1) Study about Wired and Wireless

Networks
What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system of interconnected devices (like computers, smartphones, and servers) that
communicate and share resources, such as files, internet access, and printers.
Types of computer networks:
• Wired
• Wireless

Wired Network
A wired network uses physical cables — like Ethernet or fiber optic cables — to connect devices to each other and
to networking equipment such as switches and routers. Because data travels through a physical medium, wired
networks generally offer higher speed, lower latency, and greater reliability than wireless networks.
Types of wired networks:
• Twisted Pair cables
• Coaxial cables
• Fiber Optic cables
This category is defined by the type of cable used.

1. Twisted Pair Cables

A twisted pair cable is a standard networking and telecommunications cable in which pairs of insulated copper wires
are twisted together. Twisting each pair cancels out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources and
crosstalk between neighboring pairs.
Types of twisted pair cables: 1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables and 2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables.

Fig 1.1 — Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable

 Fig 1.2 — Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

Feature Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Shielding No internal shielding; relies only on the Contains a foil or braided mesh shield
twist of the wire pairs. around each pair / the whole cable.

Noise Immunity Weak immunity against noise and Excellent immunity due to shielding.
interference.

Cost Less expensive. More expensive.

Usage Common in homes, offices, and standard Used in environments with high electrical
LANs (Cat5e / Cat6). interference, e.g. industrial settings.

2. Coaxial Cable
A coaxial ("coax") cable has a single central copper conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a braided metal
shield, and an outer plastic sheath. Coaxial cable was widely used for cable television and older Ethernet networks,
and is still used for broadband cable internet connections today.

Fig 1.3 — Coaxial Cable (Cutaway View)

3. Fiber Optic Cable

A fiber optic cable transmits data as pulses of light through a thin strand of glass or plastic called the core. It is
immune to electromagnetic interference, supports very high bandwidth, and carries signals over long distances with
minimal loss.
 Fig 1.4 — Fiber Optic Cable (Cutaway View)

Wireless Network
A wireless network connects devices without physical cables, using radio waves, microwaves, or infrared signals to
transmit data through the air.
Types of wireless networks:
• Wi-Fi (WLAN) — connects devices to a local network and internet via a router/access point.
• Bluetooth — short-range wireless connection between nearby devices.
• Mobile / Cellular Network (3G/4G/5G) — connects devices over long distances via towers.
• Satellite Network — uses orbiting satellites for remote-area connectivity.
• Infrared (IR) — very short-range, line-of-sight communication.

Fig 1.5 — Wired Network vs Wireless Network

Conclusion
Wired networks use physical media to provide fast, stable, and secure connections, while wireless networks use
radio signals to provide mobility and flexibility. Most modern networks use a hybrid approach — wired backbones
with wireless access for end-user devices.
2) Study about Different Types of
Network Connectivity (LAN, WAN,
MAN)
Networks are classified by the geographical area they cover. The three most common categories are LAN, MAN,
and WAN.

Fig 3.1 — LAN vs MAN vs WAN coverage

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

A Local Area Network connects devices within a small, limited area such as a single room, office, building, or
campus. LANs are typically owned and managed privately by an individual or organization.
Characteristics:
• Covers a small geographical area (a building or campus).
• High data transfer speed and low latency.
• Usually built with Ethernet cables and/or Wi-Fi.
• Example: a computer lab or office network.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A Metropolitan Area Network spans a larger geographical area than a LAN — typically an entire city or town — by
linking several LANs together, often using high-speed connections owned by a service provider.
Characteristics:
• Covers a city or metropolitan region.
• Slower and more expensive to maintain than a LAN, but faster than a WAN.
• Often used by cable TV networks, universities with multiple campuses, or city government networks.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)
A Wide Area Network spans a very large geographical area — across cities, countries, or continents — typically by
connecting multiple LANs and MANs through public or leased communication links. The Internet itself is the
largest example of a WAN.
Characteristics:
• Covers the largest geographical area of the three.
• Relatively lower speed and higher latency due to distance.
• Uses technologies like leased lines, satellite links, and fiber backbones.
• Example: the Internet, or a multinational company's network connecting offices worldwide.

Comparison Table
Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Full Form Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network

Coverage Area Room / building / campus A city Countries / continents

Ownership Private (single Private or public (ISP) Public and private, multiple
organization) owners

Speed Very high Moderate Comparatively lower

Setup Cost Low Moderate High

Example Office / college network Cable TV network in a city The Internet

3) Study about Different Network
Devices in Detail
Networking devices are hardware components that connect computers and other electronic devices together so they
can share data and resources. Below are the most common devices used in building a network.

Fig 4.1 — Typical devices in a home/office network

1. Hub
A hub is a simple, multiport physical-layer device that connects multiple Ethernet devices, making them act as a
single network segment. It receives data on one port and broadcasts it to every other port, regardless of the intended
destination — this makes hubs inefficient and largely obsolete today.

2. Switch
A switch is a smarter, multiport data-link-layer device. It learns the MAC address of each connected device and
forwards data only to the specific port the destination is connected to, instead of broadcasting to all ports. This
significantly reduces unnecessary traffic and collisions.

Fig 4.2 — Hub (broadcast) vs Switch (selective forwarding)

3. Router
A router is a network-layer device that forwards data packets between different networks based on IP addresses. It is
the device responsible for directing traffic between your local network (LAN) and the Internet, and can connect
multiple different networks together.

Fig 4.3 — Router connecting two different networks

4. Repeater, Bridge, and Gateway

• Repeater — regenerates and amplifies a weak signal so it can travel farther without degrading (Physical
Layer).
• Bridge — connects and filters traffic between two LAN segments using MAC addresses, reducing
unnecessary traffic (Data Link Layer).
• Gateway — connects networks that use different protocols or architectures altogether, such as a LAN to the
Internet, acting as a translator between the two.

Fig 4.4 — Repeater vs Bridge vs Gateway

5. Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) converts digital data from a computer into analog signals suitable for
transmission over telephone or cable lines (and back again), allowing a local network to connect to an Internet
Service Provider (ISP).

6. Access Point (AP)

A wireless access point allows Wi-Fi-enabled devices to connect to a wired network. It is usually connected to a
router or switch and broadcasts a wireless signal that nearby devices can join.
Summary Table
Device OSI Layer Function

Hub Physical (Layer 1) Broadcasts incoming data to all connected ports.

Repeater Physical (Layer 1) Regenerates/amplifies a signal to extend range.

Bridge Data Link (Layer Connects and filters traffic between two LAN segments by MAC
2) address.

Switch Data Link (Layer Forwards data only to the destination port using MAC address table.
2)

Router Network (Layer 3) Forwards packets between different networks using IP addresses.

Gateway All layers Connects networks using different protocols/architectures.

Modem Physical (Layer 1) Converts digital signals to analog (and back) for ISP transmission.

Access Point Data Link (Layer Provides wireless (Wi-Fi) access to a wired network.
2)
4) Study of Different Types of
Network Cables and Practically
Implement It
The three main cable types used to physically wire a network are Twisted Pair, Coaxial, and Fiber Optic cables. This
practical also covers the RJ-45 connector used to terminate twisted-pair Ethernet cable, and the two common wiring
standards used to make patch cables.

1. Twisted Pair Cable (UTP / STP)

A twisted pair cable consists of insulated copper wires twisted together in pairs to reduce electromagnetic
interference. It is the most common cable used for Ethernet LANs.

Fig 6.1 — UTP Cable

Fig 6.2 — STP Cable

2. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has a central copper conductor, insulation, a braided metal shield, and an outer jacket. It is used for
cable television and broadband internet connections.
 Fig 6.3 — Coaxial Cable

3. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cable carries data as pulses of light through a glass or plastic core, offering very high bandwidth and
immunity to electrical interference.

Fig 6.4 — Fiber Optic Cable

4. RJ-45 Connector
An RJ-45 connector is an 8-pin/8-contact (8P8C) plug used to terminate twisted-pair Ethernet cable. Each of the 8
wires inside a UTP cable is inserted into a specific pin position based on a wiring standard (T568A or T568B)
before the connector is crimped onto the cable.

Fig 6.5 — RJ-45 Connector Pin Layout

5. Practical Implementation — Cable Wiring (Crimping)
Equipment required: UTP cable, RJ-45 connectors, a crimping tool, and a cable tester.
Procedure:
• Strip about 1–1.5 inches of the outer jacket from the cable end using the crimping tool's stripper.
• Untwist the four pairs and arrange the 8 wires in the required order (T568A or T568B).
• Trim the wires evenly and insert them fully into the RJ-45 connector, ensuring each wire reaches the front.
• Insert the connector into the crimping tool and press firmly to crimp the pins onto the wires.
• Repeat for the other end of the cable, using the same standard (straight-through) or the opposite standard
(crossover).
• Test the finished cable using a cable tester to confirm continuity on all 8 pins.
Two wiring standards define which colored wire goes into which pin:
• T568A — used at both ends for a straight-through cable (paired with T568A), or at one end of a crossover
cable.
• T568B — the more common standard; used at both ends for a straight-through cable.

Fig 6.6 — Straight-Through vs Crossover Wiring

6. When to Use Each Cable Type

Cable Type Used to Connect

Straight-Through (T568B–T568B) Dissimilar devices, e.g. PC → Switch, Switch → Router.

Crossover (T568A–T568B) Similar devices, e.g. PC → PC, Switch → Switch (many modern
NICs auto-detect and no longer need this).
5) Study about Different LAN
Topologies and Implement It Using
Simulator
A network topology is the arrangement of nodes and connections in a network. It can refer to the physical layout of
cables and devices, or the logical path that data takes. Choosing a topology affects cost, reliability, scalability, and
ease of troubleshooting.

1. Bus Topology
All devices are connected to a single central cable, called the backbone or bus. Data sent by one device travels along
the bus and is received by all other devices, but only the intended recipient processes it.

Fig 8.1 — Bus Topology

• Advantage: Simple and inexpensive to install for a small network.

• Disadvantage: A single break in the backbone cable can bring down the entire network.

2. Star Topology
All devices are connected individually to a central device (a switch or hub). All data passes through the central
device, which manages communication between nodes.
 Fig 8.2 — Star Topology

• Advantage: Easy to install, manage, and troubleshoot; a single cable failure only affects one device.
• Disadvantage: If the central device fails, the entire network goes down.

3. Ring Topology
Each device connects to exactly two other devices, forming a circular data path. Data travels around the ring in one
(or both) directions until it reaches its destination.

Fig 8.3 — Ring Topology

• Advantage: Performs well under heavy load compared to bus topology; no collisions.
• Disadvantage: A single cable/node failure can disrupt the entire ring (unless dual-ring redundancy is used).

4. Mesh Topology
Every device is directly connected to every other device. This provides multiple paths for data to travel, offering
excellent redundancy.
 Fig 8.4 — Mesh Topology

• Advantage: Highly reliable — failure of one link does not disconnect the network.
• Disadvantage: Expensive and complex to install due to the large number of cables required.

5. Tree Topology
A hierarchical topology that combines characteristics of star and bus topologies — groups of star-configured devices
are connected to a linear backbone, forming a tree-like structure.

Fig 8.5 — Tree Topology

• Advantage: Scalable — easy to add new branches/devices.

• Disadvantage: If the root/backbone fails, all connected branches are affected.

6. Hybrid Topology
A hybrid topology combines two or more different topologies (e.g. star and bus) to leverage the advantages of each,
and is commonly used in large real-world networks.
 Fig 8.6 — Hybrid Topology

Comparison Table
Topology Cost Fault Tolerance Ease of
Troubleshooting

Bus Low Poor — one break disables the Difficult

network

Star Moderate Good — failure isolated to one link Easy

Ring Moderate Moderate Moderate

Mesh High Excellent — highly redundant Complex (but isolated)

Tree Moderate Depends on backbone health Moderate

Implementation Using a Simulator (Cisco Packet Tracer)

Each topology above can be built and tested in Cisco Packet Tracer:
• Drag the required end devices (PCs) and intermediate devices (switch/hub) onto the workspace.
• Connect them with the appropriate cable (copper straight-through) matching the chosen topology's layout.
• Assign IP addresses to each PC from the Desktop → IP Configuration tab.
• Switch to Simulation Mode and send a PDU (ping) between two PCs to verify connectivity and observe how
the packet travels through the topology.
Fig 8.7 — Building a topology in Cisco Packet Tracer
6) Study of Basic Network
Commands and Network
Configuration Commands
Operating systems provide built-in command-line utilities to check network configuration, test connectivity, and
troubleshoot issues. The most commonly used commands are described below.

1. ping
Tests connectivity between your computer and a destination host by sending ICMP Echo Request packets and
measuring the response time (round-trip time). It confirms whether a host is reachable and reports packet loss.
Syntax: ping <hostname or IP address>

Fig 9.1 — Output of the ping command

2. ipconfig / ifconfig
Displays the current TCP/IP network configuration of a machine — including IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, and (with /all) the MAC address and DNS servers. ipconfig is used on Windows; ifconfig (or the newer ip
addr) is the Linux/macOS equivalent.
Syntax: ipconfig /all
 Fig 9.2 — Output of the ipconfig /all command

3. tracert / traceroute
Shows the path (list of routers/hops) that packets take to reach a destination, along with the time taken at each hop
— useful for pinpointing where a connection is slowing down or failing.
Syntax: tracert <hostname> (Windows) / traceroute <hostname> (Linux/macOS)

4. nslookup
Queries the Domain Name System (DNS) to find the IP address associated with a domain name (or vice-versa) —
useful for diagnosing DNS resolution problems.
Syntax: nslookup <domain name>

5. netstat
Displays active network connections, listening ports, and routing table information on the local machine — useful
for checking which programs are using the network.
Syntax: netstat -a

6. arp
Displays and manages the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) cache, which maps IP addresses to MAC addresses
on the local network segment.
Syntax: arp -a

7. hostname / getmac
• hostname — displays the name of the current computer on the network.
• getmac — displays the MAC address of the network adapter(s) on the machine.

Summary Table
Command Purpose

ping Test connectivity and measure round-trip time to a host.

Command Purpose

ipconfig / ifconfig View/configure the local machine's IP settings.

tracert / traceroute Trace the route (hops) packets take to a destination.

nslookup Query DNS to resolve domain names to IP addresses.

netstat View active connections and listening ports.

arp View/manage IP-to-MAC address mappings.

hostname / getmac Display the computer name / MAC address.

7) Study about Network Tool:
Wireshark
Wireshark is a free and open-source network protocol analyzer. It captures packets traveling across a network
interface in real time and lets you inspect their contents layer-by-layer, making it one of the most widely used tools
for network troubleshooting, analysis, and security research.

How Wireshark Works

Wireshark places the selected network interface card into promiscuous mode, so it can capture every frame that
passes over the segment (not just those addressed to the local machine). Captured frames are decoded according to
the relevant protocols and displayed for analysis.

Fig 11.1 — Wireshark packet capture process

Key Features
• Live capture of packets from wired or wireless interfaces.
• Deep inspection of hundreds of protocols (TCP, UDP, HTTP, DNS, TLS, etc.).
• Powerful display and capture filters (e.g. http, [Link] == 443, [Link] == [Link]).
• Color-coding of packets by protocol type for quick visual analysis.
• Ability to follow an entire TCP/HTTP stream as a conversation.
• Save and reopen capture files (.pcap / .pcapng) for later analysis.

Wireshark User Interface

The main window is divided into three linked panes:
• Packet List Pane — a summary row for every captured packet (number, time, source, destination, protocol,
info).
• Packet Details Pane — an expandable, layer-by-layer breakdown of the selected packet (Ethernet → IP →
TCP → Application layer).
• Bytes Pane — the raw hexadecimal and ASCII representation of the selected packet.
 Fig 11.2 — Wireshark window layout

Basic Procedure to Capture Packets

• Open Wireshark and select the active network interface (e.g. Wi-Fi or Ethernet).
• Click the blue shark-fin icon to start capturing live traffic.
• Perform a network activity (e.g. open a website) while the capture is running.
• Type a display filter, such as http or dns, in the filter bar to narrow down the results.
• Click on any packet to view its detailed breakdown in the lower panes.
• Click the red square icon to stop the capture, and save it via File → Save As if needed.

Common Uses
• Troubleshooting slow or failing network connections.
• Analyzing suspicious traffic for security investigations.
• Learning how protocols like TCP's three-way handshake or DNS resolution work in practice.
8) Study about Network Tool: Cisco
Packet Tracer
Cisco Packet Tracer is a network simulation tool developed by Cisco that allows users to design, build, configure,
and troubleshoot virtual computer networks without needing physical hardware. It is widely used for learning
networking concepts and preparing for Cisco certifications (like CCNA).

Key Features
• A drag-and-drop interface to place networking devices (routers, switches, hubs) and end devices (PCs, servers,
printers) onto a workspace.
• Realistic device configuration through both a graphical interface and an actual Cisco IOS-style command-line
interface (CLI).
• Support for wired and wireless connections, including Wi-Fi routers and mobile devices.
• A Simulation Mode that visually shows how data packets (PDUs) travel through the network, hop by hop.
• Support for multiple protocols: TCP/IP, DNS, DHCP, HTTP, routing protocols (RIP, OSPF), and more.

Packet Tracer Workspace

The workspace consists of a canvas where the network topology is built, and a device-type selection box at the
bottom from which routers, switches, hubs, end devices, WAN emulation, and cable types can be dragged onto the
canvas.

Fig 13.1 — Cisco Packet Tracer workspace layout

Basic Procedure to Build a Simple Network

• Open Cisco Packet Tracer and select devices from the device-type selection box (e.g. 2 PCs, 1 Switch, 1
Router).
• Drag the devices onto the workspace and arrange them.
 • Select the appropriate cable (usually "Automatically Choose Connection Type" or Copper Straight-Through)
and click each device to connect them.
• Click each PC → Desktop tab → IP Configuration, and assign an IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway.
• Configure the router's interfaces (via CLI or GUI) with appropriate IP addresses for each connected network.
• Switch from Realtime Mode to Simulation Mode and send a PDU (ping) between two PCs to verify the
network is working, watching the packet travel across the topology.

Why It Is Useful
• Allows practicing complex network configurations without expensive physical routers/switches.
• Provides immediate visual feedback when a connection or configuration is incorrect.
• Free to download and widely used in academic networking courses and certification labs.