BIOENERGETICS nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

Energy is the ability to do work. (NADPH, another energy-carrying molecule) that

power the light-independent reactions. During this
Autotrophs are organisms that make their food. stage, oxygen is also released as a waste product.
Most autotrophs use energy from sunlight to make In the light-independent reaction, also called the
their food. They are also called producers, Plants, Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH from light
algae, and some bacteria are photosynthetic reactions are used to create glucose.
autotrophs. They can make food through
photosynthesis. Stage I (Light-dependent Reaction): The light-
dependent reactions use energy from the sunlight
Through photosynthesis, these autotrophs to produce oxygen gas and convert ADP and
use light energy to power chemical NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH.
reactions that convert carbon dioxide and The light-dependent reactions take place within the
water into oxygen and energy-rich thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts.
carbohydrates such as sugars and starches.
a) Photosystem II (The first photosystem in
Chemosynthesis is the process where the light-dependent reaction is called
organisms use chemical energy to produce photosystem II because it was discovered
carbohydrates. This process is performed after photosystem I) - Light is absorbed by
by several types of bacteria. chlorophyll or other pigments in
Organisms that cannot make their food obtain food photosystem II. The energy from this light is
by consuming other organisms. These organisms transferred to electrons, which are then
are referred to as heterotrophs. They may passed on to the electron transport chain.
consume autotrophs, other heterotrophs, or both. Separately, enzymes break up water
Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, and some molecules into electrons, hydrogen ions
single-celled organisms. (H+), and oxygen.
Herbivores: eat only plants. Examples are b) Electron Transport Chain – High energy
cows, caterpillars, and deer. electrons from photosystem II move through
the electron transport chain to photosystem
Carnivores: eat animals. Examples are I. The molecules in the electron transport
snakes, owls, and dogs. chain use energy from electrons to transport
Omnivores: eat both plants and animals. hydrogen ions from the stroma into the inner
Examples are bears, crows, and humans. thylakoid.
Detritivores: feed on plant and animal c) Photosystem I – As in photosystem II,
remains and other dead matter. Examples pigments add energy from light to the
are mites, earthworms, snails, and crabs. electrons. The high-energy electrons are
Decomposers: breaks down organic matter. then picked up by NADP+ to form NADPH.
Examples are bacteria and fungi. d) Hydrogen Ion Movement – As a result of
All organisms mainly use two types of energy- the H+ ions released during water-splitting
giving molecules: glucose and ATP. Glucose is and electron transport, the inside of the
made during the process of photosynthesis. With thylakoid membranes becomes positively
the help of light energy from the sun, water, and charged and the outside of becomes
carbon dioxide, plants create glucose where negatively charged. The difference in the
chemical energy is stored in a concentrated and charges across the membrane provide
stable form. energy to make ATP.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules store e) ATP Formation – Hydrogen ions will pass
smaller amounts of energy, but each molecule through ATP synthase. ATP synthase binds
releases enough energy to do the work within the ADP and adds a phosphate tail to convert it
cell. It is the energy-carrying molecule used by the to ATP.
cell. Stage 2 (Light-independent Reaction): The ATP
Photosynthesis occurs in two (2) stages: Stage I and NADPH formed by light-dependent reactions
includes the light-dependent reactions and are not stable enough to store energy for more than
Stage Il includes the light-independent a few minutes. The Calvin cycle uses ATP and
reactions. Light-dependent reactions directly use NADPH from the light reactions to form high-energy
light energy to produce ATP and reduced sugars that can be stored for a long time. The
Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma. This cycle is compound formed in this series of reactions is citric
named after the American scientist Melvin Calvin, acid, thus the term citric acid cycle.
who worked out the details of this remarkable cycle. Electron Transport Chain: The electron transport
Because the Calvin cycle does not require light, this chain uses high energy electrons from the Krebs
is also called the light-independent reactions. cycle to convert ADP into ATP. In the presence of
1. Carbon Fixation - Carbon fixation occurs oxygen, the Krebs cycle and electron transport
when carbon dioxide (CO2) from the enable the cell to produce 34 more ATP molecules
atmosphere combines with a five-carbon (5- per glucose molecule in addition to the two (2) ATP
C) sugar compound, ribulose-1,5- molecules obtained from glycolysis.
biphosphate (RuBP), forming an unstable
six-carbon molecule called the ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate carboxylase-oxygenase
(RuBisCO). The RuBisCO molecule is
immediately broken down into two (2) three-
carbon (3-C) sugar-phosphate known as 3-
phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
2. Reduction Reactions - The 3-PGA
molecules gain energy from the ATP and
NADPH from the light-dependent reactions,
and rearrange themselves to form
glycerate-3-phosphate (G3P). This molecule
also contains three carbon atoms but is
more stable than 3-PGA. A single G3P
molecule goes on to form into
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (PGAL), the
three-carbon (3-C) carbohydrate precursor
of glucose and other sugars. The rest of the
G3P proceed to the regeneration step.
3. Regeneration of RuBP - The remaining
G3P molecules then use more ATP to revert
to RuBP, completing the cycle. Converting
the G3P molecules to the RuBP allows the
cycle to repeat.

Three (3) main stages of cellular respiration:

Glycolysis: Literally means “splitting sugars”.
Glucose, a six-carbon sugar, is split into two (2)
molecules of a three-carbon sugar. In the process,
two (2) molecules of ATP, two (2) molecules of
pyruvic acid, and two (2) “high energy” electron
carrying molecules of NADH are produced.
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): During the cycle,
pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a
series of energy extracting reactions. The first
PERPETUATION OF LIFE DNA consists of two (2) strands wound
Two (2) Types of Plant Reproduction: together to form a double helix. With each
strand, chemicals called nucleotides are
Asexual Reproduction: a process that used as a code for making proteins. DNA
involves only one (1) parent plant and contains only four (4) nucleotides:
produces offspring identical to the parent
plant Adenine (A)

Sexual reproduction: a process that Thymine (T)

involves two (2) parent plants to form new Cytosine (C)
organism, which differ from the parents Guanine (G)
Five (5) plant parts used for asexual reproduction: The four (4) nucleotides are the starting
Stolons: or runners, are above ground point for making all the proteins in the
horizontal stems. Where a stolon touches human body.
the ground, a new plant is produced. An When a product of a particular gene is
example of a plant that produces stolons needed, the portion of the DNA molecule
are strawberries. Other plants have that contains that gene will split.
underground stems, called rhizomes, from
which a new plant can surface. Through the process of transcription, a
strand of RNA with bases complementary to
Bulbs: are underground stems. Bulbs are those of the gene is created from free
big, round buds made of a stem and special nucleotides in the cell. This RNA will copy
types of leaves. They are not connected to the code from the gene.
the parent plant. Examples are onion and
tulip. The single chain of RNA, called messenger
RNA (mRNA), then passes to the organelles
Stem cuttings: when a piece of stem is called ribosomes, where the process of
planted, roots may form from the cutting. translation (protein synthesis) takes place.
Then, a full plant develops. Examples are
sugar cane and pineapple. During translation, a second type of RNA,
called transfer RNA (tRNA), matches up the
Roots: Some plants can produce new nucleotides on the mRNA with specific
plants from root pieces. An example is amino acids.
sweet potato.
Each set of three nucleotides codes for one
Leaves: Some house plants produce little (1) amino acid. The series of amino acids
plants on their leaves. An example is the built according to the sequence of
African violet. nucleotides forms a polypeptide chain; all
Genes: A gene is a stretch of DNA that contains the proteins are made from one or more
instructions for making protein. polypeptide chains.
An error in the production of DNA or chromosomes
may result in genetic disorders or conditions such
as Turner syndrome. Turner syndrome happens
when a female baby is born with a missing or
partial X chromosome. It causes symptoms like
short stature, delayed puberty, and issues with
ovary function.
DNA is a long molecule packed into
structures called chromosomes. Humans
have 23 pairs of chromosomes, including a
single pair of sex chromosomes (XX in
females and XY in males). Within each pair,
one (1) chromosome comes from an
individual’s mother and the other comes
from the father. This concludes that we The Use of Technology in Reproduction
inherit half our DNA from each of our
parents. Selective breeding (or artificial selection) is the
process in which animals and plants are bred
based on their desired traits. Normally,
domesticated animals and some plants are bred by
professional breeders or trained farmers. Bred
animals are called breeds, while bred plants are
called varieties (or cultivars). Even Charles Darwin
discussed how selective breeding contributed to the
change of species over time. The main goal of
selective breeding is to produce offspring of
species with desired traits.
Genetic engineering is the process by which
genes from one (1) organism are transferred into
another organism of an entirely different species. In
one (1) method of genetic engineering, part of an
organism's DNA is joined with the DNA of another
organism. The combined DNA is called
recombinant DNA.
In vitro fertilization is a process wherein a sperm
fertilizes an egg outside the body. This is usually
done in the laboratory, hence the name "in vitro"
(Lat. "in glass"). This technique involves the
removal of a matured ovum (i.e., egg) from the
woman's ovary. The ovum will be fertilized by the
sperm in a liquid medium under laboratory
conditions. The fertilized egg (i.e., zygote) is then
cultured for days in a growth medium. Then, it is
implanted in the same or another woman's uterus
to establish healthy growth and development of the
embryo.
ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEMS hemoglobin, a pigment that binds
and transports oxygen.

Digestive System White Blood Cells (Leukocytes):

Leukocytes are not confined to the
Functions of Digestive System: blood as erythrocytes are, but can
Digestion - breaking food down to migrate out of capillaries through the
molecules that the body can absorb to intercellular spaces into the
nourish its cells surrounding interstitial fluid.
Absorption - passage of the molecules into Platelets: Platelets are cell
the body’s interior and their passage fragments that pinch off from larger
throughout the body cells in the bone marrow.
Elimination - removal of undigested food Blood Vessels:
and wastes Arteries: Arteries are muscular;
Principal Processes Involved in Digestion: transport blood away from the heart;
and contain oxygenated blood.
Mechanical Digestion: biting, cutting,
tearing, grinding, and mashing large bits of Veins: Veins are thinner and less
food into a fine mixture. muscular than arteries and return
blood to the heart. Veins transport
Chemical Digestion: Changing of food into blood low in oxygen.
more soluble food through the action of
digestive enzymes. Capillaries: Capillaries are one cell
in thickness, which allows for the
Parts of the Digestive System: essential exchange of materials
Mouth and Pharynx: mechanical between the blood and cells of the
breakdown of food, chemical breakdown of body.
starch, swallowing Heart: Heart is a muscular structure that
Stomach: mechanically churns food contracts in a rhythmic pattern to pump
Liver: Secretes bile, which is stored in blood.

gallbladder, bile emulsifies fats

Pancreas: secretes sodium bicarbonate Integumentary System

and a number of digestive enzymes Parts of the Integumentary System

(hydrolases), bicarbonate neutralizes acidity Skin: Its main function is protection.
Small Intestine: Major site of chemical Epidermis: The basal part of the
digestion epidermis is made up of cells that
Large Intestine: Absorption of water, undergo frequent mitosis.
bacteria in colon (E. coli) produce vitamin K Dermis: This is the innermost layer
and some B vitamins, remaining contents in of the skin composed of living cells.
the lumen form feces This layer contains blood vessels,
nerves, sense receptors, hair
follicles and smooth muscle.
Circulatory System
Subcutaneous Layer: found
Parts of the Circulatory System beneath the epidermis and dermis
Blood: and is made up of connective tissue
(mostly fat), which helps insulate,
Plasma: Blood plasma is the matrix
store energy and protect the body.
in which blood cells and platelets are
suspended. Plasma contains Hair: The sebaceous gland, capillary bed,
nutrients, wastes, hormones, ions nerve ending, and small muscle are
and proteins. associated with each hair follicle.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): The Nails: This consists of highly keratinized,
erythrocytes of vertebrates contain modified epidermal cells and grow from an
 area of rapidly dividing cells known as nail Ovary: secretes estrogen and progesterone
matrix or nail. to regulate reproduction
Testes: produces testosterone to control
Muscular System formation of sperm and sexual behavior

Functions of Muscular System:

To produce movement and give shape and Immune System
form to the body Organs and Tissues of the Immune System
To protect some vital organs from injury Lymph nodes: They are small,
To produce heat to maintain the body beanshaped
temperature structures which contains lymph (the clear
Joint stability fluid). They produce and store cells that
fight infection and disease. Lymph carries
Posture those cells to different parts of the body.
Three (3) Types of Muscles: When the body is fighting infection, lymph
nodes can become enlarged and feel sore.
Skeletal muscle: This type of muscle is
attached to the skeleton with the tendon. Spleen: It is on your left side, under your
ribs and above your stomach. The white
Smooth muscle: It surrounds hollow blood cells - contained by spleen fights
internal structures, including stomach, infection or disease. They also helps control
intestines, arteries, and veins. the amount of blood in the body and
Cardiac muscle: It is found only in the walls disposes of old or damaged blood cells.
of the heart. Bone marrow: The yellow tissue in the
center of the bones produces white blood
Endocrine System cells. This spongy tissue inside some
bones, such as the hip and thigh bones,
The endocrine glands (ductless glands) produce contains immature cells, called stem cells.
chemical substances called hormones (also known Stem cells, especially embryonic stem cells,
as chemical messenger) and release them into the which are derived from eggs fertilized in
bloodstream to regulate and integrate body vitro (outside of the body), are prized for
function. their flexibility in being able to morph into
Parts of Endocrine System any human cell.
Hypothalamus: coordinates activities of the Thymus: This small organ is where T-cells
nervous and endocrine systems and mature. This is found beneath the
produces hormones to regulate the pituitary breastbone (and is shaped like a thyme leaf,
gland hence the name). It can trigger or maintain
the production of antibodies.
Pituitary: produces hormones that direct
the activities of other endocrine glands
Pineal: releases melatonin, which is Homeostasis
involved in rhythmic or cyclic activities Homeostasis depends on the action and interaction
(sleep patterns) of a number of body systems to maintain a range of
Thyroid: produces hormones that regulate conditions within which the body can best operate.
metabolism and development Because the external environment is constantly
changing and homeostatic reactions respond to the
Parathyroid: helps maintain appropriate
change and bring the body back to a given set
calcium levels
point, itis often referred to as a dynamic equilibrium.
Thymus: involved with immune A dynamic equilibrium is a condition that remains
development during childhood stable within fluctuating limits. Many homeostatic
Adrenal: regulates the body’s stress reactions begin with the body’s sensing of changes
response (epinephrine, norepinephrine, in the external environment.
cortisol, aldosterone)
HOW PLANTS SURVIVE
Roots: The roots have three (3) main functions:
absorb nutrients and water from the soil, anchor the
plant, and store food. A root is a complex organ
consisting of several types of tissues to carry out its
various functions.
Stem: In vascular plants, the stems hold the plant
upright so that they can get the sunlight and the air
they need. Stems hold the other organs such as the
leaves, flowers, and fruits. Stems also carry water
and minerals from the roots to the leaves and carry
the food produced by the leaves to the other parts
of the plant. In monocot plants like grasses, the
vascular bundles are scattered in the stem, while in
dicots like tomato plants, the vascular bundles are
arranged in a ring inside the [Link] general,
monocots do not undergo secondary growth. If they
do increase in girth (like palm trees and yucca
plants), it does not result in the development of a
secondary xylem and phloem.
Leaves: Plant leaves vary in size and shape. Most
leaves have the following external parts: petiole,
blade (or the lamina), midrib (or primary vein), and
lateral veins. The petiole attaches the leaf to the
stem of the plant. The lamina (or blade) is where
photosynthesis is concentrated. The veins of the
leaf contain the xylem and phloem, where the water
and food pass through.

Plant Responses to Stimuli

Like other organisms, plants can detect and
respond to different stimuli in their environment.
Plants respond to stimuli (sing. stimulus) in different
ways. One (1) is by adjusting its growth depending
on the stimulus they encounter. Tropism is the
growth of a plant away from a stimulus (negative)
or toward a stimulus (positive). There are several
types of tropisms. Two (2) of the most important
tropisms are the responses to gravity (geotropism
or gravitropism) and light (phototropism).
Another type of tropism is thigmotropism, which is
the response of some plants to touch like that of the
response of the makahiya plant (Mimosa pudica)
when touched.
THE PROCESS OF EVOLUTION and crops, like corn and strawberries, are
Evolution: Evolution is described as the change in greatly different from their wild ancestors.
species over time. It is also the change in allelic These differences have resulted from
frequency in a population of species. A species is a generations of selections for desirable traits
group of organisms that share similar like milk production and corn stalk size.
characteristics and can interbreed with one another Domestication: Artificial selection has also
to produce fertile offspring. been responsible for the great variety of
Charles Darwin: In 1897, Charles Darwin published breeds of cats, dogs, pigeons, cattle, and
another groundbreaking book, “The Descent of other domestic animals. In some cases,
Man." In this book, he suggested that humans breeds have been developed for particular
evolved from the same African ape ancestors that purposes. Greyhound dogs, for example,
gave rise to the gorilla and the chimpanzee. Little were bred by selecting for maximal running
fossil evidence existed at that time to support abilities, with the end result being an animal
Darwin's case, but numerous fossil discoveries with long legs and tail, an arched back, and
made since then strongly support his hypothesis. great muscle mass.

Natural selection is a process, whereas evolution is

the historical record, or outcome, of change through
time. An example is how giraffes evolved to have
longer necks from their ancestors. Through the
process of natural selection, longer-necked giraffes
are more successful in survival and pass the long-
neck trait on to their offspring.
Natural selection can lead to evolution, but natural
selection is only one of several processes that can
result to evolutionary change.

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck:
Theory of Need: Lamarck believed that
organisms change because they need to.
Theory of Use and Disuse: Lamarck further
explained that organisms developed
specialized characteristics by the use or
disuse of organs.
Theory of Acquired Traits: He thought that if
an organism acquired a body structure (for
example, long limbs, legs, or necks) during
its lifetime, it could pass on that
characteristic structure to its offspring.
Artificial Selection:
Laboratory Experiments: A favorite subject
for artificial selection inside the laboratory is
the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster.
Geneticists have imposed selection on just
about every conceivable aspect of the fruit
fly, including body size, eye color, growth
rate, life span, and exploratory behavior with
a consistent result, which is selection of trait
leads to strong and predictable evolutionary
response.
Agriculture: Artificial selection have been
practiced in agriculture for many centuries.
Familiar livestock, such as cattle and pigs,
ECOLOGY
Aquatic ecosystems cover almost three-quarters
of Earth’s surface. They provide almost 97% of the
Earth’s water supply. Aquatic ecosystems may be
freshwater or marine ecosystems.
Freshwater ecosystems are characterized
by abiotic factors, primarily the speed the
water is moving. Brooks, streams, and
rivers are ecosystems based on moving
water. Other freshwater ecosystems include
lakes, ponds, and wetlands. These
ecosystems are very limited in area. All
freshwater habitats are connectetdo
terrestrial ecosystems. Nutrients flow from
terrestrial ecosystems into freshwater
ecosystems. In addition, many land animals
come to the water to feed or reproduce.
Marine or Ocean Ecosystems. The ocean
covers about 70% of Earth and has an
average depth of 3.7 km. Each type of
ocean ecosystem supports different kinds of
living organisms. Shallow ocean waters are
small in area but contain most of the
ocean’s diversity. Many fishes swim in the
coastal zones, where a rich supply of
nutrients washes from the land