions of atoms bond together in one
giant structure. This is called a macromolecule.
Substance Bonds per atom Structure Property
Diamond Each C makes 4 bonds Rigid 3-D lattice Extremely hard (hardest natural
(carbon) material)
Graphite Each C makes 3 bonds Flat layers Soft — layers slide over each other
(carbon) easily
Silicon — Giant covalent lattice Hard, high melting point (1610°C)
dioxide

Graphite: strong covalent bonds WITHIN each

layer, but only WEAK bonds BETWEEN layers

→ layers slide apart easily

→ soft, used in pencils.

Comparing properties
Property Ionic compounds Simple covalent Giant covalent
molecules (macromolecules)
Melting / boiling point Very HIGH (strong LOW (weak Very HIGH (strong
forces between ions, intermolecular covalent bonds
all directions) forces) throughout)
Conducts electricity? YES — but only when NO Usually NO (except
molten or dissolved in graphite)
water (ions free to
move)

CHEAT SHEET
•​ Ionic compounds = giant lattice → very high melting/boiling point, conducts electricity
only when molten/dissolved
•​ Simple covalent molecules → low melting/boiling point, does NOT conduct electricity
•​ Giant covalent structures (diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide) → very high melting point,
do not normally conduct electricity
•​ Diamond: 4 bonds/atom → very hard. Graphite: 3 bonds/atom, layered → soft