LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

REPORT

BY
Dhiwahar.G
MEST 76 batch
 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION
Electrical power system analysis is a broad subject that covers various
elements in electrical engineering. Power system study is needed for the reliable
operation of the protective devices at the time of short circuit or any fault current.
Power system study is a vital study for a secure and safe electrical supply. The
effects of poorly designed systems including outages, faults, poor power quality
and arc flash over can result in a significant loss or worse, personnel injuries. A
power system comprises of the various subsystems that include generation,
transmission, and distribution. The goals of power system analysis are the
following:
Functions of power system analysis
 To monitor the voltage at various buses, real and reactive power flow
between buses.
 To design the circuit breakers.
 To plan future expansion of the existing system
 To analyze the system under different fault conditions
 To study the ability of the system for small and large disturbances
(Stability studies)
POWER TRIANGLE :

The power triangel. Active, Reactive, and Apparent Power. Power in

AC circuits consists of active, reactive, and apparent power. These three
quantities are interrelated, and the power triangle is commonly used to describe
these relationships.
Formula
𝑆 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 − − − (1)
Where, S = apparent power in VA
P = real power i

n
W Q = reactive power in VAr
Diagram
1. Power triangle
 Apparent power
 Reactive power
 Active power

I. Apparent power
Apparent power, in simple terms, is the combination of
real power and reactive power It's like the total power a device seems to use,
considering both the useful work and the extra power needed for electrical system
stability. Apparent power is measured in volt-amperes (VA) and is essential for
sizing equipment and assessing the overall power requirements in electrical
systems.

II. Reactive power

Reactive power is also measured in volt-ampere-reactive (VAR).
It represents the electrical power that flows back and forth between the phase
conductors and the neutral conductor of a three-phase network, but does not
perform any mechanical work.

III. Active power

The portion of power that is absorbed and used by the load is known
as the “active power” and is always equal to or less than the apparent power. For
example, if 90% of the apparent power in the above example is used by the load,
the active power is 936W

2. IMPEDANCE TRIANGLE

Impedance Triangle - Is used to calculate Impedance when resistance (R),

Inductance (L) and Capacitance (C) are all present in the circuit, and the total
reactance (X) is the difference between the Inductive Reactance (XL) and
Capacitive Reactance (XC).

Formula
z = √𝑅2 + 𝑋 2 − − − (2)

Diagram
 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Power system analysis is mainly classified into two major types. They are,
 Steady state analysis
 Load flow analysis
 Short circuit analysis
 Static motor starting analysis
 Relay coordination study
 Arc flash study
 Harmonic analysis

 Transient analysis
The transient analysis are further classified into two types. They are,

RMS
 Angular stability
 Grid islanding
 Load shedding
 Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT)

EMT
 Slow front over voltage (SFO)
 Fast front over voltage (FFO)
 Transient recovery voltage (TRV)
 Ferro resonance
 Very fast front over voltage (VFFO)

Why study state analysis

The power system is the world's most dynamic system. For numerous reasons,
steady-state analysis is essential in several fields:
• Easier calculation and interpretation
• Detection of bottlenecks and weak points
• Long-Term Trends and Outcomes Prediction
Why to perform steady state analysis?
Power system is the most dynamic system in the world. The process
of converting some other form of energy to electrical energy has to be equal at
every instant to the conversion of electrical energy to other forms of energy. If it
deviates then frequency will be deviated.
 To initialize the transient study
 To select equipment rating suitable for normal operating and suitable for
abnormal operating condition for specified

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Load flow studies determine the voltage, current, active, and reactive power
and power factor in a power system. Load flow studies are an excellent tool for
system planning. A number of operating procedures can be analysed, including
contingency conditions, such as the loss of a generator, a transmission line, a
transformer, or a load. These studies will alert the user to conditions that may
cause equipment overloads or poor voltage levels. Load flow studies can be used
to determine the optimum size and location of capacitors for power factor
improvement. Also, they are very useful in determining system voltages under
conditions of suddenly applied or disconnected loads. The results of a load flow
study are also starting points for stability studies.
Load flow analysis

What is bus
A bus is a point of connection where multiple electrical devices or components
are connected.
Typs of bus
Buses are of 3 types and are classified as:

Load bus
Load flow is a method to analyze how power moves through a system,
considering factors like voltage and current. It helps ensure stable and efficient
operation of the power grid by identifying potential issues and optimizing
performance. Engineers use load flow analysis to maintain reliability in electrical
networks.
PQ bus – the real power |P| and reactive power |Q| are specified. It is also known
as Load Bus. ...

PV bus
A PV bus in power systems refers to a point where solar power is connected to
the electrical grid. It is where solar panels generate electricity and feed it into the
network. PV buses play a key role in integrating renewable energy sources into
power systems for sustainable electricity generation.
PV bus – the real power |P| and the voltage magnitude |V| are specified. It is also
known as Generator Bus. ..

Swing bus.
A swing bus, also known as a reference bus, is a node in a power system used to
set the system's voltage angle. It acts as a reference point for other buses in the
network. The voltage magnitude at the swing bus is usually fixed, and it helps in
simplifying power flow calculations by establishing a reference for phase angles
in the system. Swing buses are crucial for stability analysis in electrical grids.
Slack bus – to balance the active and reactive power in the system.
 Types

1. Conventional Load Flow - Source, Network load are balanced - Slack bus
concept
2. Unbalanced Load Flow - Load & Source is not balanced - Not Suitable for
slack bus concept
3. Time Domain Load Flow
4. Time Domain Unbalanced load flow
5. Optimal Load Flow
STANDARD FOR CONDUCTING LOAD FLOW
 IEEE Std. 399-1997 : IEEE recommended practice for Industrial and Commercial
Power System Analysis
 IEEE Std. 3002. 2- 2018 : Recommended practice for conducting Load Flow
Analysis and Analysis of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems
Why load flow nead
 Component or circuit loadings
 Steady-state bus voltages
 Reactive power flows
 Transformer tap settings
 System losses
 Generator exciter/regulator voltage set points
 Performance under emergency conditions

Component or circuit loading

It is also known as equipment loading. It gives realistic information about
the margin available for the future. It also gives detail about Available Transfer
Capacity. In a system, each bus is connected to another bus through only one path
is known as radial system. In these type of system, on adding the load the power
flow could be calculated easily. Hence no load flow analysis is needed in radial
systems. Whereas, in interconnected systems, it is mandatory to perform load
flow analysis to find the power flow in each bus of the system.
 Steady-state bus voltages
For performing load flow, steady state voltages of bus is required. Bus
voltage angle determines the steady state stability of the system. When power
flow is required, then there is difference in the angle between sending and
receiving end. Real power flows from higher angle bus to lower angle bus. If the
bus voltage angle goes beyond the specified limits, then the system have to be
extended depending upon the new loadings orelse the entire system will collapse.
If the expansion of the system is not possible due to some natural constraints, then
the transmission line paralleling is done using the series compensation devices
such as Fixed Series Compensation (FSC), Thyristor Controlled Series
Compensation (TCSC), etc.,
Reactive power flows
Reactive power flow determines whether power factor correction is needed for
the system and reactive power compensation for system. It also gives information
about loop flow (e.g. In case of power flowing with 2 generators, it’s just
circulating within 2 generators but not delivered to the load). Loop flow is due to
multiple generation connected to a common bus and voltage mismatch between
them,
Transformer tap settings
Load flow decides the inclusion of On Load Tap Changers (OLTC) to the system
or not and minimum and maximum tappings of the OLTC. OLTC range to
regulate voltage and to extract complete reactive power from generator.

System losses
Load flow decides the total losses, individual branch losses, minimum possible
losses and ideal operating conditions in the system. Optimal power flow minimise
the reactive power flow which helps to reduce the losses in the system.
Generator exciter/regulator voltage set points
The Industry with cogeneration plant helps to reduce power consuming from
the grid. To find the generator terminal point to set such that power factor at Point
of Common Coupling (PCC) is better. In transformer, no load voltage of LV is
intentionally increased to accommodate the voltage drop of the transformer.

Transmission Line Modelling

Modelling of a transmission line is done to analyse its performance and
characteristics. The gathered information vis simulating the model can be used to
reduce losses or to compensate these losses
 Short Transmission Lines.
 Medium Transmission Lines.
 Large Transmission Lines

What is the steady state analysis?

Steady-state analysis is the fundamental tool used to evaluate the thermal
behavior of electronics systems. It can be used to guide design decisions from
concept to final design.
Ferranti effect
The Ferranti effect is a phenomenon in electrical transmission where long power
lines experience voltage rise towards the receiving end, especially during light
load conditions. This occurs due to the distributed capacitance along the
transmission line, causing the voltage to increase as the line lengthens. The effect
can lead to higher-than-expected voltages at the consumer's end, and engineers
often use compensation devices to mitigate this phenomenon and maintain
voltage within acceptable limits in power distribution systems.
Ferranti Effect Compensation
1. Shunt Reactor
2. Surge Impedance Loading

Introduction of ETAP
Electrical Transient Analysis Program (ETAP) is a software used in electrical
engineering to simulate and analyze power systems. In simple terms, it helps
engineers model and understand how electricity behaves in a network. ETAP can
predict how the system responds to different scenarios, aiding in the design and
optimization of electrical grids. It's a powerful tool for ensuring the reliability and
efficiency of power systems by simulating various conditions and identifying
potential issues before they occur in real-world operation.

Step 1
Open ETAP Simulation softwar
Step 2
Select new project from menu and named and Add location to save wher to save
Step 3

Add location wher to save and change unit system and click ok
Step 4
Click ok to user information
Step 5

Click select ok to access leval

step 6
To open tools click view option and open mode toolbars and select system
toolbar, AC edite toolbar, DC edit toolbar
Step 7

Grid lines check circuit continuity

Enable one line auto build

System manager
System manager is used to find component we used in simulation

COMPONENTS

GRID A grid is a network of intersecting

parallel lines, wether real or
imaginary . Most American streets are
laid out in a grid pattern, meaning the
streets intersect at right angles and
form a pattern of squares when viewed
from above.

BUS A bus is a node where a line or several

lines are connected and may also
include several components such as
loads and generators
in a power system

GENERATOR Generators are fundamental

componentsinpower systems
,responsible for converting
mechanical energy into electrical
energy. They play a crucial role in
electricity generation and contribute
significantly to the overall
performance of a power
Lumped load: lump load..A lumped network is
usually a simplification of a
distributed network, such as a
[Link] line has
built in resistance, inductance
ETAP Toolbars
Project toolbars

Mode

System

Equipemt toolbar
 TRANSMISSION LINE MODELLING

TRANSMISSION LINE

Standards/
• IEC – International Electrotechnical Commission All other countries follow
• IEC ANSI – American National Standard Institute USA, Canada, Philippines
Transmission Line :
Transmission lines carry electric energy from one point to another in an electric
power system. They can carry alternating current or direct current or a system can
be a combination of both. Also, electric current can be carried by either overhead
or underground lines.

Typs of Transmission Line :

 Short transmission line
 Medium transmission line
 Long transmission line
SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE:
Short transmission lines are electrical lines used to transmit power over
relatively short distances, typically within a few kilometers. They operate at lower
voltages compared to long-distance transmission lines and are commonly used to
connect power sources to local distribution networks or to interconnect
neighboring substations.(LESS THAN 80 KM)

MEADIUM TRANSMISSION LINE:

Medium transmission lines are electrical lines designed to transmit power
over moderate distances, typically ranging from a few tens to a couple of
hundred kilometers. They operate at higher voltages than short transmission
lines and are used to connect substations within a region or to link power
generation facilities to regional grids.(80 TO 160KM)
Typs of medium transmission line
 Nominal pi method
 Nominal T method
 End condenser

LONG TRANSMISSIN LINE:`

Long transmission lines are used to transmit electrical power over extensive
distances, spanning hundreds or thousands of kilometers. They operate at high
voltages to minimize energy losses during transmission. These lines are crucial
for delivering electricity from power plants to distant regions, cities, and
industrial centers across the grid.(MORE THAN 160KM )

FERRENTI EFFECT
In a long transmission line with high voltage or EHV system, during no load or
lightly loaded condition, the receiving end bus voltage is higher than the sending
end bus voltage. This effect is due to line capacitances in line. This voltage drop
keeps on increasing additively moving towards the load end of the line and
subsequently, the receiving end voltage tends to get larger than applied voltage
leading to the phenomena called Ferranti effect.
There are two methods for reducing Ferranti effect. They are,
1. Shunt Reactors: Placing shunt reactors at strategic points along the
transmission line can help compensate for the capacitive reactance, thereby
reducing the voltage rise at the receiving end.
2. Series Capacitors: Introducing series capacitors at appropriate locations can
help counteract the inductive reactance of the transmission line, thus mitigating
the voltage rise phenomenon.
Manual calculation:
Consider a system with sending end voltage of 400 KV, 400 km long transmission
line with r=0.1 ohm/km, x=0.4 ohm/km, y=b=3.6x10-6 mho/km. due to Ferranti
effect the receiving end voltage increased to 451.8 KV. calculate the real and
reactive power loss in transmission line. compensate the receiving end voltage
into nominal value using shunt reactor and surge impedance loading. simulate the
same and verify using ETAP
Given
Vs=400kv
Vr=451.8kv
L=400km
Step-1
R=0.1*400=40ohm
X=0.4*400=160ohm
Y=b=3.6*10^-6*400=0.00144ohm
Step-2
Qc₁ = Vr²*B/2
Qc₁ = 451.8*451.8*0.00072
Qc₁ = 146.968 MVAr
Qc₂ = Vs²*B/2
Qc₂ = 400*400*0.00072
Qc₂ = 115.2 MVAr

Step-3
Ic₁ = Qc₁/√3*Vr
Ic₁ = 146.969/√3*451.8
Ic₁ = 187.81 A
P=real power
Q=reactive power
Step-4
P loss = 3*Ic₁²*R
P loss = 3*187.82²*40
P loss = 4.23 Mw
Q loss = Qc₁ + Qc₂ + Qc loss
Qc loss = 3*Ic₁²*X
Qc loss = 3*187.81²*160
Qc loss =16.93 MVAr
Step-5
Q loss = 146.968+115.2-16.93
Q loss = 245.238 MVAr
 Make pf is 0 to avoid loses
With out shunt reactor with shunt reactor

Surge impedance load contribution

SIL is a device which can be support by generating reactive power. We are using
same static load as a SIL but by means of keep P.f 100% which can generate real
and reactive power.

SIL = (Vs*Vs)/Zs
Zs = √(L/C)
Zs = (0.4/3.6x10-6)^1/2
Zs = 333.33 ohm
SIL = Vs²/Zs
SIL = (400*400)/333.33
SIL = 480 MW
Vr = 397.3 kV
Impedance

Without SIR with SIR

ETAP REPOT STUDY

Open report
Click complete and PDf and Click ok
Name details in project information
Case study

CREATING SENORIOS

Loading Category
Min Load
Avg Load
8 Max Load
Generation Category
90% Voltage
100% Voltage
110% Voltage
Combination of Loading and Generation Category
90% Voltage → Min Load
90% Voltage → Avg Load
 90% Voltage → Max Load → Under Voltage Condition
100% Voltage → Min Load
100% Voltage → Avg Load
100% Voltage → Max Load
110% Voltage → Min Load → Over Voltage With Min load Create
Equipment Damage
110% Voltage → Avg Load
110% Voltage → Max Load

Steps to make senorios

Step 1

 Click project and click settings options and click load and generation
categories

Step 2
Name Max for Maximum,Avg for average and Min for Minimum for both AC
load and generator in loading and generation categories
Step 3

Open load flow study case and create new 9 case for max,avg and min
Step 4
Open scenario wizard
Step 5

Creat each scenario through new options

Above Scenario Modelling

110%Vol&110%L 110%Vol&90%L 110%Vol&100%L

100%Vol&110%L 100%Vol&90%L 100%Vol&100%L

90%Vol&110%L 90%Vol&100%L 90%Vol&90%L

Add this All 9 case Study to Scenario Wizard

Load Diversity Factor:

Load Factor = Avg Load/ Peak

Higher load factor is good for system. Max value is 1.
Load Diversity Factor = Sum of Individual Peak/ System Peak
Higher load diversity factor is good for system. Min value is 1
Full Load = 40MW
LDF Min = 90%
LDF Max = 110%
Load =100%

Bus Minimum Selected= 40*1*0.9 = 36MW Consumption Bus Maximum

Selected =40*1*1.1 = 44MW Consumption
Adjustment:
Tolerance means when equipment under manufacturing or construction not
completed. we don’t know exact value of the equipment, so we consider the + /
- 10%tolerance of the equipment. It + or –10% depends on the studies. Ex.,
Transformer and Reactor Impedance and Transmission line and cable length.

tolerance
Without tolerance with tolerance

In this without tolerance and with tolerance are provide and tolerance is +/- 10%
of the cable
Sub system
In the same workspace of ETAP, the independent system is known as subsystem.
It should not have any connection with the previous system

The Circuit breaker has been opened between the two grids so that is has
represented as 2 sub system.\

TO OPEN CIRCUTE BREAKER

CLICL CB AND OPEN

In this bus 40 and 42 sub system have 2 sub system and both bus voltage will be
same
Transformer
A transformer is a device that transfers electric energy from one alternating-
current circuit to one or more other circuits. It does so by either increasing
(stepping up) or reducing (stepping down) the voltage without a change in the
frequency of AC between circuits.
Working
Transformer can increase or decrease the voltage with corresponding decrease or
increase in current. The basic principle behind working of a transformer is the
phenomenon of mutual induction between two windings linked by common
magnetic flux.

Types of Transformers
a. Based on Operation
i. Step up Transformer
ii. Step down Transformer
iii. Isolation Transformer
b. Based on Number of phases
i. Three Phase Transformer
ii. Single Phase Transformer
 iii. Three Phase and Three Single Phase Transformer
c. Based on Construction
i. Core Type Transformer
ii. Shell Type Transformer
d. Based on Applications
i. Power Transformer
ii. Instrument Transformer
iii. Distribution Transformer
e. Based on Cooling Types
i. Air natural
ii. Air Blast/Forced
iii. Oil Natural Air Natural
iv. Oil Natural Air Forced

TRANSFORMER MODELLING
Transformer Application:
 Transformer step up / step down
 Isolation transformer
 3ph 3 wire to 3ph 4 wire system
 To limit SCC (Unit Ratio transformer/ Lightning Transformer)
 To suppress the few harmonics (balanced 3rd and multiple of 3rd order
harmonic).
 To convert ungrounded system to grounded system (Zigzag / Earthing
Transformer).
 12 pulse rectifier – application.
 Centre tap transformer – Single phase full wave rectifier.
 Cathodic Protection.
 Instrument Transformer.
 Welding Transformer.
Transformer Standards:
 IEC60076-5 Ability to withstand short circuit.
 IEC60076-7 Loading guide for oil-immersed power transformer.
 IEC60076-12 Loading guide for dry type transformer. %Z value of
different types of rated power in transformer
Equivalent circuit
A graphical depiction of a transformer circuit in which the resistance and leakage
reactance are considered to be external to the winding is called an equivalent
circuit of a transformer. The main or secondary side of a transformer refers to the
identical equivalent circuit

Voltage Tolerance
Voltage Tolerance uses a graphical display of the magnitude and duration
of a voltage disturbance to analyze potential impacts of the event on
equipment. The voltage magnitude during the disturbance and the duration
of the event are plotted in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Required Parameter Need for LFA:
 Rating MVA
 HV and LV Voltage
 %Z Positive sequence at Nominal Tap
 X/R Positive sequence
 %Z at other Taps
 No load loss
Data Sheet
 Ambient Temperature
 Voltage Tolerance
 Altitude
 Cooling type
 Standard
 Material Cu/Al
For Protection Study
Thermal Damage Curve
For Harmonic Analysis
K, Factor
For Fault Analysis (SLG)
 Winding Configuration/Winding Configuration.
Over load condition

Normal loaded condition

Overloaded on mva and normal loaded condition with respect to tap change
voltage maintain
Manual tap changer

Transformer Loading
Simulate a 2-bus system connected to power grid, consisting a transformer of 31.5
MVa, 110/11 kV, %z is 12.5 and x/r is 45. it also consists of constant power load
of 31.5 MVa (lump) in it, operating at 85% pf. upon running load flow check
whether lv side of transformer is loaded 100% or beyond 100%?
Given data
Mva =31.5
Kv=110/11
%z=12.5
x/r=45
lumped load Mva=31.5
pf=85%
transformer loaded 100%
 Befor LF After LF

Bus Id Kva value form Actual value of Loading%

Lf kva
transfomer 31500 34265 108.8
Bus31 LV 11000 10112 91.9
Derating Factor
The derating factor is defined as the scaling of the output power of the solar panel
to consider the wire losses, losses due to dust parti power of the solar panel from
the expected value. From: Fundamentals of Smart Grid Systems
There are two types of deratings namely altitude derating and temperature
derating.
Altituden derating
Altitude does not significantly affect circuit breaker characteristics up to 2000m.
Above this altitude, it is necessary to take into account the decrease in the
dielectric strength and cooling capacity of air. The following table gives the
corrections to be applied for altitudes above 2000 meters.

Altitude derating = 0.98ᵃ

Where, A= (Actual Altitude-Nominal Altitude)/100

Temperature derating
When either of these units reaches high internal temperatures, it gradually reduces
its power output by reducing its output current. This power reduction process is
called “derating”. Derating protects sensitive components within the unit and
prolongs its lifetime.
Temperature derating = 0.98ᵇ
Where, B= (Actual Temperature-Nominal Temperature)
Uprating factor
For same environmental conditions the rated value will be upgraded to value
higher than nominal value

Simulation
Given a transformer with 150 MVA, 110/11 kV, 10% of impedance. This
transformer is lifted for installation to 2200 m from the sea level and the
temperature also increases to 50 deg. Calculate manually the derating % and the
derated value of MVA rating for the following cases,
i) When altitude is 2200 m
ii) When temperature is 50 deg
iii) When altitude is 2200 m and temperature is 50 deg
Simulate and verify the same using ETAP. [Nominal altitude = 1000m, Ambient
temperature = 30 deg]
Solv:
Rated MVA = 150 MVA, Nominal altitude = 1000m, Ambient temperature = 30
deg
i) When altitude is 2200 m
Calculating the value of a, finding the per unit value of derated value.
a𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑉𝐴= 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑉𝐴−[𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑉𝐴 𝑥 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 % / 100 ]
manual calculation
Given Nominal Actual- A=(actual- 0.98a Derated Derated% Actual
MVA MVA nominal Nominal)/100 p.u mva
2200 1000 1200 12 0.7847 0.21528 21.5 117.708

Simulation result(Altitude=2200)

ii) When temperature is 50 deg

Calculating the value of b, finding the per unit value of derated value.
Finding actual MVA using the above expression,
Manual calculation
 Given Ambient b = actual- 0.99b Derated Derated Actual
temp. temp. ambient p.u. % MVA
50 20 20 0.81790 0.182093 18.2 122.686

Simulation resultTemperature=50

When Altitude is 2200m and Temperature is 50°

Upon finding all the values above, multiplying the two values of derated per unit
value. both manual calculation and simulation
altitude temperture 0.98ᵃ*0.99ᵇ Derated Derated% Actual
p.u mva
2200 50 0.6418 0.3581 35.8 96.2

Transformer cooling
COOLING TYPES IN TRANSFORMER USED IN ETAP
Liquid type
 Mineral oil
 Synthetic liquid
 Non-flammable synthetic liquid

Cooling Classes in Liquid type

 ONAN –Transformer rating less than 10MVA
 ONAN / ONAF - >10MVA and < than 100MVA (Sometimes up to
60MVA)
 ONAN / ONAF / OFAF - > than 100MVA (Sometimes >60MVA)
 ONAN / ONAF / ODAF - > than 100MVA
 ODAF – transformer construction directing the oil towards the hot spot

Dry type
 Sealed
 Non-enclosed
 Enclosed
 Totally enclosed
 Vent dry
Transformer temperature rises

Simulation
Consider a 132 KV grid connected to a transformer of 132/11 KV the power
rating is 22.5 MVa at ONAN and 30 MVa at ONAF, 21% impedance in ONAN
a lumped load is connected with 25 MVa as constant power load. calculate %x,
%r and branch loss for the respective transformer. simulate using ETAP.
Solution:
On giving 22.5 and 30 MVa for ONAN and ONAF cooling respectively, then in
ETAP Zbase will set up to maximum highest possible range and it won’t 40
change. in this case 30 MVa is taken as base as this is highest possible rating. but
the user side given impedance for ONAN, 22.5 MVa is 21%. it should not enter
directly. want to determine the impedance for 30 MVa manually using the given
formula Zpu new and to enter in impedance details
Zpu new = Zpu old *(KV old/KV new)2 *(MVAb new/MVAb old)
= 21 * (1)2 * (30/22.5)
= 28 p.u
Here on running load flow it is found that the LV bus voltage tends to 81.71%,
for bringing LV voltage into nominal level capacitor banks can be added on LV
side, which is half the rating of the transformer. Then only the PF is close to unity.
But in lightly loaded condition, capacitor bank is unnecessary and will gives
leading PF. Hence it must be given as switchable one, but switchable one is
costlier.

Manual calculation
%R and %X
Rated MVA = 30 MVA, %Z = 28 %, X/R = 80, X = 80*R
Z= √𝑅2+𝑋2
= √ (R2 + (80R) 2)
28 = R √ (1+802)
%R = 0.35%, Rp.u. = 0.0035,
%X = 27.998%, Xp.u.= 0.0027998
Branch Loss
Ploss = 3*I*I*R Qloss = 3*I*I*X
I p.u = load in KVA/transformer rating in KVA
I p.u =21339/30000 = 0.7113 A
Ploss p.u = 0.7113*0.7113*0.0035 =0.001770679
Ploss = 53.12 kW
Qloss p.u = 0.7113*0,7113*0.0027998 =0.141654287
Qloss = 4249.629 MVAr
Transformer impedance for the studies:
 FAT (Factory Acceptance Test) is completed
i. use FAT Report or Nameplate (don’t use the impedance from Data
Sheet)
ii. no optimisation is possible
 manufacturing clearance is given but FAT isn’t done
i. use the impedance from Data Sheet – Need to consider the impedance
tolerance
ii. consider the tolerance
iii. no optimisation is possible
 transformer yet to be procured (before manufacturing clearance)
i. optimisation is possible
ii. need to consider the tolerance
Tolerance on transformer impedance at nominal tap
 if % Z is less than 10% , Z tolerance is ± 10%
 if % Z is more than 10% , Z tolerance is ± 7.5%
Tolerance on transformer impedance at nominal tap
 if % Z is less than 10% , Z tolerance is ± 15%
 if % Z is more than 10% , Z tolerance is ± 10%

Simulation
Consider a grid connected, two bus system having a transformer connected with
30 MVa, 132/11 KV, 28% of impedance supplying a constant power load of 25
MVa operating at 85% power factor. the reactive power is compensated by
connecting a 16 Mvar capacitor bank to the transformer lv side and the grid
voltage is maintained at 90%. apply tap settings. examine the losses without and
with ±7% tolerance in the transformer impedance.
Solution;
As per the given specifications, the system is modelled in the ETAP. now load
flow is performed for the system with automatic voltage regulator (AVR) given
to the system and the losses are noted.

Tapping in primary

zvariation

90%grid voltage no tolerance 90% grid voltage tith tolerance(tap)

Transformer pralling
Why do we need to parallel transformer
The transformers are connected in parallel when load on one of the transformers
is more than its capacity. The reliability is increased with parallel operation than
to have single larger unit. The cost associated with maintaining the spares is less
when two transformers are connected in parallel
Conditions
 Vector group
 Impedance
 Voltage
 X/R Ratio
 Transformer Rating
Vector group
 If same vector group
The transformer same vector group at no load condition Bus voltage are 100%
Eg;
T1 is Dyn 1 and T2 isDyn 1

T24 id Dyn1 and T25 is Dyn1 bus is 100%

 Different vector group
 The transformer in different vector group thr phace angel changed and it
creat huge short circuit at no load condition

T19 is Dyn 1 and T21 is Dyn 11 so short circuit current will 629.8a
 Different vector group same phace shift without load
The winding pattern is different but there is no phase shift.
Eg;
T34 Winding configuration is YNYN0 and T35 is DD0

Impedance
The % impedance is same for both the transformer while paralleling condition,
so the transformers share the load equally as showed below.
As per the standard IEC60076-5 %impedance more than 10% then the mean
allowed tolerance is ±7.5% allowed. So T12 % Impedance (0.125 +0.075)=13.4
and T11 % Impedance (0.125-0.075)=11.56

Lower %impedance Transformer reaches 100% quickly when compare to higher

%impedance [Link] above simulation see, if different %impedance
occurs unbalance power flow both transformer, but not necessary to same for
Transformer %impedance. Increase the impedance of transformer helps to reduce
the RMS short circuit current not for Peak current.(in this t32 mva is more than
t33 becausce t32 is less impedance ,when we increase load the t32 is reach
saturate condition)
Voltage
Transformer voltage is same so that transformer loading and reactive power is
same as shown in below.

In this system, LV rating of T38 is increased from 11 kV to 11.5 kV and

connected without load and load flow is performed.
It is observed that there is reactive power flow in the system. The applied voltage
to transformers is 110 kV and T39 tries to maintain the bus 88 voltage at 11 kV
and T38 tries to maintain it at 11.5 kV. There is a huge reactive power flow in the
system due to the difference in voltages. Reactive power flows from higher
voltage to lower voltage.
When load is connected in the above system, the huge reactive power flows
through the T42 for supplying the load of 55 MVA where the transformer is
overloaded than its rating. Hence it is mandatory that the voltage ratings of two
transformers must be the same.

X/R ratio
Different type of X/R ratio upload on both transformer to change unbalance real
power flow
When x is less – real power is high and R is less –x is high
Reactive power is high and losses is less
P=E*V*sin α
X/R ratio was changed

X/R ratio 20 X/R Ratio 40

TRANSFOMER 45 TRANSFOMER 44

Transformer rating
Transformer load equally distributed depends on there rating.
According to IEC60076 allowed to parallel the transformer up to its rating 33%.
This is not transformer paralleling, because both transformers fed from different
grid sources. 38
This is not advisable connecting the two transformer LV side together and if HV
is not together, because both transformer uncontrolled power flow.

Why need to parallel two transformer?

1. Increase load (8MVA Load to 16MVA load)
2. Redundancy
Mode of operation for Transformer paralleling?
1. Master
2. Follower
3. Independent
Three Winding Transforme
A three-phase transformer is made of three sets of primary and secondary
windings, each set wound around one leg of an iron core assembly. Essentially it
looks like three single-phase transformers sharing a joined core as in Figure
below. Three phase transformer core has three sets of windings. And it also
known as a tertiary transformer, is a transformer with three sets of bushings: H:
Primary X: Secondary Y: Tertiary
Applications:
Generator transformer stepping the voltage as well as feeding the auxiliary
supply Ex. 25/220/33kV so in this case 33kV to feeding for auxiliary supply.
If your power in LV is too high handle so go with three winding or multi winding
transformer. Ex. Solar plant application using multi winding transformer.
Two generator using common step-up transformer using the stepping the voltage
to grid. Ex. One STG, and DG.
12 pulse drive better choose for three winding transformer
Transformer OLTC
An On-Load Tap Changer (OLTC) is a crucial device fitted to power
transformers for regulating the output voltage to required levels
On-Load Tap-Changers (OLTCs) go unnoticed since they quietly maintain
consistent voltage and effective power supply for a variety of purposes. These
amazing technologies eliminate the need for disruptive power interruptions by
enabling transformer winding ratio modifications while the system is operating.
 It is an ideal device for voltage regulation for steady state fluctuations
 It is not an alternate for SVC / STATCOM / FACTS controllers.
 OLTC is employed in load centre and power plant
 23% of failure in power transformers are due to OLTC. It is the only
movable component in a transformer

Formula
Number of Taps = (Max Tap – (Min Tap) + 1 )/step
1) +ve side tap:
Max grid voltage (115%), min load at 0.85 power factor.
2) -ve side tap:
Min grid voltage (90%), max load, at 0.85 power factor.
In this we see about tap +ve and –ve different load
Case 1:
100% Voltage at Nominal Tap
Case 2:
110% Voltage – OLTC at 10% Tap

Case 2:
90% Voltage – OLTC at -10% Tap
Generator Transformer OLTC
In generator transformer it produce reactive power and real power to bus so
voltage will change from load transformer voltage
This case study explains about the purpose of OLTC in generator supplied
transformer and the procedure to extract the maximum reactive power from the
generator into the system by adopting some methods. For explaining this case
study, a journal paper given below is considered.
Dr. K. Rajamani, H. C. Mehta, June 2001, “Effect of Tap Changing on Reactive
Flow”, IEEMA Journal, pp. 40-44.
case
Case 1 case 2

Three winding transformer:

Application:
1. Generator transformer stepping the voltage as well as feeding the auxiliary
supply Ex. 25/220/33kV so in this case 33kV to feeding for auxiliary supply.
2. If your power in LV is too high handle so go with three winding or multi
winding transformer. Ex. Solar plant application using multi winding
transformer.
3. Two generator using common step-up transformer using the stepping the
voltage to grid. Ex. One STG, and DG.
4. 12 pulse drive better choose for three winding transformer.
 GENERATOR MODELLING
Introduction to generator
In electricity generation, a generator is a device that converts motion-based power
or fuel-based power into electric power for use in an external circuit. .
It has four operating modes
 Swing mode
 Voltage Control mode
 MVAr Control mode
 Power Factor Control mode
Power factor low and reactive power high pf = 0.85/0.95
MW PF KV AMP MVA QMAX
800 0.95 28 17363.92 842.11 262.95 Commercially
battery
800 0.9 28 18328.58 888.89 387.46
800 0.85 28 19406.73 941.18 495.80 Technical
superior
800 0.8 28 20619.65 1000.00 600.00

 The voltage rating of the generator is selected based on the FLA is low for
the corresponding voltage selected.
 The reactive power which generator can supply comes down with
increasing power factor.
 For loads, higher power factor is preferred as lower power factor load
consumes more reactive power. Reactive power demanded by end
equipment is less.
 For generator, lower power factor is preferred as higher power factor will
contribute only less amount of reactive power. The actual purpose of
generator is to supply reactive power as per the system need. So lower
power factor only will able to supply the maximum reactive power to the
system.
 In generator, commercially 0.95 PF is better in economic point of view but,
there is challenge of maintaining generator bus voltage. Technically, 0.8
PF is better because of higher MVAr rating capability of supplying more
reactive power to the system.
 System with lower short circuit current will be having heavy voltage
fluctuations which is known as weak systems. To maintain the generator
terminal voltage, higher reactive power capability is required
GENERATOR OPERATION MODES
Swing mode
A swing source is a utility supply or generator in which the real power flow is not
given. In any power flow solution, the net real and reactive powers cannot be
fixed in advance at every bus because the losses in the system are not known until
the solution is complete.

VOLTAGE CONTROL MODE

In this mode, the reactive power in generator will be changing even for any small
changes of voltage in generator. The quantity of real power to be generated and
the voltage level to be maintained in the generator bus, depending upon this the
generator will consume / generate reactive power. In voltage control mode, the
reactive power injection/ consumption completely depends on the voltage set
point of the generator.
When Generator bus voltage goes low or high, generator inject/consume the
reactive power to maintain the bus voltage at 100%. It’s depending on Qmax
Qmin Range.
Case 1
1)weak system 2) weak system 3) weaksystem
Grid 98% Grid 100% Grid 100%
Transmission line 10 km Transmission line 10 km Transmission line 10 km
Case 2
1)Strong system 2) Strong system 3) Strong system
Grid 98% Grid 100% Grid 100%
Transmission line 10 km Transmission line 10 km Transmission line 10 km

MVAr control mode

MVAR control mode maintains a constant MVAR output from the machine,
irrespective of the load. This means the power factor can be varying depending
on the load on the machine. MVAR control mode is helpful especially when the
overhead lines connected to the system close to the machine are prone to frequent
faults

PF control mode:
Real power generation and power factor at which the generator should be
operated has to be specified. The function of MVAr control and PF control mode
is more or less same. The injection reactive power remains constant
Generator Modes:
Key take ways:
1. Generator +/- 5% Voltage tolerance
2. Large capacity generator has to operate in Voltage control mode but with dead
band
3. When Generator is running in standalone / Island mode it should operate in
Swing mode (Isochronous mode or V/f mode)
4. Multiple generators operating in parallel in Islanded mode then they operate
with Isochronous Load sharing mode
AVR Control:
 Control the Field Voltage (Vf), Field Current Control (If), Reactive Power
Generation (Qg), Voltage (Vt).
 Voltage Control Mode
 Mvar Control Mode
 Power Factor Control Mode. Governor:
 Constant power mode
 Droop mode
 Constant frequency mode
Droop mode:
Droop speed control is a control mode used for AC electrical power generators,
whereby the power output of a generator reduces as the line frequency increases.
It is commonly used as the speed control mode of the governor of a prime mover
driving a synchronous generator connected to an electrical grid.
isochronous mode
To maintain the frequency constant, it must be operated in isochronous mode. It
operates the system at rated frequency. The deviation in the frequency of the
system acts an indicator to generation stations whether to increase or reduce the
generation. If the generator operates in standalone mode, real power generation
is the output with respect to the load demand.
Isochronous voltage control mode
In an isochronous generator control modes, the generator output is controlled to
maintain a constant frequency, typically 50 Hz or 60 Hz. This is done by adjusting
the speed of the generator in response to changes in the load demand
• Generator connected with grid.

Isochronous Load Sharing Mode:

In an isochronous load sharing scheme, the distributed controllers are typically
connected in an island. The distributed controllers exchange information and
regulate the generators to maintain frequency during load unbalances.
Same cabel lenth
Different cabel lenth

Criteria to generate the same P and Q for all buses with different cable length:

Generator Capability Curve:

The generator capability curve provides a provision for the permitted generator
operation limit to the appropriate terminal voltage. This limit is generally based
on the capability of the equipment expressed by the maximum voltage and current
limits.
1. Stator winding limit
2. MW limit
3. Rotor Heating limit
4. Steady-state stability limit
5. Stator core end heating limit 6. Voltage instability at leading power factors
Under excited condition:
Field excitation is Eb < V the generator to be under excited and it has a leading
power factor. So that it absorbed reactive power. That is Leading power factor.
Over excited condition:
Field excitation is Eb > V the generator to be over excited and it has a lagging
power factor. So that it injects the reactive power. That is Lagging power factor.
 LOAD MODELLING
Load modelling
The ZIP load model is commonly used to represent voltage dependency via the
combination of constant-impedance (“Z”), constant-current (“I”), and constant-
power (“P”) components
What is load?
The device which is converting electric energy in to some other form of energy
is called load. Here we are classified the load based on how the power
consumption varies with respect to the voltage as below
1. Constant Impedance Load
2. Constant Current Load
3. Constant Power Load
General formula for load modelling:
The real and reactive power equations are given by,
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜(𝑉 /𝑉𝑜 )^a
𝑄 = 𝑄𝑜(𝑉 /𝑉𝑜 )^𝑏
Where, P, Q – actual real, reactive power consumption at actual voltage V,
PO, QO – rated real, reactive power consumption at rated voltage VO ,
V – instantaneous voltage,
Vo – rated voltage,
a, b = 2 for constant impedance load,
a, b = 1 for constant current load,
a, b = 0 for constant power load
Loads used in ETAP are,
i. Static load – non-rotating loads
ii. Lumped load – rotating loads + static loads
Constant Impedance Load (Z) (Load α V2)- (Heater)
Constant Current Load(I) (Load α V) – (Power Electronic Device)
Constant Power Load(P) - (Induction Motor)
Constant impedance load:
The load impedance remains same irrespective of applying different voltages.
Current flowing through the load is directly proportional to the voltage power
consumption of load is proportional to square of voltage. The formula for constant
impedance load is derived as,
P = V2 / R , when R is constant
P α V2 ; a = 2
P = PO (V / VO)2
Consider any constant impedance load of 100W rated at 230V. Find the power
consumed by the load at 210V. Simulate and verify the same.
Given,
PO = 100 W,
VO = 230 V,
V = 210 V,
a=2
P = PO (V / VO )^2
= 100 (210 / 230)^2
= 83.36 W
Normal operation when v = 210 v
V0=230

Simulation
Design a system having power grid operating in 100% and 90% , transformer of
rating 1000 kVA, 11/0.4 kV, 5% Z having 800 kVA constant impedance loads in
both sending and receiving end bus. Perform load flow and state the inference for
both the cases of 90% and 100% of grid voltage. Verify the simulation results
manually.
Solve
Case 1
100% of grid voltage
Sending end load Receiving end load
P0=800KW Po=800kw
V0=1 V0=1
V=1 V=0.9884
P=800KW P=781.6
Case 2 ;90% grid voltage

Sending end load Receiving end load

P0=800KW Po=800kw
V0=1 V0=1
V=1 V=0.9884
P=800KW P=781.6
Constant Current Load
Constant current (cc) is the most frequent mode in which an electronic load is
used. in constant current mode, the load will sink the programmed current
independently from the output voltage which is typically forced by the voltage
source connected to it (for example a battery).
P = VI where I – Constant 68
P α V; A = 1
P = Po(V/Vo)
E.g.; Charger, UPS, Arc Furnace, Power Electronic Device.
Simulation
Design the same system done in simulation 1, having power grid operating in
105% and 800 KVa constant current loads in both sending and receiving end bus.
perform load flow and state the inference for the case of 105% of grid voltage.
verify the simulation results manually.
Constant current load ;105 % grid voltage

Sending end load Receiving end load

P0=800KW Po=800kw
V0=1 V0=1
V=1.05 V=1.038
P=840KW P=830.6
Constant Power Load
A constant power load is designed to dynamically adjust the load current
inversely with the load voltage so that the load power is constant, p = vi. it is this
inverse property of a constant power load that is often useful in stability analysis
of simulations like those of a switching mode power supply. Load Power Remains
Same Irrespective of Applied Voltages.
I = P/V where P – Constant
I α 1/V; A = 0
P = Po
Eg: Motor.

Simulation
Design a system having power grid operating in 95%, 100% and 105%,
transformer of rating 1000 KVa, 11/0.4 KV, 5% z supplying 800 KVa constant
power load. perform load flow and state the inference for the case of 95%, 100%
and 105% of grid voltage. verify the simulation results manually.
Constant power load
90% grid voltage 100% grid voltage 105 % grid voltage
 Real power calculation Reactive power calculation
P0=800KW Po=700kw
V0=1 V0=1
V=1.005 V=1.005
P=800KW P=703.5

EXPONENTIAL LOAD
Exponential loads are classified as constant power, constant current and constant
impedance loads. The values of ‘a’ can vary 0, 1, 2 and decimal values. For
simulation, considering the above system and changing the exponential load
parameters.
 Real power calculation Reactive power calculation
P0=800KW Po=700kw
V0=1 V0=1
V=1.005 V=1.005
P=810KW P=703.5
a=2.5 b=1

Polynomial Load
The polynomial load model is also called as zip load model. z stands for
constant impedance, i represent constant current and p refers to constant power.
P = Po [P + I(V/Vo) ˡ + Z(V/Vo) ²]
P = Constant Power Load Component
I = Constant Current Load Component
Z = Constant Impedance Load Component
Z+I+P = 1
it is combination of constant current, constant impedance and constant power
load.
Simulation
Design a system having power grid operating in 105% of rated voltage,
transformer of rating 1000 KVa, 11/0.4 KV, 5% z supplying 800 KVa load out
of which 25% is constant current load, 30% is constant power load. find the actual
power consumption. perform load flow and state the inference for the case of
105% of grid voltage. verify the simulation results manually.

given,
i = 0.25, p = 0.3. Determining z component.
z+i+p=1
z + 0.25 + 0.3 = 1
z = 1 – 0.25 – 0.3 = 0.45

Variable Frequency drives

A variable frequency drive (VFD) is a type of motor controller that drives an

electric motor by varying the frequency and voltage of its power supply. The VFD
also has the capacity to control ramp-up and ramp-down of the motor during start
or stop, respectively.
Even though the drive controls the frequency and voltage of power supplied to
the motor, we often refer to this as speed control, since the result is an adjustment
of motor speed.
There are many reasons why we may want to adjust this motor speed.

 Save energy and improve system efficiency

 Convert power in hybridization applications
 Match the speed of the drive to the process requirements
 Match the torque or power of a drive to the process requirements
 Improve the working environment
 Lower noise levels, for example from fans and pumps
 Reduce mechanical stress on machines to extend their lifetime

SIGNIFICANCE
It does not consume reactive power from the grid.
 It increases the power factor of the system.
 It is most suitable for continuously fluctuating loads.
Without VFD
 Load flow is done for the motor connected without VFD and the real power
ratings are noted.

With VFD
 With the above inference and parameters, VFD is designed and placed
before the motor load. Now load flow is performed and compared it with
the with case
 Without vfd With vfd
Real power 15131kw 15131
Reactive power 5675kvar 3483
Transformer loss highr lower
Load conneted bus 99.31% 100%
voltage
kva 16160 kva 15526

 Reactive power is not drawn from the grid. VFD generate the entire
reactive power required for load by itself.
 Transformer real and reactive power losses got reduced.
 The reduced kVA in VFD connected mode helps in cost reduction for
modelling of equipments in upstream.

The end