CALCULUS

A First Course for High School

Limits • Derivatives • Applications • Integrals

Concept explanations · Worked examples · Practice problems · Full answer key

Student Edition
CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Limits and Continuity 3

Chapter 2 The Derivative 4

Chapter 3 Rules of Differentiation 6

Chapter 4 Applications of the Derivative 7

Chapter 5 Introduction to Integration 8

Chapter 6 Curve Sketching and Optimization 9

Practice Problem Set 10

Answer Key 11

How to use this book

Each chapter builds core ideas step by step, with worked examples showing full reasoning, not just final
answers. This book assumes comfort with algebra, functions, and graphing from precalculus. A combined
practice set appears near the end, with every answer explained in the Answer Key.

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

CHAPTER 1

Limits and Continuity

Calculus begins with a question algebra alone cannot answer: what happens to a function as its input gets arbitrarily
close to a value, even if the function isn't defined right at that value? The tool for answering this is the limit.

1.1 The Idea of a Limit

We write limx→a f(x) = L to mean that as x gets closer and closer to a (from either side), f(x) gets closer and closer to L.
Crucially, the limit describes behavior near a, not necessarily the value of f at a — f(a) might be undefined, or might even
differ from L.

limx→a f(x) = L

1.2 Evaluating Limits Algebraically

Many limits can be found by direct substitution. When substitution gives an indeterminate form like 0/0, factor and cancel,
rationalize, or simplify before substituting again.

Worked Example 1.1

Problem: Find limx→2 (x2 − 4)/(x − 2).

Solution: Direct substitution gives 0/0, so factor the numerator: (x2 − 4)/(x − 2) = (x − 2)(x + 2)/(x − 2) = x + 2, for x ≠ 2. So the
limit is limx→2 (x + 2) = 4.

1.3 One-Sided Limits

The left-hand limit limx→a- f(x) considers only x approaching a from below; the right-hand limit limx→a+ f(x) considers only
x approaching from above. The two-sided limit exists only when both one-sided limits exist and are equal.

1.4 Continuity
A function f is continuous at x = a when three conditions all hold: f(a) is defined, limx→a f(x) exists, and limx→a f(x) = f(a).
Informally, a continuous function's graph can be drawn without lifting your pencil.

Common discontinuities

Removable: a single missing or misplaced point (a “hole”). Jump: the left- and right-hand limits exist but
disagree. Infinite: the function grows without bound near a, often at a vertical asymptote.

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

CHAPTER 2

The Derivative
The derivative is the central idea of differential calculus: it measures the instantaneous rate of change of a function, or
equivalently, the slope of the line tangent to its graph at a point.

2.1 From Average to Instantaneous Rate of Change

The average rate of change of f over [a, a+h] is the slope of the secant line through (a, f(a)) and (a+h, f(a+h)). As h
shrinks toward 0, the secant line rotates toward the tangent line, and the average rate of change approaches the
instantaneous rate of change at x = a.

f′(a) = limh→0 [f(a + h) − f(a)] / h

2.2 The Derivative as a Function

Applying this limit at every x (where it exists) produces a new function, f′(x), called the derivative of f. Common notations
include f′(x), dy/dx, and d/dx[f(x)] — all referring to the same idea.

Worked Example 2.1

Problem: Use the limit definition to find f′(x) for f(x) = x2.
2 2 2 2 2 2
Solution: f′(x) = limh→0 [(x+h) − x ] / h = limh→0 [x + 2xh + h − x ] / h = limh→0 [2xh + h ] / h = limh→0 (2x + h) = 2x.

2.3 Differentiability and Continuity

If f is differentiable at x = a, then f is necessarily continuous there — but the converse is false. A function can be
continuous at a point yet fail to be differentiable there, most commonly at a sharp corner (like f(x) = |x| at x = 0), a vertical
tangent, or a cusp.

Why |x| fails at x = 0

The left-hand difference quotient approaches −1 while the right-hand difference quotient approaches +1. Since
these one-sided limits disagree, f′(0) does not exist, even though f(x) = |x| is perfectly continuous there.

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

CHAPTER 3

Rules of Differentiation
Computing every derivative from the limit definition is slow. Instead, a small set of rules lets us differentiate most
functions we encounter directly.

Rule Statement

Power Rule d/dx[xn] = nxn-1

Constant Multiple d/dx[c·f(x)] = c·f′(x)

Sum/Difference d/dx[f(x) ± g(x)] = f′(x) ± g′(x)

Product Rule d/dx[f(x)g(x)] = f′(x)g(x) + f(x)g′(x)

Quotient Rule d/dx[f(x)/g(x)] = [f′(x)g(x) − f(x)g′(x)] / g(x)2

Chain Rule d/dx[f(g(x))] = f′(g(x))·g′(x)

Worked Example 3.1 — Product and Chain Rules

Problem: Find the derivative of h(x) = x2·sin(3x).

Solution: Let f(x) = x2 and g(x) = sin(3x). By the product rule, h′(x) = f′(x)g(x) + f(x)g′(x). We need g′(x) first: by the chain rule,
2 2
d/dx[sin(3x)] = cos(3x)·3 = 3cos(3x). So h′(x) = 2x·sin(3x) + x ·3cos(3x) = 2x·sin(3x) + 3x ·cos(3x).

Derivatives of common functions

x x
d/dx[sin x] = cos x | d/dx[cos x] = −sin x | d/dx[e ] = e | d/dx[ln x] = 1/x

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

CHAPTER 4

Applications of the Derivative

Derivatives describe change, which makes them useful far beyond finding slopes: they locate maxima and minima,
describe motion, and model how quantities that depend on each other change together.

4.1 Finding Extrema

A critical point of f occurs where f′(x) = 0 or f′(x) is undefined. Local maxima and minima can only occur at critical points
(or endpoints of a closed interval). The first derivative test checks whether f′ changes sign around a critical point:
positive-to-negative signals a local max, negative-to-positive signals a local min.

Worked Example 4.1

Problem: Find and classify the critical points of f(x) = x3 − 3x.

Solution: f′(x) = 3x2 − 3 = 3(x2 − 1) = 3(x−1)(x+1), so critical points are at x = −1 and x = 1. Testing signs: f′ is positive for x < −1,
negative for −1 < x < 1, and positive for x > 1. So x = −1 is a local maximum (f(−1) = 2) and x = 1 is a local minimum (f(1) = −2).

4.2 Motion Along a Line

If s(t) gives an object's position at time t, then its velocity is v(t) = s′(t) and its acceleration is a(t) = v′(t) = s″(t). The object
speeds up when velocity and acceleration share the same sign, and slows down when they have opposite signs.

v(t) = s′(t) a(t) = v′(t) = s″(t)

4.3 Related Rates

Related rates problems connect the rates of change of two or more quantities linked by an equation. Differentiate the
equation implicitly with respect to time, then substitute known values to solve for the unknown rate.

Related rates strategy

1. Identify the equation linking the quantities.

2. Differentiate both sides with respect to t, applying the chain rule to each variable.
3. Substitute known values and solve for the unknown rate — only after differentiating.

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

CHAPTER 5

Introduction to Integration
Integration, the second major operation of calculus, is in a precise sense the reverse of differentiation. It also solves a
very different-looking problem: finding the exact area under a curve.

5.1 Antiderivatives
F is an antiderivative of f if F′(x) = f(x). Antiderivatives are not unique: since the derivative of any constant is 0, if F is
one antiderivative of f, then F(x) + C is too, for any constant C. We write the family of all antiderivatives using the
indefinite integral symbol.

∫xn dx = xn+1/(n+1) + C (n ≠ −1)

5.2 The Definite Integral and Area

The definite integral ∫ab f(x) dx represents the signed area between the curve y = f(x) and the x-axis, from x = a to x = b —
area above the axis counts positively, area below counts negatively. It can be approximated by summing the areas of
many thin rectangles (a Riemann sum) and is defined exactly as the limit of that sum as the rectangles become infinitely
thin.

5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is the bridge connecting differentiation and integration: it says that if F is any
antiderivative of a continuous function f, the definite integral can be evaluated just by plugging in the endpoints.

∫ab f(x) dx = F(b) − F(a)

Worked Example 5.1

Problem: Evaluate ∫13 (2x + 1) dx.

Solution: An antiderivative of 2x + 1 is F(x) = x2 + x. By the Fundamental Theorem: ∫13 (2x+1) dx = F(3) − F(1) = (9 + 3) − (1 + 1)
= 12 − 2 = 10.

Why this is remarkable

Without the Fundamental Theorem, finding exact area under a curve would require evaluating the limit of a
Riemann sum directly — a slow, case-by-case process. The theorem replaces that with a single antiderivative
evaluation.

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

CHAPTER 6

Curve Sketching and Optimization

The first and second derivatives together reveal a function's full shape — where it rises and falls, and where it bends —
letting us sketch accurate graphs and solve real-world optimization problems without a calculator.

6.1 Concavity and the Second Derivative

A function is concave up where f″(x) > 0 (the graph curves upward, like a cup) and concave down where f″(x) < 0
(curves downward, like a frown). A point where concavity changes sign is called an inflection point.

6.2 The Second Derivative Test

At a critical point where f′(c) = 0, the second derivative test classifies it without checking sign changes on either side: if
f″(c) > 0 the point is a local minimum, if f″(c) < 0 it is a local maximum, and if f″(c) = 0 the test is inconclusive and the first
derivative test should be used instead.

Worked Example 6.1

Problem: A farmer has 200 m of fencing to enclose a rectangular field bordering a straight river (no fence needed along the
river). Find the dimensions that maximize the enclosed area.

Solution: Let x be the width of each of the two fenced sides perpendicular to the river, and y the length parallel to it. Fencing
used: 2x + y = 200, so y = 200 − 2x. Area: A(x) = xy = x(200 − 2x) = 200x − 2x2. A′(x) = 200 − 4x = 0 → x = 50. Since A″(x) = −4 <
2
0, this is a maximum. Then y = 200 − 100 = 100. The maximum area is 50 m × 100 m = 5,000 m .

Optimization strategy

1. Write a formula for the quantity to optimize, in terms of one variable.

2. Use any given constraint to eliminate a second variable.
3. Differentiate, set equal to 0, and solve for critical points.
4. Confirm a max or min using the first or second derivative test, and check endpoints if the domain is restricted.

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

Practice Problem Set

Work through the following problems using the concepts and rules from Chapters 1–6. Full solutions appear in the
Answer Key on the following page.

Limits & Continuity

1 Find limx→3 (x2 − 9)/(x − 3).

2 Is f(x) = (x2 − 1)/(x − 1) continuous at x = 1? Explain.

Derivatives
3 Use the limit definition to find f′(x) for f(x) = 3x + 5.

4 Find dy/dx for y = 4x3 − 2x2 + 7.

Differentiation Rules
5 Differentiate f(x) = (x2 + 1)(x − 3) using the product rule.

6 Differentiate g(x) = cos(5x2) using the chain rule.

Applications
7 Find and classify the critical points of f(x) = x2 − 4x + 1.

8 A particle's position is s(t) = t3 − 6t2. Find its velocity and acceleration at t = 2.

Integration
9 Find ∫(3x2 − 2x) dx.

10 Evaluate ∫02 x2 dx.

Curve Sketching & Optimization

11 Find the inflection point(s) of f(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2.

12 A rectangular box with a square base and open top must have volume 32 m3. Find the base side length that minimizes
surface area.

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CALCULUS: A First Course for High School Chapter Text

Answer Key
1. Limit by factoring
(x2−9)/(x−3) = (x−3)(x+3)/(x−3) = x+3 for x≠3. limx→3(x+3) = 6.
2. Continuity at x = 1
No. f(1) is undefined (division by zero), so the first requirement of continuity already fails, even though limx→1 f(x) = 2 exists
(since f(x) = x+1 for x≠1).
3. Derivative by limit definition
f′(x) = limh→0 [3(x+h)+5 − (3x+5)]/h = limh→0 [3h]/h = 3.
4. Power rule
dy/dx = 4(3x2) − 2(2x) + 0 = 12x2 − 4x.
5. Product rule
f′(x) = (2x)(x−3) + (x2+1)(1) = 2x2−6x + x2+1 = 3x2 − 6x + 1.
6. Chain rule
g′(x) = −sin(5x2)·(10x) = −10x·sin(5x2).
7. Critical points
f′(x) = 2x − 4 = 0 → x = 2. f′ is negative for x<2 and positive for x>2, so x = 2 is a local minimum (f(2) = −3).
8. Velocity and acceleration
v(t) = s′(t) = 3t2−12t, so v(2) = 12−24 = −12. a(t) = v′(t) = 6t−12, so a(2) = 12−12 = 0.
9. Indefinite integral
∫(3x2−2x) dx = 3·(x3/3) − 2·(x2/2) + C = x3 − x2 + C.
10. Definite integral
An antiderivative of x2 is F(x) = x3/3. ∫02 x2 dx = F(2)−F(0) = 8/3 − 0 = 8/3.
11. Inflection point
f′(x) = 3x2 − 6x. f″(x) = 6x − 6 = 0 → x = 1. Since f″ changes sign from negative (x<1) to positive (x>1), x = 1 is an inflection
point, at (1, 0) since f(1) = 1−3+2 = 0.
12. Minimizing surface area
Let x be the base side and h the height. Volume: x2h = 32, so h = 32/x2. Surface area (open top): S(x) = x2 + 4xh = x2 + 128/x.
S′(x) = 2x − 128/x2 = 0 → 2x3 = 128 → x3 = 64 → x = 4 m (confirmed a minimum since S″(x) = 2 + 256/x3 > 0).

Formula Quick-Reference

f′(a) = limh→0[f(a+h)−f(a)]/h | d/dx[xn] = nxn-1 | Product: f′g+fg′ | Chain: f′(g(x))g′(x) | ∫xn dx = xn+1/(n+1)+C |
∫ab f(x) dx = F(b)−F(a)

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