ASME Definitions

A
AC or alternating current: Is that kind of electricity which reverses its direction periodically.
For 60 cycle current, the current goes in one direction and then in the other direction 60 times in
the same second, so that the current changes its direction 120 times in one second.

Arc blow: The deflection of an electric arc from its normal path because of magnetic forces.

Arc length: The distance from the end of the electrode to the point where the arc makes contact
with work surface.

Arc voltage: The voltage across the welding arc.

as-welded: The condition of weld metal welded joints, and weldments after welding but prior to
any subsequent thermal, mechanical, or chemical treatments.

Automatic welding: Welding with equipment which performs the welding operation without
adjustment of the controls by a welding operator. The equipment may or may not perform the
loading and unloading of the work.

B
Backing: A material or device placed against the back side of the joint, or at both sides of a weld
in electro slag and electro gas welding, to support and retain molten weld metal. The material may
be partially fused or remain unfused during welding and may be either metal or nonmetal.

Back step sequence: A longitudinal sequence in which weld passes are made in the direction
opposite to the progress of welding.

Bare electrode: A filler metal electrode consisting of a single metal or alloy that has been
produced into a wire, strip, or bar form and that has had no coating or covering applied to it other
than that which was incidental to its manufacture or preservation.

Base metal (material): The metal (material) to be welded, brazed, soldered, or cut.

Butt joint: A joint between two members aligned approximately in the same plane.

C
Concavity: The maximum distance from the face of a concave fillet weld perpendicular to a line
joining the weld toes.

Convexity: The maximum distance from the face of a convex fillet weld perpendicular to a line
joining the weld toes.

Covered electrode: A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a core of a bare electrode or
metal cored electrode to which a covering sufficient to provide a slag layer on the weld metal has
been applied. The covering may contain materials providing such functions as shielding from the
atmosphere, deoxidation, and arc stabilization and can serve as a source of metallic additions to
the weld.

Crater: In arc welding, a depression at the termination of a weld bead or in the molten weld pool.
D
Depth of fusion: The distance that fusion extends into the base metal or previous pass from the
surface melted during welding.

DC or direct current: Electric current which flows only in one direction. In welding, an arc
welding process wherein the power supply at the arc is direct current.

F
Fillet weld: A weld of approximately triangular doss section joining two surfaces approximately
at right angles to each other in a lap joint, T-joint or corner joint.

Fillet weld leg: The distance from the joint root to the toe of the fillet weld.

Flat position: The welding position used to weld from the upper side of the joint; the face of the
weld is approximately horizontal.

Flux: Material used to prevent, dissolve, or facilitate removal of oxides and other undesirable
surface substances.

Flux cored arc welding: (FCAW) An arc welding process that produces coalescence of metals
by heating them with an arc between a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode and the
work. Shielding is provided by a flux contained within the tubular electrode. Additional shielding
may or may not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.

G
Gas metal arc welding: (GMAW) An arc welding process that produces coalescence of metals
by heating them with an arc between a continuous filler metal (consumable) electrode and the
work. Shielding is obtained entirely from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.

Gas tungsten arc welding: (GTAW) An arc welding process that produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an arc between a tungsten (non-consumable) electrode and the work.
Shielding is obtained from a gas or gas mixture. Pressure may or may not be used and filler metal
may or may not be used. (This process has sometimes been called TIG welding, a non-preferred
term.)

Groove weld: A weld made in the groove between the work pieces.

H
Heat-affected zone: That portion of the base metal that has not been melted, but whose
mechanical properties or microstructure have been altered by the heat or welding, brazing,
soldering, or cutting.

Horizontal position:
(a) Fillet weld - The position in which welding is performed on the upper side of an
approximately horizontal surface and against an approximately vertical surface.

(b) Groove Weld- The position of welding in which the weld axis lies in an approximately
horizontal plane and the weld face lies in an approximately vertical plane.
J
Joint penetration: The depth a weld extends from its face into a joint, exclusive of
reinforcement.
L
Lap joint: A joint between two overlapping members in parallel planes.

M
Machine welding: Welding with equipment that performs the welding operation under the
constant observation and control of a welding operator. The equipment may or may not load and
unload the work pieces.

Manual welding: A welding operation performed and controlled completely by hand.

Melting rate: The weight or length of electrode melted in a unit of time.

O
Open circuit voltage: The voltage between the Output terminals of the welding machine when no
current is flowing in the welding circuit.

Overhead position: The position in which welding is performed from the underside of the joint.

Overlap: The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld root.

P
Peening: The mechanical working of metals using Impact blows.

Porosity: Cavity type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment during solidification.

Post heating: The application of heat to an assembly after welding, brazing, soldering, thermal
spraying or cutting operation.

Pre heating: The application of heat to the base metal immediately before welding, brazing,
soldering, thermal spraying, or cutting.

R
Radiography: The use of radiant energy in the form of X-rays or gamma rays for the non-
destructive examination of metals.

Reverse polarity: A nonstandard term for direct current electrode positive.

Root opening: A separation at the joint root between the work pieces.

Root penetration: The depth that a weld extends into the joint root.

S
Seal weld: Threaded joint sealed, without thread compound, by back welding.

Semiautomatic arc welding: Arc welding with equipment that controls only the filler metal feed.
The advance of the welding is manually controlled.

Shielded metal arc welding: (SMAW) An arc welding process that produces coalescence of
metals by heating them with an arc between a covered metal electrode and the work pieces.
Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the electrode covering. Pressure is not used and filler
metal is obtained from the electrode.

Slag inclusion: Nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and
base metal.
Spatter: The metal particles expelled during fusion welding which do not form a part of the weld.

Straight polarity: A nonstandard term for direct current electrode negative.

Stress relief heat treatment: Uniform heating of a structure or a portion thereof to a sufficient
temperature to relieve the major portion of the residual stresses, followed by uniform cooling.

Stringer bead: A type of weld bead made without appreciable weaving motion.

T
Tack weld: A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment until the final welds are
made.

Throat of a fillet weld:

(a) theoretical throat - The distance from the beginning of the joint root perpendicular to the
hypotenuse of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed within the cross section of a
fillet weld. This dimension is based on the assumption that the root opening is equal to
zero.
(b) Actual throat - The shortest distance between the weld root and the face of a fillet weld.
(c) Effective throat - The minimum distance minus any convexity between the weld root and
the face of a fillet weld.

Tungsten electrode: A non-filler metal electrode used in arc welding or cutting made principally
of tungsten.

U
Underbid crack: A crack in the heat-affected zone generally not extending to the surface of the
base metal.

Undercut: A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or weld root and left
unfilled by weld metal.

V
Vertical position: The position of welding in which the weld axis is approximately vertical.

W
Weave bead: A type of weld bead made with transverse oscillation.

Weld: A localized coalescence of metals or non-metals produced either by heating the materials
to welding temperature, with or without the application of pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone, and with or without the use of filler material.

Weld face: The exposed surface of a weld on the side from which welding was done.

Weld metal: That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.

Weld pass: A single progressional of welding or surfacing along a joint or substrate. The result of
a pass is a weld bead, layer, or spray deposit.

Weld pool: The localized volume of molten metal in a weld prior to its solidification as weld
metal.

Weld root: The points, as shown in cross section, at which the back of the weld intersects the
base metal surfaces.
Weld size:
(A) groove weld size - The joint penetration of a groove weld.
(b) fillet weld size - For equal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest isosceles right triangle
which can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross section For unequal leg fillet welds, the leg
lengths of the largest right triangle that can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross section.

Weld toe: The junction of the weld face and the base metal.

Welding procedure: The detailed methods and practices involved in the production of a
weldment.

Welding rod: A form of welding filler metal, normally packaged in straight lengths that does not
conduct electrical current.

Weldment: An assembly whose component parts are joined by welding.

 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Introduction:
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding or Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a arc welding process in which the
source of heat is an electric arc, is established between the non-consumable tungsten electrode and
the part to be welded .The arc zone is filled with an inert gas to protect the tungsten electrode and
the molten metal from oxidation. The inert gas also acts as a conducting medium for the arc
current. Welding can be carried out with or without addition of filler metal. The need to add of
filler metal depends upon the thickness and type of the joint.
The rate of adding filler metal is independent of the arc energy.
But the maximum rate of filler wire addition is limited by the arc energy also.

History of Process Development

GTAW process was first developed in the year of 1940 and it was used successfully for Welding
stainless steel and magnesium thin gauge sheets by using D.C. power source.
In 1946, Aluminum was also successfully welded by using AC power source. Since that time the
GTAW process has been refined and has been used to weld almost all metals and alloys.

Equipment Requirement
1. Welding power source with high frequency unit
2. GTAW Torch with tungsten electrode.
3. Supply of inert gas.

Electrodes for GTAW Process

Pure Tungsten electrode (EWP)

 This electrode is identified by green color band.
 The purity level of pure tungsten electrode is 99.5%.
 It has lower current carrying capacity than the alloyed tungsten electrode, and has low
resistance to contamination. Pure tungsten is least expensive.

Thoriated Tungsten Electrode (EwTh-1, and EwTh-2)

 These electrodes are identified by the color bands as detailed below
 1% thoriated tungsten electrode --Yellow
 2% thoriated tungsten electrode – Red
 0.4% thoriated tungsten electrode - Blue
 Tungsten electrode containing 1 or 2% thoria have greater electron emissive property than
pure tungsten electrode. Therefore greater current carrying capacity and longer life.
 Arc starting is easier and arc is more stable which helps to make them more resistance to
contamination from the base metal.

Zirconiated Tungsten Electrode (EW Zr)

 This electrode is identify by brown color band.
 It has a properties between those of pure tungsten and thoriated tungsten electrode regarding
arc starting and current carrying capacity.
 High resistance to contamination. It remains the balled end during welding.

Shielding gases:

Shielding gas provides the suitable ionizing atmosphere for the arc and protects the weld pool
from air contamination. Inert gases argon and helium are used for TIG welding.
COMPARISON OF SHIELDING GASES

GAS ATOMIC DENSITY ARC GAS FLOW HEAT SUITABILI

WT VOLTAGE RATE INPUT TY
% OF AIR

Argon 40 130 1 time 10-12 LPM Low Thin 1 time

metals

Helium 4 13 1.7 time 25-35 LPM High Thick 3 times

metals

Argon
 Low arc voltage: This results in less heat. Hence suitable for manual welding of thickness less
than 1.5mm.
 Good cleaning action: Preferred for metals with refractory oxide skin and ferrous alloys
containing high percentage of aluminum.
 Easy arc starting: Important for welding thin metals and welding in vertical and overhead
position.

Helium:
 High arc voltage: This results in better arc. Favorable for welding thick metals with high heat
conductivity.
 Small heat affected zone: With high heat input and greater welding speeds HAZ can be kept
narrow. Deeper penetration is possible.

Minimum purity requirements of argon

Argon % O2 ppm max N2 ppm max H ppm max Co2 ppm max Moisture
Mg/litre
99.967 10 300 5 5 0.005

Gas mixtures used in GTAW

In tungsten arc welding the physical characteristics of the gas, like conductivity, ionization and
dissociation, influence the arc geometry and heating efficiency. The composition of the gases
which determines these physical characteristics will be arrived after a close study is made on their
behavior with the parent material.
Gas or Gas mixture Application

Almost all materials

Argon 99.5% pure
Stainless steel,Nickel and Nickel alloys
Argon+5%H2(occasionally upto 15%H2)
Aluminum alloys
Argon+Helium(75%Ar+25%He)
Almost all material
Helium 99.99%

Argon + Nitrogen(85%Ar+15%N2) Copper and some of the copper alloys

 In stainless steel welding with Ar+H2 shielding gas, the hydrogen helps increasing the arc
heating efficiency, and also reducing the amount of oxides formed with stainless steels.
 In the case of GTA welding of aluminum, if a gas shield containing hydrogen would be
unsuitable, because a high percentage of hydrogen would be dissolved in the molten
aluminum and gets trapped giving rise to porosity.

POWER SOURCE
 Direct current power source. (Constant current type)
 Alternative current power source

DC POWER SOURCE WITH HIGH FREQUENCY UNIT

 Suitable for welding almost all metals and alloys (Except aluminum and its alloys) in DCEN
mode.
 Magnesium and its alloys can be welded by DCEP mode.

AC POWER SOURCE WITH HIGH FREQUENCY UNIT

 Best suitable for welding aluminum and its alloys and other ferrous alloys containing high
percentage of aluminum.
 Magnesium and its alloys.
 Some copper alloys.

TORCHES
 Gas cooled torches The heat developed in the tungsten electrode is transferred to the inert gas
while it flow through the gas passage in the torch
 Water cooled torches: Designed for continuous duty cycle with higher current. In this torch
cooling takes place by the water circulation arrangement in the torch.

High Frequency Unit

 High Frequency Unit is needed to initiate the arc in GTA welding when DC is used. Once the
arc is struck the HF super imposition would be cut-off
 In the case of AC used in GTA welding, HF super imposition is required continuously to
strike the arc at every off cycle
 DC Suppressor is connected in series in the output to improve arc stability.

APPLICABILITY
 Where high quality weld is very much required.
 Welding root process on Carbon and low alloy steel piping.
 Welding reactive and refractory metals such as Titanium, Zirconium and Columbium by multi
pass GTA welding.
 Suitable process for welding thin sheets and foils.
 Root pass welding in pressure application parts and critical areas.

ADVANTAGES
 Very high quality weld can be made
 Very thin foils can be welded
 Filler metal addition is independent of the arc current.
 No spatter

LIMITATIONS
 Low filler metal deposition
 Requires greater skill
 More costly when compared to other arc welding processes.

DEVELOPEMENT IN GTAW
Many developments have been established in GTA welding field. A few of them are stated here:
 Pulsed GTAW
 Hot wire GTAW
 Orbital GTAW

PULSED GTAW
In this process the current is modulated in the form of pulses. The magnitude of the current
oscillates between high level (Peak current) and low level (background current). The magnitudes
of these levels and pulsing time can be controlled.
The molten weld pool can be manipulated against fluidity during background current period
results in low heat input and defect free weld. There is no need of weaving because the pulsed
current is sufficient to melt the required base metal.
Pulsed arc GTA welding is not as fast as the GTAW because of the travel speed is synchronized
to the pulsed frequency.

Applications:
 To do root run on tubes and pipes
 Welding thin plates & foils and the critical areas.

ORBITAL TIG
 Orbital GTAW machine is developed for circumferential seam welding of pipes and tubes
automatically.
 Pulsed current power source with programmed control for position welding such as flat,
vertical up, vertical down and overhead is enables to make the process automatic.

HOT WIRE GTAW

 Hot wire GTAW is a developed process over the conventional GTAW process.
 Here, the equipment and the welding sequence are the same as conventional GTAW, but the
filler wire is pre-heated either by resistance or induction heating before reaching the arc zone.
 For proper fusion the electrical circuit should always be completed i.e. the feed wire should
always be in contact with the weld puddle.

APPLICATIONS AND ADVANTAGES

 Radiography quality welds can be obtained at a higher deposition rate. The rate can be varied
by adjusting the heating current.
 Higher deposition at a lower dilution level is the main characteristics of the hot wire process.
Hence this can be used as a major tool for surfacing applications.
 Hot wire technique gives an increasing production rate by 3 to 4 times.
 PROCESS APPLICATIONS

SHIELDING POWER SOURCE& ELECTRODE BACKING GAS

MOC GAS POLARITY TYPE

Carbon steel Argon DCEN EWTH-2 NO NEED

EWTH-2 NITROGEN OR
Low alloy steel Argon DCEN ARGON
Argon or EWP OR EWZR
Aluminum & its 75%Ar+25%He AC OR DCEP ARGON
alloys
Argon or NITROGEN OR
Stainless steels Ar+5%H2 DCEN EWTH-2 ARGON
Argon or
Nickel & its alloys Ar+5%H2 DCEN EWTH-2 ARGON

Copper & its alloys Argon or DCEN EWTH-2 NITROGEN OR

Ar+15%N2 ARGON
Argon or EWP OR EWZR
Magnesium & its 75%Ar+25%He AC OR DCEP ARGON
alloys

Reactive metals
like titanium, Argon DCEN EWTH-2 ARGON
zirconium &
columbium

Notes:
1) Helium can be substituted instead of argon, if the base metal thickness is higher, for
welding overhead positions and for automatic welding.

Welding & Gas cutting

Introduction:-
Welding is a material joining process used in making welds.
Weld is a localized coalescence of metals or non-metals, eighter by heating the material to
suitable temperature and with or without the application of pressure or by the application
of pressure alone and with or without the use of filler material.

Classification of Welding Processes :-

Classification based on mode of energy transfer.

01. Electrical energy converted to heat Arc welding

energy Resistance welding
02. Mechanical energy converted to heat Friction welding
energy
03. Chemical energy converted to heat Gas welding Explosive Welding
energy
04. Light energy converted to heat energy Laser welding
05. Sound energy converted to heat energy Ultrasonic welding.
Introduction of Various welding processes:-

01. Manual metal arc welding

02. Tig welding
03. Mig welding
04. MAG / CO2 welding
05. Fluxed cored arc welding
06. Submerged arc welding
07. Stud welding
08. Gas welding
09. Atomic hydrogen welding
10. Electrogas welding
11. Electroslag slag welding
12. Arc spot welding
13. Plasma welding
14. Electron beam welding
15. Laser welding
16. Resistance spot welding
17. Resistance seam welding
18. Projection welding
19. Flash butt welding
20. Resistance butt welding
21. Stitch welding
22. Roller spot welding
23. Explosive welding
24. Friction welding
25. Ultrasonic welding
26. Diffusion Bonding

Manual Metal Arc Welding :-

Manual metal arc welding is the most common versatile and inexpensive process
comparing to other processes. 60% of total welding in advance countries and 90% of total
welding in India covered by manual metal arc welding.

In this process heat required for welding is generated by electric arc formed between
metallic electrode and base metal. The electrodes is consumed in the arc and provide filler
metal for the joint. Flux coated electrodes arc used having a core solid metallic wire,
sized of 1.6 mm to 6.3 mm diameter and 250 mm to 450 mm in length. Power source
used in this process is mainly transformer or generator / rectifier supplying AC / DC
power. It is a well suited for site welding.
MMAW is a totally manual operated process and quality of the weld is totally depending
on the skill of welder. In this process welder has to strike an arc, maintain it and
manipulate the arc to get different beads like (1) string and (2) weave as per welding
condition.

Welder has to qualifying himself by giving welder qualification test to competent person
prior to do his job, for getting better quality of weld joint.

Deposition rate in this process is approximately 2.0 to 3.0 kg per hour by using filler wire
of core diam. 3.15 mm.
Type of weld joint :-

Various welding Positions :-

01. 1 G Position

02. 2 G Position

03. 3 G Position

04. 4 G Position

05. 5 G Position

06. 6 G Position
Welding Symbols :-

01. Single V. butt weld V

02. Square Butt weld ½½
03. Butt weld between plate with raised edge )(
04. Single bevel butt weld V
05. Single - V Butt weld with broad root face Y
06. Single - bevel butt weld with broad root face Y
07. Single - U - butt weld
08. Single - J - butt weld
09. Backing run : Back or backing weld
10. Fillet weld
11. Plug weld or slot weld
12. Spot weld
13. Seam weld

Shape of weld surface

01. Flat
02. Convex
03. Concave

Selection of Electrodes :-
Selection of consumable welding electrodes plays a vital role in quality of welding wrong
selection of welding electrodes may lead the failure of welding.
During the selection of welding electrode mainly MOC, chemical composition,
mechanical properly and in case of flux coated electrode type of flux are act as a main
factor for consideration.
Normally, the properties of welding electrodes and base metal should be having of same or
nearby types selection of flux depends upon the weld requirements

Type of flux coating materials of electrodes :-

01. Cellulosic coated electrode

02. Rutile
03. Ball clay
04. Iron powder
05. Ferro - Alloys
06. Lime stone (calcium carbonate)
07. Potassium and sodium silicates

TIG WELDING :-( TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING)

Tungsten inert gas welding is also termed as Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). In this
process, an arc is struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the base
metal. The arc is shielded by inert gas like argon, helium or a mixture of both. Filler wire
may or may not be used in this process it depends on requirement. Mainly AC power
source is used for Aluminum welding and DC for all other metals. This is an ideal
process for welding of nonferrous metals and stainless steel in limited thickness. It is
mainly used in root pass weld seam of carbon steel pressure vessels and pipe lines where
welding or back chipping from inside is not possible. Tig welding is mainly used for
better quality welding work and also its minimize the heat affected zone which gives
better welding and less distortion because of low heat input.
 Slag connected problems like slag inclusion, spatters and other impurities can be avoided
by this process Oxidation not taking place in weld because of shielding gas.
Shielding gas used in TIG must be having at 99.99% pure otherwise it create porosity
problems in weld seam.
Non consumable tungsten electrode arc used in tig welding having very high melting point
(about 3450o C) and good electron emissivity. Basically three types of electrodes are
available.

1. Pure tungsten

2. Tungsten with 1% to 2% thorium oxide

3. Tungsten with Zirconium oxide (0.5 - 0.8%)

TIG WELDING TORCH :-

Preheat and post weld heat treatment for welding -

Preheat :-
Preheat means heating of base metal prior to weld. Carbon steel above ¾" thick and alloy steel
preheated prior to weld.

1. Without preheat the thermal strain set up during welding of a

complex fabrication can crack the weld.
2. Avoid the loss of heat from the weld area against the higher thermal
conductivity of steel.
3. It retards the formation of undesirable metallurgical structures
having high hardness and susceptibility to cracking.
4. Increase the diffusion rate of hydrogen and facilitates its removal
from the weld ment.
5. Drives off the moisture and Hydrocarbon which is harmful if
present when a weld is made.

Post weld heat treatment :-

High level residual stresses can occur in weld mints due to the restraint by the
parent metal during weld solidification
This lead weldment to poor mechanical property, and metallurgical defects.
Post weld heat treatment provides.
1. More ductility in the weld metal and a lowering of hardness.
2. Improved resistance to corrosion and caustic embrittlement.
3. Improve machining stability.
4. Stabilize residual stress developed during welding or cold work.
Significance of defects in welding :-
In a correct sense of a word 'Defect' means a unacceptable or rejectable discontinuity. The
defects rejection or acceptance are highly based on different factors like.
1. Stresses to which the parts will be subjected during service
2. Type of material used
3. The service temperature and pressure
4. Thickness of material
5. The environment (corrosive or non-corrosive)
6. Safety
7. Consequences of failures
8. Cost & accessibility for repair.

General reason for welding defect :-

· Lack of know - how and experience
· Welding process characteristics
· Base metal composition
· Defective welding filler metals
· Joint design
· Welding environment (wind, fitup, temp. etc.)

Various Type of Defects in weld :-

(1) Defects involving inadequate bonding :-

(a) Lack of fusion
(b) Incomplete penetration
(2) Foreign inclusion :-
(a) Slag
(b) Oxide films
(c) Tungsten.
(3) Geometric Defects :-
(a) Undercut
(b) Excessive reinforcement
(c) Burn through
(d) Distortion
(e) Improper weld profile

(4) Metallurgical defects;-

(a) Cracks
(b) Gas porosity
(c) Arc strikes
(d) Embrittlement
(e) Structural notches

Testing of weldments :-
The weld joint can be tested by various method considering the several factors the
competent person can finalize that what test required for particular weld ments.
Following are the various testing methods for weld joints.
1. Destructive testing
2. Nondestructive testing
3. Metallography of weld joint.

Destructive testing :-
Destructive testing can be carried out by using the specimen prepared from the same
material which is required for testing. Method of mechanical testing :-
(1) Tensile testing
(2) Bend testing
(a) Root bend test
(b) Face bend test
(c) Side bend test
(3) Hardness testing
(4) Impact testing
(5) Fatigue testing.

Non Destructive testing: - Nondestructive testing is widely used method while on line testing is
required.
Methods of nondestructive testing:-
1. Dye penetrant test
2. Radiographic Inspection
3. Magnetic particle test
4. Ultrasonic flow detection
5. Eddy current testing
6. Acoustic emission etc.
Metallographic Inspection :-
Metallographic inspection is required for examine the structural condition of weld ment.
Grain size, Grain boundaries and properties of weld ment can be evaluate by this method.
(1) Macro examination
(2) Micro examination
Gas Cutting:-
Gas cutting involves a chemical reaction consisting of burning the preheated material
along a predetermined path and removing the resultant oxides from the cut with a jet of
oxygen.
 Gas cutting operate on the basic principle of quickly heating a small area to bright red
color (1500o C Approx.) by using oxy - fuel gas. The oxygen jet focused on this spot
causes oxidation of the metal with intense heat. This heat melt the oxide and a thin film of
adjacent metal. The oxygen jet flushes aside the molten oxide, thus exposing fresh surface
for cutting. Thus a narrow opening or slit or kerf is cut through.
During cutting the oxygen and fuel gas are supplied independently at suitable pressure as
desired. The cutting torch with fittings for controlling and mixing of oxy - fuel gas
regulates the flow of the mixture. The tips with fixed opening can be chosen based on the
plate thickness to be cut. Normally the cutting torch and tips are chosen on the base of the
fuel gas used. The oxy - fuel flame initiates the oxidation reaction and preheat the cutting
path. It also serves to clear the path of scale or dirt. The cutting oxygen is surrounding by
this gas mixture, and gets affected slightly. The oxygen jet must have volume and velocity
enough to overcome this and penetrate the material. While cutting thicker plate the oxygen
flow is increased proportionately or the cutting speed is decreased. Apart from these
manual adjustment by experience of the operator the equipment’s manufacturer gives out
tables indicating range of pressure and speeds for different style of nozzles.

Equipment’s require for Gas cutting :-

1. Oxygen - fuel gas (Acetylene)
2. Regulator
3. Hoses
4. Cutting torch
5. Cutting tips
Mainly acetylene (C2 H2) is widely used for gas cutting in industries.
Following are the basic requirement for better control of gas cutting.
1. Flame temperature
2. Adequate heat content
3. Flame propagation
4. Minimum reaction
Ingredient for gas cutting :-
1. Acetylene supply
2. Oxygen supply
3. Mixture
4. Flame
5. Technique
Type of flames :-
1. Carburizing flame
2. Neutral flame
3. Oxidizing flame
Acetylene :- (C2 H2)
C2 H2 + S / 2 O2 ® 2 CO2 + H2O + Heat.
Acetylene stored in the form of acetone. Acetone cylinder contains of porous substance
like carbon particles, sand etc. and Acetone liquid pored in porous materials.
Acetylene cylinders are advised to store always in vertical position.

American Welding Society

# AWS D1.1 this code contains the requirements for fabricating and erecting
welded steel structures. This code applies to steels with a thickness of 1/8
inch (3.2mm) or more. When this code is specified in a contract, most of the
provisions are mandatory. Optional provisions and examples are shown in an
annex included within this code.

# AWS D1.2 This is the Structural Welding Code-Aluminum. The welding

requirements are applicable to any type of welded aluminum alloy structure.
This code is appropriate for use in fabrication of supporting structures and
appurtenances. It is not intended to supplant codes developed for use in
specialized fabrication such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
aerospace codes, or military codes.

# AWS D1.3 This is the Structural Welding Code-Sheet Steel. This code
covers the arc welding of structural steel sheet/strip steels including cold
formed members which are equal to or less than 3/16 inch (.188 in./4.8mm) in
nominal thickness. Three weld types unique to sheet steel, arc spot, arc
seam, and arc plug welds are included in this code.
# AWS D1.4 This is the Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing Steel. This code
shall apply to the welding of reinforcing steel to reinforcing steel and of
reinforcing steel to carbon or low-alloy structural steel. This code shall be
used in conjunction with the prescribed general building code specifications
and is applicable to all welding of reinforcing steel using the processes listed
in Section 1.4, and performed as a part of reinforced concrete construction.
When reinforcing steel is welded to structural steel, the provisions of AWS
D1.1 shall apply to the structural steel component.

# AWS D1.5 this is the Bridge Welding Code. This code covers welding
fabrication requirements applicable to welded highway bridges. It is to be
used in conjunction with the AASHTO Standard Specification for Highway
Bridges or the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. This code is not
intended to be used for the following: steels with a minimum specified yield
strength greater than 690 MPa (100ksi), pressure vessels or pressure piping,
base metals other than carbon or low alloy steels, or structures composed of
structural tubing.

# AWS D1.6 Structural Welding Code-Stainless Steel. This code covers

welding requirements applicable to stainless steel weldments subject to
design stress. It shall be used in conjunction with any complementary code or
specification for the design or construction of stainless steel weldments.

# AWS D3.5-93R Guide for Steel Hull Welding. This guide is referenced in
many contract specifications for building vessels from barges to tugboats.

# AWS D3.6M Specification for Under-Water Welding.

# AWS D3.7 Guide for Aluminum Hull Welding. Similar to the Steel Hull
Welding Guide, but with a special emphasis on the unique properties of
aluminum.

# AWS D8.8-97 Specification for Automotive and Light Truck Weld Quality:
Arc Welding.

# AWS D14.1 Specification for Welding Earth Moving and Construction

Equipment. Applies to all structural welds used in the manufacture of
earthmoving and construction equipment. This specification reflects the
welding practices employed by manufacturers within the industry and
incorporates various methods which have been proven successful by
individual manufacturers.

# AWS D14.5 Specification for Welding Presses and Press Components. The
purpose of this specification is to establish minimum acceptable requirements
for weld joint design and the fabrication by welding of presses and press
components, and is not intended to apply to material feed mechanisms and
tooling. It shall also apply to the modification or repair by welding of new or
existing presses or press components.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

# ASME Section I Requirements for Power boilers. Part PW lists the

Requirements for Boilers Fabricated By Welding. The rules in Part PW are
applicable to boilers and component parts thereof, including piping
constructed under the provisions of this Section that are fabricated by
welding and shall be used in conjunction with the general requirements of
Part PG as well as with the specific requirements in the applicable Parts of this
Section that pertain to the type of boiler under consideration.

# ASME Section II Material Specifications-4 Subparts (A, B, C, D). Subpart A-

Ferrous Material Specifications. Subpart B-Non-Ferrous Material
Specifications-Materials. Subpart C-Specifications for Welding Rods,
Electrodes, and Filler Metals. Subpart D- Properties-divided into three
subparts- 1 Stress Tables. 2 Physical Properties Tables. 3 Charts and Tables
for Determining Shell Thickness of Components under External Pressure.

# ASME Section III Nuclear-There are Three Subdivisions- Division 1-Rules

For Construction of Nuclear Facility Components. Subsection NB lists Class 1
Components. Subsection NC lists Class 2 Components. Subsection ND lists
Class 3 Components. Subsection NE lists Class MC Components. Subsection
NF covers Supports. Subsection NG deals with Core Support Structures.
Subsection NH covers Class 1 Components in Elevated Temperature Service.
Division 2-Code for Concrete Reactor Vessels and Containment. Division 3-
Containment Systems for Storage and Transport Packaging’s of Spent Nuclear
Fuel and High Level Radioactive Material and Waste.

# ASME Section IV Rules For Construction of Heating Boilers. The rules to

Part HG apply to steam heating boilers, hot water heating boilers, hot water
supply boilers, and appurtenances thereto. They shall be used in conjunction
with the specific requirements of Parts HF and HC whichever is applicable.
The forward provides the basis for these rules. Part HG is not intended to
apply to potable water heaters execpt as provided for in Part HLW.

# ASME Section V Non-Destructive Examination. Unless otherwise specified

by the referencing Code Section, or other referencing documents, this Section
of the Code contains requirements and methods for nondestructive
examination which are Code requirements to the extent they are specifically
referenced and required by other Code Sections. These nondestructive
examination methods are intended to detect surface and internal
discontinuities in materials, welds, and fabricated parts and components.
They include radiographic examination, ultrasonic examination, liquid
penetrant examination, magnetic particle examination, eddy current
examination, visual examination, leak testing, and acoustic emission
examination.
# ASME Section VI Recommended Rules For the Care and Operation of
Heating Boilers. This is divided into nine subsections. 1-General, covers scope
and terminology. 2-Types of Boilers. 3-Accessories and Installation. 4-Fuels. 5-
Fuel Burning Equipment and Fuel Burning Controls. 6-Boiler Room Facilities.
7-Operation, Maintenance, and Repair-Steam Boilers. 8-Operation,
Maintenance, and Repair-Hot Water Boilers and Hot Water Heating Boilers. 9-
Water Treatment

# ASME Section VII Recommended Guidelines for the Care of Power Boilers

# ASME Section VIII Pressure Vessel and Tank Code. This is divided into
three sub-divisions. Division 1-Subsection A is general pressure vessel
information. Subsection B covers the Requirements Pertaining to Methods of
Fabrication of Pressure Vessels. Subsection C lists the Requirements
Pertaining to Classes of Materials. Division 2 covers Alternative Rules for
Construction of Pressure Vessels. Division 3 lists Alternative Rules for
Construction of High Pressure Boilers.

# ASME Section IX Welding and Brazing Qualifications. This section covers

the requirements for Weld Procedure Specifications (WPS), Procedure
Qualification Records (PQR), and certification requirements for tackers,
welders, welding operators, and brazing personnel.

# ASME Section X Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels.

# ASME Section XI Rules for Inservice Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant

Components.

# ASME B31.1 Power Piping-This Code prescribes requirements for the

design, materials, fabrication, erection, test, and inspection of power and
auxiliary service piping systems for electrical generation stations, industrial
and institutional plants, central and district heating plants, and district
heating systems, except as limited by para. 100.1.3. These systems are not
limited by plant or property lines unless they are specifically limited by para.
100.1. Piping as used in this Code includes pipe, flanges, bolting, gaskets,
valves, relief devices, fittings, and the pressure containing portions of other
piping components. It also includes hangers and supports and other
equipment items necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing
components. The users of this Code are advised that in some areas legislation
may establish governmental jurisdiction over the subject matter covered in
this Code. However, any such legal requirement shall not relieve the owner of
his inspection responsibilities specified in para. 136.1.

# ASME B31.2 Fuel Gas Piping-Material, This Code covers the design,
fabrication, installation, and testing of piping systems for fuel gases such as
natural gas, manufactured gas, liquefied petroleum gas-air mixtures above
the upper combustible limit, liquefied petroleum gas in the gaseous phase, or
a mixture of these gases. Included within the scope of this Code are fuel gas
piping systems both in buildings and between buildings, form the outlet of the
consumer's meter set assembly (or point of delivery) to and including the first
pressure containing valve upstream of the gas utilization device. Piping
systems within the scope of this Code include all components such as pipe,
valves, fittings, flanges (except inlet and outlet flanges that are a part of
equipment or apparatus described in para. 200.1.4), bolting and gaskets. Also
included are the pressure containing parts of other components such as
expansion joints, strainer and metering devices, and piping supporting
fixtures and structural attachments.

# ASME B31.3 Process Piping- Rules for the Process Piping Code have been
developed considering piping typically found in chemical, petroleum
refineries, pharmaceutical, textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic
plants; and related processing plants and terminals. This Code prescribes
requirements for materials and components, design, fabrication, erection,
assembly, examination, inspection, and testing of piping. This Code applies to
all fluids, including: raw, intermediate, and finished chemicals; petroleum
products; gas, steam, air, and water; fluidized solids; refrigerants; and
cryogenic fluids.

# ASME B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbons, Liquid

Petroleum Gas, Anhydrous Ammonia, and Alcohol. This Code prescribes
requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection,
and testing of piping transporting liquids such as crude oil, condensate,
natural gasoline, natural gas liquids, liquefied petroleum gas, carbon dioxide,
liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia, and liquid petroleum products
between producers' lease facilities, tank farms, natural gas processing plants,
refineries, stations, ammonia plants, terminals (marine, rail, truck), and other
delivery and receiving points. Piping consists of pipe, flanges, bolting,
gaskets, valves, relief devices, fittings, and the pressure containing parts of
other piping components. It also includes hangers and supports, and other
equipment items necessary to prevent overstressing the pressure containing
parts.

# ASME B31.5 Piping Refrigeration-This Code prescribes requirements for

the materials, design, fabrication, assembly, erection, test, and inspection of
refrigerant and secondary coolant piping for temperatures as low as -320°F
except as specifically excluded.

# ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution-This code covers the

design, fabrication, installation, inspection, testing and safety aspects of
operation and maintenance of gas transmission and distribution systems,
including gas pipelines, gas compressor stations, gas metering and regulation
stations, gas mains, and service lines up to the outlet of the customer's meter
set assembly. Included within this Code are gas transmission and gathering
pipelines, including appurtenances, that are installed offshore for the purpose
of transporting gas from production facilities to onshore locations. Much more
is also covered in this code.

# ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping-This Code Section has rules for the
piping in industrial, institutional, commercial and public buildings, and multi-
unit residences which does not require the range of sizes, pressures, and
temperatures covered in B31.1.

# ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems-This code prescribes

minimum requirements for the design, materials, construction, assembly,
inspection, testing, operation, and maintenance of piping transporting
aqueous slurries of non-hazardous materials, such as coal, mineral ore,
concentrates, and other solid material, between a slurry processing plant or
terminal, and a receiving plant or terminal.

American Petroleum Institute

# API 570 Piping Inspection Code- This code covers the inspection, repair,
alteration, and re-rating of in-service piping systems. API 570 was developed
for the petroleum refining and chemical process industries but may be used,
where practical, for any piping system. It is intended for use by organizations
that maintain or have access to an authorized inspection agency, a repair
organization, and technically qualified piping engineers, inspectors, and
examiners, all as defined in Section 3.

# API 620 This code lists the requirements for Design and Construction of
Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Tanks. This code applies to carbon steel above
ground, including flat bottom tanks that have a single vertical axis of
revolution. The tanks described in this standard are designed for metal
temperatures not greater than 250°F and with pressures in their gas or vapor
spaces not more than 15 psi.

# API 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage. This standard covers material,
design, fabrication, erection, and testing requirements for vertical, cylindrical,
aboveground, closed and open-top, welded steel storage tanks in various
sizes and capacities for internal pressures approximating atmospheric
pressure (internal pressure not exceeding the weight of the roof plates), but a
higher internal pressure is permitted when additional requirements are met.
This standard applies only to tanks whose entire bottom is uniformly
supported and to tanks in no refrigerated service that have a maximum
operating temperature of 90°C (200°F).

# API 653 Tank Inspection, Repair, Alteration, and Reconstruction. This

standard covers carbon and low alloy steel tanks built to API Standard 650
and its predecessor API Specification 12C. API 653 provides minimum
requirements for maintaining the integrity of welded or riveted, atmospheric
pressure, aboveground storage tanks after they have been placed in service.
It covers the maintenance inspection, repair, alteration, relocation, and
reconstruction of such tanks. The scope of this publication is limited to the
tank foundation, bottom, shell, structure, roof, attached appurtenances, and
nozzles to the face of the first flange, first threaded joint, or first welding-end
connection. This standard employs the principles of API 650; however,
storage tank owner/operators may apply this standard to any steel tank
constructed in accordance with a tank specification.

# API 1104 Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities. This standard covers
the gas and arc welding of butt, fillet, and socket welds in carbon and low-
alloy steel piping used in the compression, pumping, and transmission of
crude petroleum, petroleum products, fuel gases, carbon dioxide, and
nitrogen, and where applicable, covers welding on distribution systems. It
applies to both new construction and in-service welding. The welding may be
done by a shielded metal-arc welding, submerged arc welding, gas tungsten-
arc welding, gas metal-arc welding, flux-cored arc welding, plasma arc
welding, oxyacetylene welding, or flash butt welding process or by a
combination of these processes using a manual, semi-automatic, or automatic
welding technique or a combination of these techniques, The welds may be
produced by position or roll welding or by a combination of position and roll
welding. This standard also covers the procedures for radiographic, magnetic
particle, liquid penetrant, and ultrasonic testing as well as the acceptance
standards to be applied to production welds tested to destruction or
inspected by radiographic, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, ultrasonic, and
visual testing methods.

# API 1632 Cathodic Protection of Underground Petroleum Storage Tanks

and Piping Systems. This recommended practice describes the corrosion
problem characteristics in underground steel storage tanks and piping
systems and provides a general description of the two methods currently
used to provide cathodic protection against corrosion.

WELDING DEFECTS: THEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION

Discontinuity: In welding the main objective is to obtain sound, defect-free welded joints.
Normal welds may contain imperfections which cause some variation in the normal average
properties of the weld metal. These are called as discontinues.

Defects: Whenever such discontinuities exceed the limit specified by engineering design, those
are called as defects.

Defects are caused by the following reasons:

1) Use of wrong welding consumables. 2) Improper welding parameter.3) Poor
workmanship. 4) Lack of cleanliness of the welding joint.5) extraneous properties such as
low ambient temperature or humid atmosphere etc.
 Some of the common welding defects are as follows:
1)Cracks, 2) Distortion 3) Incomplete penetration 4) Inclusions 5) Porosity and blow
holes 6) Poor fusion 7) Poor weld bead appearance 8) Spatter 9) Undercut 10)
Overlapping

CRACKS: Crack is defined as a discontinuity caused by the tearing of the metal while in a
plastic condition (hot crack) or by fracturing of the metal when cold (cold crack). It
represents a failure under stress of a metal when it is behaving in a brittle manner, i.e. it
is inclined to fracture without deformation.
Crack can occur in the weld metal, at the fusion line or in the base metal. Cracks may be
classified according to location and direction of line and they may range in size from large
cracks which can be seen by naked eye (called macro cracks), to extremely small fissures
which are detected with the aid of a microscope (called micro cracks). There are other
types of cracks such as 1) Hot cracks 2) Cold cracks 3) Crater crack 4) Lamellar Tearing
etc.
The main causes of crack:
1) Rigidity of the joint, i.e. joint members is not free to expand or contract when subjected
to welding heat and subsequent cooling (localized stress). 2) Poor ductility of the base
metal. 3) Hardenability, high S and C % of base metal. 4) Improper preheating. 5) Fast arc
travel speed. 6) Electrode with high H2 content. (Hydrogen Induced Cracking)
2) Prevention of Crack by:
3) 1) Using a steel of lower carbon equivalent. 2) Higher heat input during welding. 3)
Preheating. 4) Low-hydrogen welding consumables.
4) DISTORTION: Distortion is a serious problem in welding. It creates difficulties in maintaining
correct shape, dimensions and tolerances of a finished fabrication.

CAUSES:
Distortion is caused by the unequal heating and cooling of a metallic body during welding.
It is also caused by the contraction of the weld-metal during solidification and cooling to room
temperature and the contraction of the surrounding parent metal as it cools from high welding
temperature. When these portions contract, they try to pull the parts together and the result is
distortion.
Distortion of all kinds increases with the increase in the volume of metal deposited.

EFFECT OF METAL PROPERTIES ON WELDING DISTORTION: Higher

coefficients of thermal expansion mean greater amounts of expansion, therefore greater
subsequent contraction and increased possibility for weldment distortion.
A metal with relatively low thermal conductivity will allow heat to flow out from a source at a
low rate. When welding, this result in a steep temperature gradient, increase the shrinkage
effect of the weld and plate adjacent to it and increases distortion.

RREMEDIES: Use as few weld passes as possible./ Use skip method of welding./ Balance
shrinkage forces with opposing forces imposed by clamps, jigs and fixtures./ Removal of
shrinkage forces during or after welding through peening etc.

INCOMPLETE PENETRATION: This defect occurs at the root of the joint when the weld
metal fails to reach it or the weld-metal fails to fuse completely with the root faces of the joint.
As a result a void remains at the root zone, which may contain slag inclusions. In a fillet weld,
poor penetration at the root zone can give rise to cracking.

CAUSES OF INCOMPLETE PENETRATION:

Too large root face. / Root gap too small. / Too small bevel angle./ Less arc current./ Faster
arc travel speed./ Too large electrode diameter.

REMEDIES: Proper fit-up of welds with proper root gap, root face\ Selection of proper
welding process and size of electrode/filler wire. / Use of skilled welder

INCLUSIONS: Inclusions may be in the form of slag or any other foreign material which
doesn’t get a chance to float on the surface of the solidifying weld metal and thus get
entrapped inside the same. Inclusions lower the strength of the joint and make it weaker.

CAUSES: Too high or too low arc current. / Too large electrode diameter. / Insufficient
chipping and cleaning of previous passes in multipass welding. / Undercut (it can entrap slag
particles)/ Too small included angle of the joint.

REMEDIES: Use proper welding consumables. / Keep joint surfaces especially gas cut
surfaces and bare filler wires perfectly clean. / Avoid undercut and gaps between deposited
passes.

POROSITY, BLOW HOLES OR GAS POCKETS: The presence of a group of gas pores
in a weld caused by the entrapment of gas during solidification is termed as porosity. The
pores are in the form of small spherical cavities, either clustered locally or scattered
throughout the weld deposit. Sometimes the entrapped gases give rise to a single large cavity,
which is termed as a blowhole. In some rarer cases, elongated or tubular gas cavities are
presented. These are referred to as piping or wormholes.
Gases are evolved by the chemical reaction in the welding arc. These gases may have high
solubility in the molten weld metal, but as the metal solidifies and cools, their solubility
decreases rapidly and they are evolved from the metal. Sometimes if the weld-metal
solidification and cooling is too rapid, the gas gets entrapped in the form of porosity.

CAUSES: Improper welding consumables, i.e. deficient in de-oxidizers. / Oil, grease,

moisture and mill scale on the joint surface. / Inadequate gas shielding or impure gas in a gas-
shielded process./ Low welding current or too long an arc.

REMEDIES: Use dry, clean filler rods/electrodes./ Base plate should be thoroughly cleaned
of oil, greases, paints etc. / Do not overheat the welding zone. / Remove all flux and slag
between multipass weld. / Keep a weld puddle of sufficient size that slows down the cooling
rate of the weld metal. / Creating the inert gas atmosphere in the vicinity of the welding zone.

UNDERCUT: In undercutting a groove gets formed in the parent metal along the sides of the
weld bead. Groove reduces the thickness of the plate and thus the area along the bead, which
in turn weakens the weld.

CAUSES OF UNDERCUT: Wrong manipulation and inclination of electrode and excessive

weaving./ Too large electrode diameter./ Higher current./ Faster arc travel speed./ Longer
arcs.

REMEDIES: Proper control of welding current. / Clean surfaces. / Shorter arc. / Proper
selection of welding electrodes.
SOME TERMS RELATED TO WELDING
PREHEATING: Preheating is carried out before starting the welding on the job. The main
reason for preheat is to reduce tendency for hydrogen induced delayed cracking in the carbon and
low alloy steel.

Four important reasons for, why preheating is useful in weld fabrication:

1. Preheating lowers the cooling rate in the weld metal and in the heat affected zone. This
result in a more ductile metallurgical structure that will resist weld cracking.
2. The slower cooling rate permits hydrogen to diffuse out harmlessly, without causing
cracking.
3. Preheat reduces shrinkage.
4. It also brings some steel above the temperature where brittle fracture might occur during
welding.

POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT (PWHT): During fabrication, material undergoes various
processes such as welding rolling, machining etc. So stress developed in the material and remains
as residual stress. Due to this beating capacity of the material is reduced. So to remove this type of
residual stress post weld heat treatment is carried out.
Purpose of PWHT:
 To relieve internal stresses during welding, rolling, machining, etc.
 To improve material mechanical properties.
 To change material grain size.
 To increase the ductility and hence toughness of the material.

ARC BLOW: We know that in welding a current passed through the electrode onto the job by
supplying a voltage between them. However, current always produces a magnetic field around it.
Also we know that when a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it experiences a force
on it, which is perpendicular to both its velocity and the field. Hence, when the charged metal ions
flow through the arc, they actually move through a magnetic field, which exerts a force on them
and causes them to deflect. This affects the position of metal deposition. Thus when precise weld
metal deposition is desired, arc blow effects have to be taken into account.

WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFCATION (WPS): A WPS is a written qualified welding

procedure prepared to provide direction for making production welds according to code
requirements and also WPS may be used to provide direction to the welder or welding operator to
assure compliance with the code requirements.

F – NUMBERS: F – numbers are used for filler metals designation. F – Number is groping of
electrodes and welding rods; it is based essentially of their usability characteristics, which
 fundamentally determine the ability of welders to make satisfactory welds with given filler
metal. The lists of F – number for specific filler metal are as follow,

 A – NUMBERS: A-Numbers are used to identify the weld metal chemical

composition of ferrous metals.

PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD (PQR): A PQR is a record of the welding data

used to weld a test coupon. The PQR is a record of variables recorded during the welding of test
coupon. It also contains the test results of the tested specimens. Recorded variables normally fall
within a small range of the actual variables that will be used in production welding. The recorded
variables mentioned in the PQR are joints, base metals, position, preheat, post weld heat
treatment, gas, electrical characteristics, technique, tensile test, guided bend test, toughness test,
and other such tests.

PROBLEMS DUE TO HYDROGEN IN WELDING: As far as welding is concerned,

hydrogen is an evil monster, and is a major factor of consideration in deciding the preheat
temperature, flux characteristics, electrode shelf life, etc. It can be the cause for long-term failure
of the weld joint. The role of hydrogen in welding is discussed below.

Effects of hydrogen:
Cold cracking or hydrogen induced cracking: There are three factors that affect the risk of
hydrogen cracking during welding; first the amount of supersaturated hydrogen present, secondly
the levels of tensile stress and thirdly the fracture toughness of the metal in the welded joint.
Hydrogen diffuses preferentially to the areas of highest strain and when the concentration reaches
a critical level, a crack is initiated. In welding, the cracks usually appear immediately after
completing the joint, but they may be delayed for a period of 48 hours, or in exceptional
circumstances, even larger.

Elements Added to Steel

Carbon (C): The key element in steels. Has a major influence on strength, toughness, ductility
and hardness.
Manganese (Mn): Primary desulpheriser and secondary deoxidiser. Often added in order to
enable the carbon content to be [Link] strength and hardenability.
Silicon (Si): Primary deoxidiser. Reduced toughness if too much exists.
Aluminum (Al): Grain refiner and tertiary deoxidizer.
Molybdenum (Mo): Improves creep resistance and reduced temper embrittlement.
Chromium (Cr): Improves hardness and resistance to wear. In stainless steel it is added for
corrosion resistance.
Titanium (Ti) and Niobium (Nb): These are added to the steel to help minimize the risk of
porosity and cracking.

NDT Presentation

1.0 INTRODUCTION: Radiography is non-destructive testing method to find out the internal
discontinuities present in a component or assembly. It is based on differential absorption of
penetrating radiation by the part being inspected. Radiographic inspection is used extensively on
castings and weldments for steam power equipment’s (boiler and turbine components and
assemblies) like Super heaters, Water Walls, down comer Pipes, Connecting tubes and Headers
and other high pressure systems and valves.

2.0 PRINCIPLE:
2.1 Studying the homogeneity of an opaque material using penetrating radiation is called
radiography. The shadowgraph obtained in radiography is a radiograph. When penetrating
radiation such as X-rays or Gamma-rays pass through a material, it gets absorbed or attenuated.
The degree of absorption depends upon the thickness as well as physical density variation in the
object. Higher the thickness, higher the absorption and lesser the amount of radiation passing
through the part to record in the film. In the component, if any discontinuity of lesser density
exists, more amounts of radiation will be emerging out. This penetrated radiation is let to fall on
the photographic film.
2.2 Photographic films are very sensitive to X-rays and Gamma-rays. When the films are exposed,
photo chemical reaction takes place which can be converted to black and white image of internal
structural variation of the part, by a process known as film processing.
2.3 The following discontinuities can easily be detected by radiography:
[Link] DISCONTINUITIES: [Link]
1. Gas holes and porosities 1. Sand inclusions
2. Slag inclusions 2. Gas inclusions
3. Tungsten inclusion 3. Shrinkage
4. Lack of fusion 4. Hot tear
5. Lack of penetration 5. Crack
6. Crack 6. Cold shut
7. Undercuts 7. Unfused chaplets
8. Burn through 8. Chills
3.0 RADIATION SOURCES:
3.1 X-rays:
3.1.1 Conventional X-ray machines ranging from 100 KV to 420 KV and high and high energy X-
ray machines such as Linear Accelerators and Betatrons energy ranging from 2 MeV to 25 MeV
are used for industrial radiography purposes. Portable equipment up to 300 KV are available for
field radiography.
3.1.2 When fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a target X-rays are generated.
To make the electron free from cathode and move towards the anode (target) current of the order
of several kilo-voltage and to heat the filament and control the electron quantity, current of the
order of milli-amperage is required. In other words, the quality of the X-rays produced are
controlled by kilo-voltage and quantity by milli-amperage. Associated with X-rays huge amount
of heat is produced and it is very much essential to dissipate the heat to cool down the equipment
to increase the life of the tubes. The X-rays bulb is immersed in oil bath and the oil bath in turn is
cooled down by water circulation.

TABLE – I

PENETRATING POWER CF X-RAYS OF VAPIOUS

K.V Penetration range

mm of Steel
X- Rays Tube
150 15 mm
250 40 mm
400 65 mm
2Mev 6mm to 250 mm
4Mev 5 mm to 300 mm

3.2.0 Gamma-Ray Sources:

3.2.1 Certain naturally available elements with high atomic number like radium dis-integrate to
another element by shedding out positively or negatively charged particles. This disintegration is
always associated with production of gamma rays and these self-decaying process is known As
radio-activity is induced artificially by bombarding the element with Neutrons. Such elements
with the same atomic number but with different mass number are called ‘ISOTOPES’. These
radioactive isotopes are gamma-rays generators.
3.2.2 Commonly used gamma-ray sources and their properties are given in Table-II.

Sl no. Name of the ISOTOPE Symbol Main Energy Mev Half Life Period application
1 Cobalt- 60 Co60 1.33 to 1.17 5.3 year 35-200 mm
steel
2 Iridium- 192 Ir192 0.61 to 0.29 71 days 10-60 mm
steel
3 Cesium-137 Cs137 0.66 33 years 10-75 mm
steel
4 Thulium- 170 Tm170 0.084 to 0.96 127 days 2-10 mm steel
& upto 25 mm steel

For thermal power station applications, Ir. 192 is commonly used for filed radiography. Since
Co.60 got greater hazard comparing to Ir. 192 its application is usually restricted to closed
enclosures. However for the examination of higher thickness components, Co.60 is also being
used at times in field radiography. Due to self-decay process, the strength of the source reduces to
half at the end of each one half-life period. This process is continuous and it becomes necessary to
replenish the source at some time.

3.3 Properties of X-rays and Gamma-Rays:

3.3.1 Both are electromagnetic radiation traveling In Straight line with the velocity of light. Their
presence cannot be felt by any of our organ. They ionize the medium to which they pass through.
Their photo chemical properties are advantageously used to expose films and fluorescent
properties for fluoroscopy. But destruction of living cells poses radiation hazard.
3.3.2 X-ray can be generated as and when required and its energy an be controlled. Whereas the
emission of gamma-rays are spontaneous and its energy level cannot be changed. Depending upon
the thickness and type of material, the correct isotope is to be selected. The size of the
gamma-ray equipment is small comparing to X-ray machine and is free from external power and
no cooling system is required. Hence isotopes are widely used in erection site and the facility to
keep the source inside the pipe is and added advantage of isotopes over X-ray machine. But
gamma-ray source is a self-decaying one so a recurring expenditure on changing the source is
unavoidable.
4.0 RECORDING MEDIA:

4.1.0 X-ray films are the recording media in radiography. Unlike photographic films, X-ray films
are coated on both sides of a transparent flexible base of either cellulose triacetate or polyester,
using proper adhesive.
4.2 Films are classified as slow speed, medium speed and fast speed depending upon the grain
size of the emulsion.
Table-III below gives the type of Industrial Radiographic films as per ASTM E 94/74.

Film Type Speed Contrast Graininess

1 Low Very High Very Low
2 Medium High Low
3 High Medium High

For the radiography of high pressure components either type-I or type-II films are used. The
following are the brands of different films commonly used for radiography.

Type-I
01. Afar Geared – D2, D4, D5
02. Indus NDT 55
03. Kodak M.
 Type-II Films
01. Agfa Gevaert D7
02. Indu NDT 65; 70
03. Kodak A, AA.

5.0 INTENSIFYING SCREENS:

5.1 All the radiation reaching the film will not inter-act with the emulsion to have photo-chemical
reaction. 99% of the radiation falling on the film will just pass through it. To increase the photo-
chemical reaction and thus to cut short the exposure time and to increase the radiographic
contrast radiographic screens known as intensifying screens are pressed into intimate contact with
the film during exposure. Screens are of two types, [Link] screens (usually lead screens) and
fluorescent intensifying screens.

5.2 Lead Screens: It is the combination of filtration and intensification that makes lead screens
the most widely used in industrial radiography. Low energy radiation is more readily absorbed by
a lead screen than high energy radiation. Because scattered radiation from a test piece is always of
a lower energy than the incident beam passing through a test piece, a lead screen will absorb a
relatively high percentage of unwanted scattered radiation than the image forming radiation.
Scattered radiation arise mainly from the test piece (internal scattering) and from the table or floor
on which the film with its holder is placed during exposure (back scatter). Because of the need to
filter out both internal scatter and back-scatter, two screens are normally used. The screen that
faces the subject and source of radiation is referred to as the front screen and the screen behind the
film towards the table or floor is referred to as the back screen; both screens absorb scattered
radiation.
In practice the front screen is the thinner of the two because the image forming radiation always
must pass through the screen. The usual thickness of the front lead screen is 0.1mm and back
screen is 0.15mm for Ir.192.

5.3 FLUORESCENT SCREENS: Fluorescent intensifying screens fluoresce or produce light

when excited by X-rays or Gamma-rays. Certain compounds such as calcium tungstate or barium
lead sulphate have the property of emitting light immediately upon excitation by short-wave
length radiation. These screens are widely used in medical radiography and its use in pressure
part's radiography is not permitted.

6.0 FILM PROCESSING:

6.1 By a chemical process the latent image formed during exposure is made visible and
permanent. The film are to be handled in a dark room fitted with safe light. The safelight will give
the required illumination and at the same time the particular colored light will not affect the film.
Generally lights with olive green or red orange filter is used as safelight. The film emulsion will
get affected by high temperature. So the dark room should be air-conditioned.

6.2 The film processing includes 5 steps.

6.2.1 Developing: In developer the exposed silver bromide is reduced to silver developer is an
alkaline solution of various compounds and the reducing action is slow at temperature below
180C. At temperature above 300C, the film emulsion will get damaged. Hence the developer
temperature is to be maintained at 200C by refrigeration system and the recommended developing
time is 5 minutes at 200C. Prolonged development will fog the image. Development in higher
temperature will result in poor contrast.

6.2.2 Rinsing: Once the developing is over, the film turn to black color and the same time is not
transparent due to the existence of undeveloped emulsion on the film. The unexposed emulsion
will again react with light when it is taken out in ordinary light and turn black.
Hence, it is essential to remove the unexposed emulsion. Before going for the removal or fixing,
the developer on the film is to be removed or neutralized by rinsing. So, after developing, film is
immersed in another tank containing ordinary water or water with glacial acetic acid for few
minutes to stop the developing action.

6.2.3 Fixing: In fixer, the in exposed silver bromide is dissolved away any only the converted
silver which is black in color will remain on the film which will represent the internal structural
variation of the part. The fixer solution is acidic in nature.

6.2.4 Washing: The film coming out of fixer will have chemicals carried over, which to be
thoroughly washed, otherwise the film will get discolored after some time, when in storage.
To remove the chemicals, films are thoroughly washed in running water.
Penetrameters are of known size and shape and have the same attenuation characteristics as the
material in the test piece. Penetrameters preferably are located in regions of maximum test piece
thickness and greatest test.

6.2.5 Drying: After washing the films in running water for about 20 to 25 minutes, films are
dried. Dust free hot air of temperature 1000F to 1200F is used for drying the film. Drying Cabinet
or rooms are used for drying the film. Once the film is dried, the radiograph is ready for
evaluation.

7.0 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS (PENETRAMETERS):

7.1 Penetrameters are used to determine the ability of the radiographic process to record images of
small flaws or the sensitivity.
Piece to film distance, and near the outer edge of the central beam of radiation. The image of the
Penetrameters that appears on the finished radiograph evaluated during Interpretation to assure
that the desired sensitivity, definition and contrast have been achieved in the developed image.
Penetrameters of different designs have been developed by various standards-making
organizations. Applicable codes, specifications or purchase agreements usually determine the
type of Penetrameters to be used.
7.2 The three basic types of Penetrameters in used are:

1. Plaque type
2. Wire type and
3. Step wedge type

7.2.1 Plaque type penetrameter consists of strips of material of uniform thickness with holes
drilled through them. ASTM, ASME and AWS specifies for such type Penetrameters.

Designation: The holes are 1T, 2T and 4T in diameter, where T is the thickness of the plaque.
Various degrees of image quality can be measured by using plaque type Penetrameters of
different thickness. Sensitivity is usually expressed in terms of Penetrameters thickness (as a
percentage of test piece thickness) and resolution is determined by the smallest hole size visible in
the radiograph. For instance, an image quality level of 2 - 2T indicates that the thickness of the
Penetrameter equals 2% of section thickness and the 2T hole is visible. If image quality of 1-1T
were required, a radiograph would be acceptable if the outline of a 1% penetrameter and the 1T
hole in that penetrameter were distinguishable.

7.2.2 Wire type penetrameter:

A typical wire penetrameter is the standard of DIN 54109, which consists of sixteen of wires of
each of three metals-steel, aluminum and copper. The wire diameters decreases in geometric
progression from 3.2mm (wire No. 1) to 0.1mm wire number 16.
TABLE–IV

NUMBER  (MM)
1 3.2
2 2.5
3 2.0
4 1.6
5 1.25
6 1.0
7 0.8
8 0.63
9 0.5
10 0.4
11 0.32
12 0.25
13 0.20
14 0.16
15 0.12
16 0.10

The Standard for a given materials is contained in the plastic envelopes, suitably marked for
identification. Each envelops contains seven wires Viz.

DIN 62 FE 1 ISO 7
DIN 62 FE 6 ISO 12
DIN 62 FE 10 ISO 16

In contrast to the ASTM System, the DIN System does not provide constant sensitivity; the
sensitivity varies with test piece thickness within each thickness range.

% Sensitivity =  of smallest wire seen of the Radiograph

Thickness under the penetrameter x 100

Lesser the value, higher the Sensitivity.

7.2.3 Step Wedge Penetrameter: Usually have either an arithmetic or geometric progression of
stop thickness. A plain step wedge penetrameter is useful only for determining the ability of a
radiograph to resolve variations in test piece thickness it cannot be used to evaluate the effect of
geometric unsharpness. However, if a plain step wedge is modified by drilling holes in each step,
it becomes sensitive to geometric unsharpness. This type of design is used by the British Welding
Research Association (BWRA) and French Navy (AFNOR).

8.0 DIFFERENT TECHNIQUS OF RADIOGRAPHY:

8.1 In a simple radiographic techniques, source is kept at one side and film is kept at opposite
sides of the object as shown in Figures -1. This is a single wall single image techniques. Welds
similar to plate weld or in big cylinder can be radiographed with this techniques. When the length
of the weld is more, the weld is divided into small Segments to suit the film length available and
processing Capability. Sufficient overlap is to be given at the we should see that density of the
weld will go untested. is within the range of -15% and + 30%.
8.2 The inspection of complex shapes most often required multiple exposures, usually with
different viewing directions. The selection of views for each exposure depends primarily on the
shapes of the section of the test piece to be inspected with that exposure and the probable
orientation of suspected flaws. There are other three major inspection techniques for tubular
section or pipes Viz., the double wall double image techniques, double wall single image
techniques and panoramic.

8.2.1 Double Wall Double Image Techniques:

This technique is applicable mainly to sections of no more than 3½ " O.D. This techniques
produces a radiograph in which the images of both walls of a tubular section are super – imposed
on one another. The beam of radiation is directed towards one side of the section and the
recording surface is placed on the opposite side, usually tangent to the section.

Fig: Set up for a Double Wall Double Image Techniques:

Two exposures, 90 apart are required to provide complete converge when the ratio of OD to ID is
1.4 or less. When the ratio of OD to ID is greater than 1.4, the number of exposure required to
provide complete coverage can be determined by multiplying that ration by 1.7 and rounding off
to the next higher integer. The circumferential displacement between shot is found by dividing
180 by the number of shots if the number is even. When an odd number of exposures are required
for complete coverage, the angular spacing between shots as an can be determined by dividing
360 by the number of shots as an alternative to dividing 180 by the number. This alternative
cannot be used when the number of shots is even because of half of the resulting radiographs
would be mirror images of the remaining radiographs and sections of the outside circumference
would not receive adequate coverage.

Variation of the double wall, double image techniques, sometime called the 'Corona' or 'off set'
techniques is often used the inspection of circumferential butt welds in small diameter tubing and
pipe (Fig. above.) In the corona a technique, the central beam is directed at activate angle to the
run of the tube 'see fig. above) so than a straight band. The offset angle of the radiation beam must
be large enough that the image of the upper section of the weld zone does not overlap the image
of the lower portion, but not so large as to introduce an unnecessary degree of distortion. Also the
larger the offset angle, the greater the probability that the techniques will fail to detect incomplete
fusion at the root of a plain butt weld. The correct number of exposure, and the circumferential
location of corresponding view can be determined for the corona techniques in the same manner
as for the basic double wall, double image technique.

8.2.2 Double Wall, Single Image Technique:

Double Wall, Single image technique is applicable mainly to hollow cylinders and tubular
sections exceeding 3½" in outer diameter. This techniques producers a radiographic image of only
the section of the wall that is closest to the recording plane, although the radiation penetrates both
walls, the source is positioned relatively close to the section, so that the blurring caused by
geometric unsharpness in the image of the cylinder wall close set to the source makes that image
completely in – distinguishable. Only the image of the wall section closest to the film is sharply
defined. Exposures are calculated on the basis of double the wall thickness of the hollow section
as they are for the double wall, double image techniques.

The area of coverage is limited by geometric unsharpness and distortion at the extremities of the
resolved image for the hollow cylinders that are less than about 15 in. In outside diameter. For
larger cylinder, film size is the usual limiting factor. There must be enough overlap between
adjacent exposures to ensure that all the outside circumference is clearly recorded.

8.2.3 Panoramic Exposures:

This techniques can be used to radiograph the entire circumference of a pipe in single exposure or
several small components arranged in a semi-circle by keeping the source at the Centre. By
providing a hole near the weld in a thick walled pipe (Gamma hole), the gamma- ray source can
be inserted inside the pipe to the Centre and the entire weld can be radiographed in one exposure.
By this method the disadvantage of giving longer exposure due to the double wall penetrating and
several exposures to cover full circumference can be avoided.

9.0 GEOMETERIC UNSHARPNESS:

9.1 Radiographic definition varies according to the geometric relationships among size, source to
– object distance and object to image distance. When radiation from a finite size produces a
shadow that portion of the image that is in shadow for radiation emanating from all points on the
surface of the source is a region of complete shadow, known as the umbra. Portions of the image
that are in show for radiation from some portion, are regions of partial shadow, known as
penumbra. The degree of geometrical unsharpness in equal to the width of the penumbra.
Geometrical Unsharpness (Penumbra)
Effect of shadow formation by different parameter.
Mathematically, the geometric unsharpness is determined from the laws of similar triangle as
illustrated can be expressed as
0g = s x t
f
Where 'S' is the size of the source or focal spot, it is the object to image distance and 'F' is the
source to object distance. The amount of geometric unsharpness can be reduced by lengthening
the source to object distance, reducing the size of the source or focal spot or reducing object to
image distance.
In applications, where the maximum unsharpness must be kept below a specific known value
(Specified by the governing code) so as to resolve certain types and sizes of flaws, the
radiographer can determine the minimum source to object distance for a given part from the
equation given above.

10.0 Density:

Another factor controlling the quality of the radiograph is density. The quantitative measure of
blackening of a photographic emulsion called density.
Density D = log10 Io
It
Where D = Density
Io = Intensity of light incident on the film.
It = Intensity of light transmitted through the film.

Density Capacity Io / It
0 1
0.3 2
0.6 4
1.0 10
2.0 100
3.0 1000
4.0 10000
Density can be measured using a densitometer or can be compared with a pre–calibrated density
strip. The minimum density recommended for radiographs with X –rays is 1.8 and with gama–
rays is 2.0 Maximum can be 3.5 to 4.0 higher intensity illuminator is required for viewing up the
radiographs above density. 2.0

11.0 INTER PRETATION OF RAIOGRPAHS:

11.1 A Qualified interpreter must:

A. define the quality of the radiographs image which includes a critical analysis of the
radiographic producers and the image developing producers.
B. Analyses the image to determine the nature and extent of any abnormal condition in the test
piece.
C. Evaluate the test piece by comparing interpreted information with standards or specification
and.
D. Report inspection results accurately, clearly and within proper admistrative channels.

11.2 Viewing or Radiographs:

Viewing of radiographs should be done in an area with subdued lighting to minimize distracting
reflections from the viewing surface. The viewing apparatus should have on opal glass or plastic
screen large enough to accommodate the largest film to be interpreted. The screen should be
illuminated from behind with light of sufficient intensity to reveal variations in photographic
density up to a nominal film density of at least 3.0. There may be a need for a smaller, more
intensely illuminated viewer for evaluating small areas of film having densities up to 4.5 or more.
Viewing screens of high intensity illuminator should be cooled by blowers or other suitable
apparatus to prevent excessive heat form damaging films and to extend lamp life.

ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION:

Ultrasonic inspection is a non – destructive destine method to find out surface and sub-
surface discontinuity in a components vibrational waves which have a frequency above the
hearing range of the normal ear are called 'Ultrasonic' waves i.e., frequency above 20,000 Cps.
Ultrasonic waves used in the industrial applications are in the range of 200K cps. to 20M Cps.
(25 MHz). The sound waves travel through the materials with some attendant loss of energy
(attenuation) and are reflected at interfaces. The reflected beam is detected and analyzed to
define the presence and location of flaws.

2.0 PRINCIPLES:

When UL transonic waves from a generating crystal are made to propagate in a material
through proper coupling, it will be partially reflected or refracted when there is change in
medium or an interface say the presence of a discontinuity or the opposite surface of the sound
entry. The energy of the reflected UL transonic waves depends upon the severity of the defect,
the area of the orientation with respect to the direction of the sound entry. The reflected wave
or the transmitted wave is picked by a receiver and amplified for evaluation.

3.0 BASIC EQUIPMENTS:

3.1 Most Ultrasonic inspection system include the following basic equipment.
3.2 An electronic signal generator that produces bursts of alternating stage when electrically
triggered.
3.3 A sending transducer (probe or search unit) that emits a beam of UL transonic waves when
bursts of alternating voltage are applied to it.
3.4 A couplet to transfer UL transonic waves to the test piece.
3.5 A receiving transducer to accept and correct the output of UL transonic waves from the test
piece. One single transducer can be used both as a transmitter and receiver.
3.6 An electronic device to amplify and if necessary modify the signals from the receiving
transducer.
3.7 A display or indicating device to characterize or record the output from the test piece. The
display device may be an Oscilloscope, a chart or strip recorder, a marker, indicator or alarm
device, a computer printout.
3.8 An electronic clock or timer.

4.0 TRANSDUCERS:

4.1 Transducers are the ear in Ultrasonic testing Generation and detections of UL transonic waves
for inspection is accomplished by means of a transducer element acting through a couplet. The
active element in a search unit is a piece electronic crystal. Piezo electricity is ' pressure
electricity'. As the name implies, an electric charge is developed by the crystal when pressure is
applied to it.

Conversely, when an electrical field is applied, the crystal mechanically deforms (Changes shape).
The most Common types of Piezo electric materials used for UL transonic search units are quartz,
lithium sulphate, and polarized ceramics such as barium titanate and lead metaniobate.

5.0 GENERAL CHARACTERSTICS OF ULTRANSONIC WAVES:

5.1 Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves that consist of vibrations of the atomic or molecular
particulars of a substance about the equilibrium positions of these particles. They can propagate in
an elastic medium, which can be soiled, liquid or gaseous but not in vacuum. Like Light beams,
ultrasonic beams are reflected from surfaces, refracted when they cross a boundary between two
substances that have different characteristic sound velocities and diffracted at edges or around
Obstacles. Scattering by rough surfaces or particulars reduces the energy of an ultrasonic beam,
comparably to the manner in which scattering reduces the intensity of a light beam.

5.2 Velocity is the product of frequency and wave length.

V=f
Where V = Velocity in meters per second.
f = frequency in hertz (Cycles per second)
= wave length in meters per cycles.
on the basis of the mode of particles displacement, Ultrasonic waves are classified as longitudinal
waves, transverse, waves, surface waves and lamb waves, Ultrasonic waves also follow Snell's
law.

5.3 LONGITUDINAL WAVES:

Longitudinal waves: Sometimes called compressional waves are the type of Ultrasonic waves
most widely used in the inspection of metals. They travel through metal as a series of alternates
compressions and refractions in which the particals transmitting the wave tribrate back and forth
in the directions of travel of the waves. Longitudinal ultrasonic waves are readily propagated in
liquids and gases as well as in elastic solids. The velocity of longitudinal Ultrasonic waves is
about 6000 m/ seconds in steel, 1500 m. per second in water and 330 M per sec. in air.
5.4 TRANSVERSE WAVES: Transverse waves or shear waves are also extensively used in the
Ultrasonic inspection of metals. It travels with a velocity of 50% of the longitudinal wave velocity
of the same materials. Air and water will not support transverse materials.

5.5 Surface Waves: Surface waves are another type of Ultrasonic waves used in the inspection
of metals. These waves travel along the flat or curved surface of relatively thick solid parts.
Surface waves are subject to less attenuation in a given materials than are longitudinal or
transverse waves. They have a velocity approximately 90% of the transverse wave velocity in the
same materials.

6.0 MAJOR VARIABLES IN ULTRASONIC INSPECTION:

6.1 Frequency:
6.1.1 Frequency of the Ultrasonic waves used affects inspections capability in several ways.
Sensitivity or the ability of an Ultrasonic inspect on system to detect a very small discontinuity, is
generally increased by using relatively high frequencies system to give simultaneous, separate
indications from discontinuities that are close together both in depth below the frequency band
width and in closely related to pulse length, but is not affected by frequency. Penetration or
maximum depth in a material from which useful indications can be detected is reduced by the use
of high frequencies.

6.1.2 Table:
Recommended frequencies for different applications
200 KHz to 1 MHz - Examination of cast iron and steel
Castings are relatively coarse grained materials such as copper.
400 KHz to 5 MHz - Castings – steel, Equilibrium brass
And other materials with refined grain size.
1 MHz to 5MHz - Rolled products, metallic sheets, plate, bars and millets.
2.25 MHz to 10 MHz -Drawn and extrude products bars tubes and sheets.
1 MHz to 100 MHz -Forgings
1 MHz to 2.25 MHz- Welding.
6.2 Angle of Incidence: Only when an Ultrasonic wave is incident at right angles on an interface
between two materials (angle of incidence = 0') transmission and reflection occur at the interface
without any change in beam direction. at any other angle of incidence refraction and mode
conversion (Splitting the wave and a change in the nature of wave motion) take place.
Longitudinal waves splits into longitudinal wave and steer wave when the beam strike the surface
at an angle.
The angle of incidence can be adjusted in such a way that the longitudinal waves grade the surface
and only shear wave exists in the part. Hence confusion arising out of both the waves picking up
the discontinuity can be avoided.

6.3 COUPLANT: The couplant as the name implies couples the transducer to the surface of the
test specimen to ensure efficient sound transmission from transducers to test surface. This is done
by something out the irregularities of the test surface and by excluding all air between the
transducers and the test specimen. Commonly used couplants are water, glycerin. Machine oil,
grease, paraffin etc. For smooth surface water, glycerin or machine oil can be used. Grease is used
for the rough surface and also when test is to be conducted in a vertical alone of over- head
position. The couplant materials must be homogenous and free from solid particles or air bubbles.

6.0 TYPES OF TESTING:

7.1 Descending upon the probe is positioned with the part the testing method is classified as
Contac testing and immersion testing. Also the examination is further classified as イ' scan 'B'
scan and 'C' scan by the way how the indications are displayed for interpretation.
7.2 The most widely used techniques is contact testing, 'A' Scan display due to its simplicity in
operation and minimum in number and size of equilibrium to be handled. In 'A' scan the
indication is displayed on cathode ray tube (CFT) as vertical pipes or echoes. The height of the
echo respecting the severity of the discontinuity and its location denotes the location of the
discontinuity with respect to the entry surface Ultrasonic beams are send as pulled beams and the
techniques is known as pulse echo techniques.
By suitably calibration the time base, the depth of the discontinuity can be directly read out from
the CRT.

7.3 Sound beam can be directed to the test piece at an angle also. Such of testing are known as
and beam testing.

FIG: CONTACT TESTING ANGLE BEAM SCANNIG

In angle beam testing shear waves are used for testing. The angle is selected in such a way that the
longitudinal wave grazes the surface and shall not interfere with the result. Depending upon the
thickness, the angle of refraction is chosen.

Thickness mm Upto 15mm 15 – 30 30 to 60 Over 60

Angle 800 700 600 450

The distance read out from the CRT is not the actual depth or the defect is not exactly under the
probe as in the case of normal beam scanning. The depth of the discontinuity and the location of it
have to be calculated based upon the refracting angle.

7.0 CALIBRATION AND STANDARDISATION:

8.1 Specially designed calibration blocks are used in contact testing to check the operation of
ultrasonic instruments and transducers and to make certain adjustments to the instruments and
transducers to best suit the testing conditions. Al though various types of reference blocks are
available, the commonly used is the one designed by the international Institute of welding. With
this block, the test range, Institute of welding. With this block, the test range, sensitivity,
reflection, angle of the probe etc. Can be checked, Reference blocks establish a standards of
comparison, so that echo amplitudes can be evaluated in terms of flaw size.

8.2 The size of the discontinuity cannot be estimated directly without making any prior
standardization. Reference blocks with known size of flaws are used for standardization. The
height of the echo from a known size of the discontinuity is adjusted to a certain level before
conducting actual tests, also, the same size of discontinuity will not produce equal height echo
when its location varies from the surface. Height echo when its location varies from the surface
when distance increases, the sound beam gets attenuated and hence there will be a reduction in
amplitude. Hence a distance amplitude correction curve is to be plotted before starting any test.
The echo obtained from the part is compared to this curve and to be decided whether the
discontinuity is acceptable one of to be repaired with respect to the applicable code. The size of
the reference hole will vary with respect to the thickness of the part being tested. Flat bottom
holes of square notches or 'V' notches for angular beam testing. Calibration blocks and reference
blocks are used to obtain reasonable consistent test results when tests are conducted by various
times and conditions.

9.0 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS:

a) Advantages:
b) Most sensitive to planar defects such as cracks.
c) Test results are known immediately.
d) Testing can be automatic and the results recorded.
e) Equipment is portable.
f) Penetration capable is high
g) One side acceptability is enough for testing

9.2 Limitations:
9.2.1 Couplant is required.
9.2.2 Small, thin and complex parts may be difficult to test.
9.2.3 Reference standard is required for evaluation of indications.
9.2.4 Operator skill is much counted for the efficiency of the test.

10.0 APPLICATION OF ULTRASONIC TESTING:

10.1 UL transonic inspection has been successfully used to defect flaws in cast and wrought metal
parts and in welded, brazed and bonded joints during productions and service.
Contact inspection is more widely used because it involves portable equipment and because of it
versatile and applicable to wide range of situations.

10.2 Inspection of Welded Joints:

10.2.1 Welded joints may be ultrasonically inspected using either the straight beam or the angle
beam technique is most often used because of one reason being that the surface of the weld does
not have to be ground flush, as is necessary for straight beam inspection. Another reason being
that all the flaws shall not be oriented in such a way that it can be picked up in straight beam
scanning. The orientation of defects like lack of fusion and cracks are usually longitudinal to the
weld axis and are very well favorable for angle beam scanning where the sound beam strike the
joint at right angle whereas there are chances of getting these defects missed in normal beam
scanning. The type of the flaws usually encountered in the weld of porosity, slag, incomplete
penetration, lack of fusion and cracks. Spherical porosity will produces a small amplitude echo,
even when the sound beam strikes at an angle to the joint. Slag produce stepped indication which
are maximum at right angles to the joints.

10.2.2 It is mandatory for elector slab welding to examine by ultrasonic method also after
normalizing. Induction Pressure welds (IPW) are suitable only for ultrasonic testing as lack of
bonding is the major defect encounter in the process. Welding of Vanadium steels are
ultrasonically examined after stress relating.

10.3 In addition to flaw detections, Ultrasonic are used for thickness measurements also. Pocket
size meters (also known as D- meters) are available for field’s application with which we can
measure thickness up to 300mm with an allowance of -0.1mm. The results can be read out on an
oscilloscope screen, on a meter or can be printed out. When measuring the thickness care must be
taken to see that both the sides are parallel and initial calibration of the equipment is done with a
known thickness of same composition of the part being tested with approximately same thickness
of the job.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

1.0 Introduction:
The magnetic particles method of non-destructive testing is one of the most common method for
finding dis – continuities in materials. This method is used for detecting surface and sub-surface
discontinuities in Ferro- magnetic materials. A magnetic particle testing is a relatively easy and
simple test method that can be applied to finished components billets hot rolled bars forgings and
castings. It can also be used to check processing operations such as machining, grinding and heat
treatment.
The objective of magnetic particles testing is to ensure product reliability by providing means of
a) Obtaining a visual of an indication related to a discontinuity in or on the surface of the
materials.

b) Disclosing the nature of discontinuities without impairing the materials.

 c) Separating acceptable and unacceptable materials in accordance with ore-determined
standards.

2.0 PRINCIPLE OF MAGNETIC PARTICLES TESTING: The basic principle in magnetic

particle testing is that when a component is magnetized, magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux
will be created. Any discontinuity in the materials will cause set up magnetic poles as well as
leakage of magnetic flux.
If some media which are Ferro – magnetic in nature such as iron powder is dusted over the
surface of the components, the powder accumulates at the region of the leakage flux and the
appearance of the powder build up will resemble the nature of the discontinuity.

2.1 STEPS IN TESTING: The method involves three essential steps.

a) Magnetizing the materials or a part under test.
b) Applying the Ferro- magnetic particles over the surface.
c) Examining the surface for powder patterns or indications.

8.0 METHODS OF MAGNETISATION: Magnetization of the materials can be carried out

principally in two ways viz., Circular magnetization and longitudinal magnetization.

8.1 CIRCULAR MAGNETISATION: A circular magnetic field is induced into the

component in two ways either by directed passing the current through the component
or indirectly through a central conductor surrounded by a hollow article.

9.0 MAGNETISING CURRENTS: Straight direct current (D.C) alternative current (A.C) and
half –wave rectified direct current (HWNC) are all used. The following are their relative
merits and demerits.

9.1 DIRECT CURRENT (D.C): Straight DC is suitable for yokes and solenoids. The
penetration power of DC is more than that of AC. However DC cannot be stepped up
or down easily.

9.2 ALTERNATIVE CURRENT (A.C): The current alternates at specified frequency.

This type of current created a maximum flux at the surface of the magnetized article
and has relatively les penetrating ability. The advantage of using AC is that the voltage
can be stepped up to down. Also the reversal of the magnetizing current cause
magnetic particles more mobile facilitates their collection at leakage fields. AC is the
best suited for locating surface discontinuities.

4.3 H.W.D.C: Half – wave Direct Current is produced by rectifying an alternative current during
the positive cycles. The use of rectified current has got the following advantages.
1. AC at any commercial frequency can be used.
2. Penetration is directly comparable to that of DC.
3. The pulsating effect of the rectified wave is helpful in adding mobility to the magnetic
particles.
4. There is a definite advantage in locating deep seated discontinuities.

10.0 CURRENT REQUIREMENTS: The required amount of magnetizing current is effected

by the permeability of the metal, the shape and thickness of article and the type of dis-
continuities sought. However, the following can be used as 'Rule' of Thumb method:-
1. Circular magnetization with head – shot method. 800 -1000 amps. Per inch dia. or cross section
with HWDC 500 -600 amps. Per inch of dia. Cross section with A.C.
2. for circular magnetization with prods. 90-110 amps. Per inch of prod-spacing for thickness
upto ¾."
100 -125 amps. per inch of prod- spacing for thickness more than ¾ ". Prod –spacing can be
kept between 4" and 8" for effective testing.
3. Longitudinal magnetization using coils.
Amps = 45.000 x 1
L/D T
Where L is the length and D is the dia. of the article and T is the number of turns in the coil.
(Limitations). L not more than 18" and L/D between 2& 15.

11.0 TESTING MEDIUM: (MAGNETIC PARTICLES) : The particles used are in all the
cases finely divided Ferro – magnetic materials. The properties of these materials very over a
wide range for different applications – including magnetic properties, size shape, density,
mobility and visibility and contract. The medium any be dry powder with various colors for
better contract or liquid paste either black, red or fluorescent for use with black light.

DRY METHOD: In dry method, the powder is sprinkled over by dusting by hand bulbs or
mechanical blowers. The medium any be dry powder with various colors for better contract or
liquid paste either black, red or fluorescent for use with black light.

2. WET METHOD: In the wet method, the particles are suspended in a carrier liquid such as
kerosene and applied by spraying, brushing, or sub – merging the article in the bath. The
concentration of the particles in the bath should be such that the indication of dis-continuity is
clear without too much overall surface coverage. The recommended concentration for 100 cc of
bath for non-fluorescent particles passing the current in continuous method.
In general, the following are the requirements of the particles used for magnetic particles testing.
i Non-toxic
ii Fine divided
iii Ferro – magnetic
iv Free from contaminates
v High permeability
iv. Low –retentively
vii High colour contrast
viii Correct size range.

12.0 SURFACE PREPARATION:

Usually as welded, as cast, as forged or as formed surfaces are suitable for magnetic particles
testing However excess scales, ripples, slag, etc., may interfere with the interpretation of the
powder patterns. Also, flakes, heavy built up of paints, rust, grease etc, are to be cleaned, sand
blasting wire brushing, filling, grinding etc., are used for removing interfering substances.

13.0 LOCATION OF DISCONTINUITIES:

It is possible with suitable technique to locate discontinuities on the surface as well as below
surface up to 5mm deep. Discontinuities located on the surface appear as sharp and distinct
lines whereas sub-surface dis- continuities appear as irregular, rough and fuzzy indication
varies with the depth of its location below the surface. Correct interpretation of the pattern
revealed by sub- surface discontinuities requires a certain skill on the part of the operator.

14.0 DEMAGNETISATION:
 Since all Ferro – magnetic materials possess retentively there will be certain amount of
residual magnetism left on the materials tested. The amount of residual magnetism depends on
the magnetizing current, its strength and nature (AC or DC) and the permeability of the
materials. De – magnetization is essential for components to be used in spacecraft’s, aero
planes, bearings etc., where pick up of iron particles cause damage to the part. De-
magnetization is done by passing the Component through an AC field of gradually reducing
current or by periodically reversing and reducing the DC Current.

15.0 FINAL CLEANING:

When the magnetic particle testing is completed, the components are cleaned of the magnetic
particles. This is accomplished by the use of air, solvent washes and wiping etc.

11.0 TEST EQUIPMENT:

The equipment used for magnetic particles testing ranges from heavy complex automated
handling system to small light weight portable units. The following particulars as considered in
the selection of equipment.
i) Wet or Dry method
ii) AC or DC Degree of automation
iv) De- magnetization
v) Amperage required
VI) Tank capacity
vii) Air supply
Viii) Line voltage requirements
ix) Accessories needed.

12.0 CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES:

The magnetic particle indication observed can be classified into three categories.
(a) Dis- continuities (b) Non- relevant indications and (c) False indications.
Dis – Continuities can be classified as surface discontinuities and sub – surface dis- continuities.
In magnetic particle testing, surface dis- continuities magnetic particle testing, surface dis –
continuities
Produce sharp, distinct, clear cut and tightly held patterns. Typical examples of this type of
defects are not cracks in welds, heat treatment cracks, grinding cracks, forging laps, hot tears in
castings, other magnetic materials in the surrounding formation of contractions in the objects such
as keys and spleens in the shafts.
False indications are those wherein the magnetic particles are held for reasons other than the flux
leakage such as the magnetic particles getting stored in the rough surface.

13.0 APPLICATION: Magnetic particle Inspections is widely used in process control and in the
maintenance. The root welding of a header butt joint or dumb circumferential seam or similar type
joints are magnetic practically tested after gack gouging before going for full welding. Magnetic
particle Inspections is a widely used method for examining fillet welds. For detaching any surface
cracks after stress relieving magnetic particles inspections is the best method. All such inspections
can be carried- out using Prod- techniques. Prod method is one way of circularly magnetizing the
components by directly passing the current. Large area can be tested part by part and the direction
of the field can be changed very easily by relocating the prods. Care must be taken to see that the
prod tips are cleaned properly and current is switched only after establishing proper contrast;
otherwise excessive arising will take place and can methods can be put into service quite
extensively damage the surfaces. Fillet welds in columns and beams are another area where
magnetic particle inspection the shutdown used. During maintenance operation thermal power
plant again these method can be put in to service quite extensively.
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION:

1.1 Liquid penetrate Inspection is a non – destructive testing method for finding discontinuities
that are open to the surface of solid and essentially nonporous materials. Indications of flaws can
be found regardless of the size, configuration, internal structure or chemical of flaw orientation.
Liquid Penetrant can seep surface into (and drawn into) various types of minute well suited for
the detection of all types of surface cracks, laps, porosity, shrinkage areas, laminations and
similar discontinuities. It is used extensively for the inspection of wrought and cast products of
both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, power metallurgy parts, ceramics, plastics and glass objects
and both in fabrication and in maintenance.

1.2 Limitations:
The major limitation of liquid penetrant inspection is that it can detect only imperfections that are
open to the surface. Extremely rough or porous surfaces are likely to produce false indications.

2.0 Principle:

2.1 The method employs a penetrating liquid which is applied over the surface and enters the
discontinuity or crack, subsequently after the excess penetrant which exudes or is drawn back out
of the crack is observed indicating the presence and location of the discontinuity. When the
penetrant is applied on the surface, the penetrant enters the discontinuity which is open to the
surface by capillary action. The capillary action wick. In a narrow crack, the capillary presence P
is given by the formula.

P = 2S Cos0
W
Where = S = Surface tension of the liquid
0 = Equilibrium contact angle of the liquid and surface of the crack.
W = Width of the crack.

It can be seen that the capillary action is free from gravitational force and hence the penetrant test
can be conducted at any positions.

3.0 TEST METHOD:

Regardless of the type of penetrant used and regardless of other variation in the basic process,
liquid penetrant inspection requires the following 5 steps:
1. Surface preparation
2. Application of penetrant
3. Excess penetrant removal
4. Application of developer
5. Inspection

3.1 Surface Preparation:

The material surface to be tested will be having converting such as paints and metallic plastics
and contaminants such as dirt, grease, rust, scales, acids, chromates These coverings will prevent
the entry of liquid penetrate into the flaw. Unless it is removed, and made the surface clean, dye
will not enter the void and there are changes of accepting the defective ness. So the first step in
the penetrant examination is 'Surface preparation’. There are many possible ways to clean the
surface. Any method that will into harm the surface coatings. Shot and sand blasting are not
generally recommended. But there are time when they must be used. When they are, the risk is
run that a discontinuity, otherwise open to the surface might be closed. When shot or sand
blasting must be used, the discontinuities can be reopen with a very slight amount of material
from the surface. The cleaning technique being used will be determined by the type of foreign
material present and may require either mechanical, solvent etch, ultrasonic or special surface
preparation such as vapour degreasing, to assure adequate cleaning and make the discontinuity
free of contaminants and open to the surface. A cleaning solvent is used as a final cleaner.
The cleaner used must be capable of dissolving and flushing away the typical oil and grease often
found on metal components. The two contaminants, oil and grease are penetrant themselves and
would certainly block the entrance of the penetrant. Also the cleaner must be volatile so that it
easily evaporate out of tight discontinuities and does not remain to ilute or prevent the entrance of
the penetrant. Typical suitable cleaners used are Acetone, percholore-ethylene, Isopropyl alcohol
and Methylene chloride, all of which evaporate readily at normal temperature.

Application of Penetrant:

Apply penetrant to the surface of a clean dried part or section to be inspected by any method that
will thoroughly wet the surface. Either dipping, spraying, pouring or brushing can be adopted. All
the surface should be thoroughly covered to allow capillary action to such the penetrant into
discontinuity. Penetrant must cover at least one half inch. Either side of weldments and for all
other surfaces at least one inch. Around the area to be tested.

With Dye Penetrant properly applied, sufficient time should be allowed for the penetrant to enter
all the discontinuities, for capillary action to do the job. This time is called the penetration time or
dwell time. The two variables for dwell time are the type of material being examined and type of
discontinuity for which the test is conducted.

While there is no maximum penetration time is recommended, the penetrant should be wet prior
to starting the next step. Because of this, once the minimum dwell time is reached, it is best to
start the next step of best to start the next step of excess penetrant removal while the penetrant is
still wet. In common, a dwell time of 5 minutes to 10 minutes is given. The Temperature of the
part should not be less 100C and more than 520C.

3.3 Step-3 Excess Penetrant Removal:

3.3.1 The presence of any discontinuity is indicated only by the entrapped or penetrated due and
not be the one on the surface. So before pulling back the dye from the discontinuity the excess
penetrant on the surface is to be removed. If the removal is delayed for any reason and the
penetrant has dried, reapply the penetrant to the surface prior to starting the step of excess
penetrant removal. When removing excess penetrant, care must be taken not to do anything that
may remove the penetrant from the discontinuity. This is one reason for having the penetrant wet
prior to starting the removal of excess penetrant.

The Method of removing the excess penetrant depends upon the type of penetrant used. There are
three types of penetrant, viz.

1. Water washable
2. Post emulsifiable
3. Solvent removable
Type (1) is directly washable by water, whereas type (2) is to be made water washable by
emulsification after the dwell time is elapsed. Solvent removable type dye is generally used in site
applications because of its simplicity in use and minimum in size of equipment’s.

3.3.2 An organic solvent, recommended by the manufacture of the penetrant may be used for
excess penetrant removal of solvent removable type penetrant. Flushing the surface by cleaner is
not permitted. First the surface is cleaned with a dry lint free cloth and then by moistening the
cloth and then by moistening the cloth with the recommended cleaner. Full removal of the excess
penetrant is judged by the absence of color on the cloth if we have used ordinary visible dye and
the absence of fluorescence in the case of fluorescent dye, when the part is viewed under black
light.

3.4 Steps-3 Developer Applications:

3.4.1 Developer is a highly absorbent power and is applied to the item being inspected after the
excess penetrant is removed. The developer absorbs the dye penetrant from the discontinuities
with a blotting action, spreading the dye to form visible indications. The image of the
discontinuity is formed in the developer itself as the dye carrying penetrants spreads out around
the edges of the discontinuity it has left. Thus, even slight traces of penetrants are drawn form
discontinuity and as they diffuse in the developer their film thickness is increased and the
penetrant is fixed in the developer.

3.4.2 Developer can be either dry or wet. The wet may be adueous or non-adueous suspendable
type. Non-adueous suspendable type developers are commonly used for general application.
Before applying non adueous developer, the surface should be dry. The non adueous developer is
applied by spraying using a hand pump or an aerosol can.

3.4.3 Development time:

The time form the application of the developer to the time the article is inspected is the
development time. Rule of Thumb tell to use a time that is approximately one half the penetration
time (dwell time) used. The development time however includes the time in the drier oven also.
Development is a minimum time. It must be long enough ot assure that the developer has had time
to draw the penetrant from the discontinuity. If the article is inspected too soon, The Spreading of
the dye will be more and the indication may not have reached their maximum, identity and
therefore be overlooked and if more time is cover the spread will be enlarged.

If fluorescent dye is used, the inspection should be done under black having wave length 3650A.

3.4.4 Post Cleaning:

After the completion of Inspection all the left over chemical are to be cleaned form the surface.

3.5 INSPECTION:

3.5.1 Discontinuities at the surface will be indicated by the bleeding out of the penetrant.
However, localized surface irregularities such as from machining marks or other surface condition
like press fittings may produce non-relevant in dictations.

3.5.2 Relevant indications or true indications are those which result from mechanical
discontinuities. Only these indications are to be studied for giving the results. Liner indications
are those indications in which the length is more than three times the width. Rounded indications
are those which are circular of elliptical with the length less than three times the width.
3.5.3 False indications are due to improper removal of excess penetrant such as penetrant on the
hands of the operator or penetrant rubbing of an indication on one specimen to technique an
retesting, it is possible or determine either the indication is false or not.

3.5.4 While interpreting the indications, the following are to be assessed:

I. Type of Indications: Whether continuous line, intermittent line round or small dots. This
ensures to determine the nature of discontinuities present. Continuous line indications are caused
by cracks, cold shuts, forging laps, scratches and die marks. In terminations are caused by gas
holes or pin holes etc. small dots represents find porosity or micro shrinkage.

ii) Extent of discontinuities as evidence by the extension of indications. This has to be viewed
form two angles. One how deep the discontinuity goes inside the surface. This can be seen
from the brightness of the indications. Deeper the discontinuity, brighter the indications.
Another method is the removal of developer surface after nothing the size of the
indications on the surface. Once the depth of the discontinuity is approximately known,
the nature of discontinuity and its other dimensions such as length, how far they are
separated etc. are to be noted.

iii. What effect the indicated discontinuities have on the service life of the specimen. or other
– wards, Whether the discontinuities can be accepted or not. This requires the knowledge
on the part of the interpreter to the following.

(a) Whether there is a governing code or standard to which the specimen has to satisfy.
(b) Whether there is many further processing in which the discontinuity may
disappear.
(c) Previous knowledge of similar parts and processes,

4.0 APPLICATION OF PENETRANT INSPECTION:

Penetrants Inspection is widely used both in fabrication and maintenance. Fillet welds like
drum dished ends, attachment stubs, header hand hole plates. R.G. hole plug welding etc.
are inspected by penetrate test. Any modification work during periodical over haul of their
boiler as in scalloped bar welding, attachment welding in super heater are tested by
penetrate inspection method.
As it can be applied on any kind of materials unlinking to magnetic particles inspections
and as is free from and external energy like electricity for operation, and as it can be
operated by minimum technical knowledge, it is a very versatile test method. But before
putting the chemicals into use. It is to be a Ascertained the halogen and Sulphur content
should not be harmful to the materials being tested. The testing area should be properly
ventilated, so that the chemicals will not be hazardous to the operator. Exhaust of an
should be provided when test is conducted inside a closed vessel.
How to Prepared WPS
WELDING QUALIFICATION…WHY?

1. TO ENSURE THE WELDERS ABILITY TO DEPOSIT SOUND WELD METAL.

2. TO FULL FILL THE CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT.
3. TO ENSURE THE PROPOSED MECHANICAL PROPERTIES.

Procedure qualification: To ensure the proposed mechanical properties.

W.P.S: .W.P.S specify the conditions (including ranges if any) under which welding must
be performed.
. W.P.S. is supported by P.Q.R.
. These ranges come from ASME. Sec. IX.

*CONTENTS
Welding variables essential, supplementary essential & non-essential.
Welding variables:

1. Essential variables: A change in welding conditions, which affect the Mechanical

properties of the weldment
2. Supplementary essential: A Change in welding conditions, which will affect the
impact property of weldment.
.These variables are considered as
a) essential variables, when impact test is required.
b) Non-essential variables, when impact test is not required.
3. Non-essential variables: A change in welding conditions, which will not affect the
mechanical properties of weldment.
Such as joint design, method of back-chipping or cleaning etc.

P.Q.R: Procedure qualification record.

P.Q.R. is a record of the welding parameters, used to weld a test coupon.
. It also contains the test results.
.The P.Q.R shall be certified by the manufacturer or contractor.
It is used to support the W.P.S.

P.Q.R how: 1- Make a provisional w.p.s., based on experience. 2- Take one test coupon,
of given metal with particular thickness. 3-Take one welder. 4-Start welding with given
welding parameters. 5- Also note down the welding data’s. 6- Then make test specimens.
7-. Do the mechanical testing. Record it in P.Q.R. 8-Compare the test results with the
required mechanical properties. 9- If it full fills the requirements, P.Q.R. gets qualified.

2. Welder Performance Qualification: To ensure the welder’s ability to deposit

sound weld metal.

ESSENTIAL VARIABLES:
“A change in a welding condition which will affect the ability of a welder to deposit sound
weld metal”.

1).Welding process
2).Base metal
3).Filler metal
4).Weld/base metal thickness and diameter limit
5).Positions
6).Backing

1. WELDING PROCESSES: Welding can be done only with the process, the welder
or welding operator is qualified.

Welders are qualified to the

- SMAW
- GTAW
- FCAW/GMAW
Welding operators are qualified to the
-SAW
- M/c. GTAW
- ESSC
overlay requires separate qualification
 2. BASE MATERIAL
P No. Type of Material
P1 Carbon Steel
P3,4,5 Low Alloy Steel
P6,7 Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steel
P8 Austenitic Stainless Steel
P9 Nickel Steel (less than 4.5% Ni)
P10,11 Quenched and Tempered Steel
P2X Aluminum and Alloys
P3X Copper and Alloys (Cupronickel)
P4X Nickel and Nickel Base Alloys
P5X Titanium and Titanium Base Alloys
P6X Zirconium and Zirconium Base Alloys

Base Metal for Welder Qualification Qualified Production Base Metals

1- P No. 1 through P no. 15F, P no. 34 P No. 1 through P no. 15F, P no. 34

And P no.41 through P no. 49 And P no.41 through P no. 49

2- P no.21 through P no. 26 P no.21 through P no. 26
3- P no.51 through P no. 53 or P no.51 through P no. 53 or
P no. 61 and P no. 62 P no. 61 and P no. 62

3. FILLER METAL ([Link].)

F4 - LOW H2 TYPE CS / LAS - E7018, E 8018B2
F5 - AUSTENITIC SS - E309/308/347

F6 - GTAW/SAW/FCAW -ER70S2/S3/E71T-1/
ER308//E308LT-1
F3X-Cu & Cu BASE ALLOYS - ERNiCu7/ ENiCu7
F4X-Ni & Ni BASE ALLOYS - ENiCrFe3/ERNiCr3
F5X-Ti & Ti BASE ALLOYS - ERTi-1
F7X-HARD FACING -STELLITE-1/6
Alternate F No for Welder Performance Qualification
Qualified with Qualified for

F No 4 F No 1, 2, 3, 4

F No 5 F No 5

Any F No 6 All F No 6

Any F No 21 through F No 25 All F No 21 through 25

Any F No 31, F No 32, F No 33, Only the same F Number as was used
F No 35, F No 36 or F No 37 during the qualification test
 F No 34 or any F No 41 through No 45 F No 34 and all F No 41 through F No 45

any F No 51 through F No 54 All F No 51 through F No 54

Any F No 61 All F No 61

Any F No 71 through F No 72 Only the same F Number as was used

during the qualification test

4. BASE METAL / WELD THIKNESS

GROOVE
Weld Thickness in Qualification Test Maximum Qualified Weld Thickness
t [inch (mm)] [inch (mm)]

>= 1/2“ (13 ) Any Thickness

< 1/2” (13) 2t

OVERLAY
Qualification Test Thickness Thickness Qualified
T [inch (mm)] [inch (mm)]

Up to 1” (25.4) T to unlimited

> 1” (25.4) 1 “ (25.4) to unlimited

GROOVE WELD LIMITATIONS ON PIPE / TUBE DIAMETERS

OD inch (mm) Minimum Maximum

<1” (25.4) Size Welded Unlimited

 1” <= O.D. < 2 (7/8) in. or 1” (25.4) Unlimited
25.4 mm to 73.03 mm

O.D. >= 2(7/8)” or 73.03mm 2(7/8)” or 73.03 Unlimited

5. Welding position

6. BACKING.
SINGLE SIDED WELD - WELD WITHOUT BACKING.
DOUBLE SIDED WELD - WELD WITH CHIP BACK/ BACKING

QUALIFICATION WITH QUALIFIED FOR

SINGLE SIDED SINGLE / DOUBLE SIDED
DOUBLE SIDED DOUBLE SIDED

1. JOINTS
1. GROOVE DESIGN
* non-essential.
* We can take different groove design in W.P.S. than P.Q.R.

2. BACKING
* non-essential.
* We can make welding with or without backing in W.P.S.

3. ROOT SPACING
* non-essential.
* We can take diff. Root spacing in W.P.S. than P.Q.R.

4. RETAINERS
* non-essential.
* We can do welding with or without retainers in W.P.S.

2. Base metals
1. [Link].
* Essential variable

2. BASE METAL.
2. GROUP NUMBER.
* Supplementary essential.
* When impact is not required, -non essential.
* When impact is required, essential.

* When base metals of two diff. [Link]. Group no. combinations are qualified using a single
test coupon, that coupon qualifies the welding of those two [Link]. Group no. to themselves, as well
as to each other using the variables qualified.
 Ex. [Link].1 gr. no. 1 # [Link]. 1 [Link]. 2 (with qual.)

[Link].1 gr. no. 1 # [Link]. 1 [Link]. 2

[Link].1 gr. no. 1 # [Link]. 1 [Link]. 1
[Link].1 gr. no. 2 # [Link]. 1 [Link]. 2

3. BASE METAL THICKNESS

* essential variable.
* For different tests, code has given diff. THK. Ranges.

Groove-weld tension and transverse-bend tests

4. FILLER METAL
1. [Link].
* Essential variable.

qualification qualified

Any electrode of particular [Link] in All electrodes of that [Link].

QW -432

Any electrode of particular [Link]. , not listed in QW- Only that electrode with that [Link].
432

2. A. no.
*Essential variable.
* Applicable only for ferrous metal.

qualification qualified

Particular A. no. That A. No. only

 A. no. 1 A. no. 1 & [Link].2

A. no. 2 A. no. 1 & [Link].2

3. Diameter of electrode rod

non–essential variable.
We can use any rod of dia. 2.5, 3.2, 4.0, 5.0 in W.P.S.
4. POSITION.
1. ADDITION OF POSITION
* non-essential.
* When impact is not required, then we can do welding with any position.
Ex. 1G, qualification is qualified for all position.

2. CHANGE IN POSITION.
* Supplementary essential.
* When impact is required,
* Vertical –uphill progressions (ex. 3G, 5G, 6G) qualifies for all positions.

3. CHANGE IN VERTICAL WELDING.(non-essential)

A change from upward to downward , or from downward to upward , in progression
specified for any pass of a vertical
weld except that the cover and root pass .
Root pass may also be run either up or down when the root pass is to be backchiped.
5. Preheat
* essential variable.
* When the reduction in preheat is > 100 F. Or 56 D.

6. INTERPASS TEMPRETURE.
* Supplementary essential.
* When impact is required.
* increase in interposes temp. > 100 F. Or 56 D.
7. PWHT
1. CHANGE IN PWHT.
* Essential variable
* A separate procedure qualification is required for each of the following conditions.
A) For [Link]. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, & 11 materials, the following PWHT conditions apply:
1) No PWHT.
2) PWHT below the lower transformation temperature.
3) PWHT above the upper transformation temperature.( e.g. normalizing)
4) PWHT above the upper transformation temperature followed by heat treatment below the
lower transformation temperature (e.g. normalizing or quenching followed by tempering.
5) PWHT between the upper & lower transformation temperature.
B) For all other materials, the following post weld heat treatment conditions apply;
1) No PWHT
2) PWHT within a specified temperature range.
2. PWHT (T & T range)
* Change in PWHT temp. & time range
* Supplementary essentials
 Procedure qualification test shall be subjected to PWHT essentially equivalent to that
encountered in the fabrication of production welds, including at least 80% of the aggregate times
at temperature(s).
The PWHT total time(s) at temperature(s) may be applied in one heating cycle

7. ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
1) > Heat input
Supplementary essentials
Increase in heat I/p or increase in vol. Of weld metal deposited per unit length of weld over that
qualified. The increase may be measured by either of the following.
Heat I/p = Volt X Amp X 60
Travel speed in mm
Increase in vol. Of weld metal deposit = an increase in bead size or a decrease in length of weld-
bead per unit length of electrode
the requirement for measuring the heat I/p or vol. Of deposited weld metal does not apply when
the WPS is qualified with a PWHT. Above the upper transformation temperature or a solution
anneal after welding austenitic materials.

[Link] IN CURRENT OR POLARITY

supplementary essential
A change from A.C. to D.C or vise-versa, and in d.c welding , a change from electrode negative
(straight polarity) to electrode positive(reverse polarity ) vise versa.
Non-essential
A change in the range of amperage, or except for SMAW & GTAW welding, a change in range
of voltage. A change in the range of electrode wire feed speed may be used, as an alternative to
amperage.

8. TECHNIQUES
1).Method of clearing – Non essential
2).Method of back gouge – Non essential
3).Manual or Automatic – Non essential
4).Penning – Non essential

Multiple W.P.S. with one P.Q.R.

Ex. A 1G plate P.Q.R. may support W.P.S. for F,V,H, & O positions on ( plate or pipe within
all other essential variable) , when impact is not required.

Single WPS with multiple PQR

Ex. A single w.p.s may cover the thickness range from 1/16 in.(1.6mm) to 1¼ in.(32mm)
If P.Q.R. Exist for both
1. 1/16 in. to 3/16 in.(4.8 mm)
2. 3/16 in. to 1 ¼ in.

CHANGES TO THE P.Q.R.

.CHANGES TO THE P.Q.R ARE NOT PERMITTED EXCEPT TWO CASES. (Revision)
1. Editorial corrections.
Ex. Incorrect [Link]. [Link]. or [Link].
2. Addenda.
Change resulting from a code change.
Ex. Sec. 9 may assign a new [Link]. to a filler metal Or adopt a new filler metal under an

established [Link].
Changes to the W.P.S.
> Changes to non-essential variables, no need .of requalification.
> We can make these changes by new Revision.
> Changes to essential & supplementary essential variables (when required), require
Requalification Of W.P.S.
1. New WPS
2. Additional PQR

PIPING DESIGN QUESTIONAIRE

1. WHAT IS THE ASME CODE FOLLOWED FOR DESIGN OF PIPING SYSTEMS IN PROCESS
PIPING (REFINERIES & CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES)?
A) B31.1 B) B31.3 C) B31.5 D) B31.9

2. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY FOLLOWING ITEMS?

A) ISLB-400 B) ISMB-600 C) ISHB-350 D) ISMC-300 E) ISJB-150
F) ISLB-200
G) ISMB-450 H) ISWB-400 I) ISJC-200 J) ISLC-350 K) ISMC-250
ANS: A INDIAN STD LIGHT WEIGHT BEAM, WEB SIZE – 400
B INDIAN STD MEDIUM WEIGHT BEAM, WEB SIZE – 600
C INDIAN STD ‘H’ BEAM, WEB SIZE – 350
D INDIAN STD MEDIUM WEIGHT CHANNEL, WEB SIZE –300
E INDIAN STD JUNIOR BEAM, WEB SIZE – 150
F INDIAN STD LIGHTWEIGHT BEAM, WEB SIZE – 200
G INDIAN STD MEDIUM WEIGHT BEAM, WEB SIZE – 450
H INDIAN STD WIDE FLANGE BEAM, WEB SIZE – 400
I INDIAN STD JUNIOR CHANNEL, WEB SIZE – 200
J INDIAN STD LIGHTWEIGHT CHANNEL, WEB SIZE – 350
K INDIAN STD MEDIUM WEIGHT CHANNEL, WEB SIZE – 250
LIGHTWEIGHT TEE BAR SIZE 100X100

3. WHAT IS THIS ITEM?

A) ISA-100X100X12 B) ISA-80X50X10 C) ISLT-100X100
ANS: A EQUAL ANGLE SIZE 100X12 THK
B UNEQUAL ANGLE SIZE 80X50X10 THK
C INDIAN STD

4. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STUB IN AND STUB ON BRANCHES? WHICH ONE IS
PREFERRED?
ANS: FOR BRANCHING OF ONE SIZE LESSER OF RUN PIPE, STUB ON IS PREFERRED. FOR
OTHER BRANCHING LESS THAN ONE SIZE OF RUN PIPE STUB IN IS PREFERRED. THE DESIGN IS
BASED ON ANSI B 31.3.
5. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIPE AND TUBE?
ANS: PIPE IS IDENTIFIED BY NB AND THICKNESS IS DEFINED BY SCHEDULE WHEREAS TUBE
IS IDENTIFIED BY OD.

6. FROM WHICH SIZE ONWARDS NB OF PIPE IS EQUAL TO OD OF PIPE?

ANS: FROM THE SIZE 14” AND ONWARDS NB = OD OF PIPE.

7. WRITE DOWN THE OUTSIDE DIAMETER OF FOLLOWING PIPE?

A) 3 INCH B) 6 INCH C) 10 INCH D) 14 INCH
ANS:
A 3 INCH = 88.9MM B 6 INCH = 168.28MM
C 10 INCH = 273.06MM D 14 INCH = 355 MM (OD=
SIZEX25.4)

8. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MACHINE BOLT AND STUD BOLT?

ANS: MACHINE BOLT HAS A HEAD ON ONE SIDE AND NUT ON OTHER SIDE BUT STUD BOLT
HAVE NUTS ON BOTH SIDES.

9. WHAT IS SOLUBLE DAM?

ANS: SOLUBLE DAM IS A WATER-SOLUBLE MATERIAL USED FOR RESTRICTING THE PURGING
GAS WITHIN THE PIPE.

10. WHILE WELDING OF PIPE TRUNION TO PIPE/REINFORCEMENT PAD YOU HAVE TO PUT A
HOLE OR LEAVE SOME PORTION OF WELDING WHY?
ANS: FOR VENTING OF HOT GAS WHICH MAY GET GENERATED DUE TO WELDING.

11. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY FOLLOWING TYPE OF WELDING?

1. SMAW 2. TIG
ANS: SMAW = SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING, TIG = TUNGSTEN
INTER GAS WELDING.

12. WHAT SHOULD BE THE RADIUS OF LONG RADIUS ELBOW?

ANS: 1.5D (WHERE “D” IS THE DIAMETER OF THE PIPE)

13. NORMALLY WHERE DO WE USE THE FOLLOWING?

A) ECCENTRIC REDUCERS (ER) B) CONCENTRIC REDUCERS (CR)
ANS: A ER = PUMP SUCTION TO AVOID CAVITATIONS, TO MAINTAIN ELEVATION (BOP)
IN RACK.
B CR = PUMP DISCHARGE, VERTICAL PIPELINE ETC.

14. CONCENTRIC REDUCER IS USED IN PUMP SUCTION. (YES / NO). EXPLAIN.

ANS: NO. AIR POCKETS MAY FORM IF CONCENTRIC REDUCER IS USED AT PUMP SUCTION,
WHICH RESULTS IN CAVITATIONS, AND CAUSE DAMAGE TO PUMP. TO AVOID THIS PROBLEM,
ECCENTRIC REDUCER WITH FLAT SIDE UP (FSU) IS USED IN PUMP SUCTION.

15. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY CAVITATION IN PUMP?

ANS: A PUMP IS DESIGNED TO HANDLE LIQUID, NOT VAPOUR. VAPOUR FORMS IF THE
PRESSURE IN THE PUMP FALLS BELOW THE LIQUID’S VAPOUR PRESSURE. THE VAPOUR
PRESSURE OCCURS RIGHT AT THE IMPELLER INLET WHERE A SHARP PRESSURE DROP OCCURS.
THE IMPELLER RAPIDLY BUILDS UP THE PRESSURE WHICH COLLAPSES VAPOUR BUBBLES
CAUSING CAVITATION AND DAMAGE. THIS IS AVOIDED BY MAINTAINING SUFFICIENT NPSH.
 (Cavitation implies cavities or holes in the fluid we are pumping. These holes can also be
described as bubbles, so cavitation is really about the formation of bubbles and their collapse.
Bubbles form whenever liquid boils. It can be avoided by providing sufficient NPSH.)

16. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY NPSH? HOW DO YOU CALCULATE IT?

ANS: NPSH = NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD. NPSH IS THE PRESSURE AVAILABLE AT THE
PUMP SUCTION AFTER VAPOUR PRESSURE IS SUBTRACTED. IT IS CALCULATED AS: STATIC
HEAD + SURFACE PRESSURE HEAD - THE VAPOR PRESSURE OF YOUR PRODUCT - THE
FRICTION LOSSES IN THE PIPING, VALVES AND FITTINGS. IT THUS REFLECTS THE AMOUNT OF
HEAD LOSS THAT THE PUMP CAN SUSTAIN INTERNALLY BEFORE VAPOUR PRESSURE IS
REACHED.

17. WHAT IS THE ASTM CODE FOR THE FOLLOWING?

A) CS PIPE B) CS FITTINGS C) CS FLANGES D) AS PIPE P5/P11 E) CAST CS
VALVES
ANS: A CS PIPE = A106 GR.B B CS FITTINGS = A234 GR.
WPB/WPBW
C CS FLANGES = A105 D AS PIPE = A335 GR P5/P11
E CAST CS VALVES = A216 GR. WCB

18. WHAT IS THE THUMB RULE TO CALCULATE SPANNER SIZE FOR GIVEN BOLT?
ANS: 1.5 X DIAMETER OF BOLT

19. WHAT IS THE THUMB RULE TO CALCULATE CURRENT REQUIRED FOR WELDING?
ANS: CURRENT (AMP) = [DIAMETER OF ELECTRODE (MM) X 40] + 20

20. WHAT IS STEAM TRACING? HOW DO WE DECIDE THE LOCATION OF SSM & CRM?
ANS: STEAM TRACING IS A PROCESS WHICH IS USED TO PREVENT THE FLUID PASSING
THROUGH A PROCESS LINE FROM FREEZING BY KEEPING THE TEMPERATURE HIGH ENOUGH
FOR FREE FLOW OF FLUID AND THUS MAINTAINING PALPABILITY. SSM AND CRM ARE
GENERALLY LOCATED 38M MAX FOR OPEN SYSTEM AND 24 M MAX FOR CLOSED SYSTEM
WHEN WE USE LP STEAM UP TO 3.5-KG/SQ CM. AS A HEATING MEDIA.

21. WHICH PIPING ITEMS WILL YOU DROP DOWN BEFORE CONDUCTING FLUSHING AND
HYDRO TEST?
ANS: ITEMS LIKE CONTROL VALVE, ORIFICE PLATES, ROTAMETERS, SAFETY VALVES;
THERMO WELLS ARE DROPPED OR REPLACED WITH TEMPORARY SPOOLS BEFORE HYDRO TEST.

22. WHY DO WE PROVIDE A DAMPENER IN THE PIPING OF RECIPROCATING PUMP?

ANS: TO TAKE CARE OF PULSATION.

23. WHY DO WE PROVIDE FULL BORE VALVE IN CONNECTING PIPELINE OF

LAUNCHER/RECEIVER?
ANS: FOR PIGGING.

24. WHICH PARAMETERS WILL U CHECK DURING CHECKING PIPING ISOMETRICS?

ANS: BILL OF MATERIAL, PIPE ROUTING W.R.T. GAD, SUPPORTING ARRANGEMENT,
DETAILS OF INSULATION, HYDRO TEST PRESSURE, PAINTING SPECS AND PROVISION OF
VENT AND DRAINS AT APPROPRIATE LOCATIONS.
25. WHAT IS THE ANSI/ASME DIMENSIONAL STANDARD FOR STEEL FLANGES & FITTINGS?
A) B16.3 B) B16.5 C) B16.9 D) B16.10
ANS: (B)
26. HOW CAN FLANGES BE CLASSIFIED BASED ON FACING?
ANS: A. FLAT FACE B. RAISED FACE C. TONGUE AND GROOVE D. RING TYPE JOINT

27. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY AARH (FLANGE FINISH)?

ANS: ARITHMETIC AVERAGE ROUGHNESS HEIGHT.

28. WHICH ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF GASKETS?

ANS: FULL FACE, SPIRAL WOUND, OCTAGONAL RING TYPE, METAL JACKETED AND INSIDE
BOLT CIRCLE.

29. WHAT SHOULD BE THE RELATIVE HARDNESS BETWEEN THE RTJ GASKET AND FLANGE
GROOVE?
ANS: FOR A RTJ FLANGE, THE JOINT RING SHOULD HAVE A 30-40 VICKERS HARDNESS LESS
THAN THAT OF THE MATING FACE OF FLANGE. (BRINNEL HARDNESS FOR RTJ GROOVE
SHALL BE 20-50 BHN MORE THAN THE CORRESPONDING GASKET HARDNESS)

30. FROM WHICH SIDE OF PIPE WILL YOU TAKE A BRANCH CONNECTION?
ANS: WHEN FLUID IS GAS, AIR OR STEAM AND CRYOGENIC SERVICE – TOPSIDE. WHEN
FLUID IS LIQUID – BOTTOM SIDE.

31. WHY DON’T WE TAKE A BRANCH FOR CRYOGENIC SERVICE FROM BOTTOM SIDE
THOUGH THE FLUID IS IN LIQUID STATE?
ANS: THERE IS THE CHANCE OF ICE FORMATION DURING NORMAL OPERATION AND SINCE ICE
FLOWS FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE PIPE IT WILL BLOCK THE BRANCH PIPE
CONNECTION.

32. WHY DO WE PROVIDE DRIP LEG IN STEAM LINE?

ANS: TO REMOVE CONDENSATE WHEN THERE IS A RISE IN THE PIPE ALONG THE FLOW
DIRECTION. IF WE DO NOT PROVIDE THE DRIP LEG IN STEAM LINE, THE CONDENSATE
WHICH FORMS INSIDE THE PIPE WILL RESULT IN WATER HAMMER EFFECT CAUSING
DAMAGE TO PIPING SYSTEM.

33. WHICH STANDARD AND CODES WILL YOU REFER WHILE DESIGNING THE PIPING?
ANS: FOLLOWING ARE THE CODES AND STANDARDS –
 ASME SEC I: RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF POWER BOILERS.
 ASME SEC VIII: RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF PRESSURE VESSELS.
 ASME B 31.1: POWER PIPING
 ASME B 31.3: PROCESS PIPING
 ASME B 31.4: PIPELINE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM FOR LIQUID HYDROCARBON & OTHER
LIQUIDS.
 API RP 520: SIZING SELECTION AND INSTALLATION OF PRESSURE RELIEVING DEVICES IN
REFINERIES
 API STD 610: CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS FOR PETROLEUM, HEAVY DUTY CHEMICAL AND GAS
INDUSTRY SERVICES.
 ANSI/NEMA SM 23: STEAM TURBINES FOR MECHANICAL DRIVE SERVICES.
 API STD 617: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR FOR PETROLEUM, CHEMICAL AND GAS
INDUSTRY SERVICE.
 EJMA: EXPANSION JOINTS MANUFACTURER’S ASSOCIATION.
 OISD – 118: LAYOUT FOR OIL AND GAS INSTALLATIONS.
 IBR: INDIAN BOILER REGULATIONS.
 NACE MR – 0175: SULFIDE STRESS CRACKING RESISTANT METALLIC MATERIALS FOR
OILFIELD EQUIPMENT.
 NACE MR – 0284: EVALUATION OF PIPELINE AND PRESSURE VESSEL STEEL FOR
RESISTANCE TO HYDROGEN INDUCED CRACKING.
 NACE TM – 0177: LABORATORY TESTING OF METALS FOR RESISTANCE TO SULFIDE
STRESS CRACKING IN H2S ENVIRONMENT.

34. HOW DO YOU SUPPORT ANY SMALL SIZE HDPE/PVC (PLASTIC) PIPE?
ANS: IT SHOULD BE SUPPORTED CONTINUOUSLY BY USING CHANNEL OR ANGLE SO THAT
LINE SHOULD NOT SAG OR FALL FROM THE SLEEPER/RACK DUE TO UNEVEN EXPANSION
BECAUSE OF HOT TEMP.

35. WHY DO WE PROVIDE HIGH POINT VENT (HPV) AND LOW POINT DRAIN (LPD) IN
PIPING?
ANS: HPV – FOR REMOVING AIR DURING HYDRO-TEST.
LPD – FOR DRAINING WATER AFTER CONDUCTING HYDRO-TEST.
36. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY IBR AND WHICH LINES COMES UNDER IBR PURVIEW?
ANS: IBR = INDIAN BOILER REGULATION ACT.
STEAM LINES WITH CONDITIONS LISTED BELLOW COMES UNDER IBR PURVIEW –
 LINES FOR WHICH DESIGN PRESSURE IS 3.5 KG/SQ CM AND ABOVE.
 LINE SIZE ABOVE 10” HAVING DESIGN PRESSURE 1.0 KG/SQ CM AND ABOVE.
 BOILER FEED WATER LINES TO STEAM GENERATOR, CONDENSATE LINES TO STEAM
GENERATOR AND FLASH DRUM.

37. WHAT ARE WELDOLET AND SOCKOLET? AND WHERE THEY ARE USED?
ANS: WELDOLET AND SOCKOLET ARE BASICALLY SELF REINFORCED FITTINGS. WELDOLET IS
USED FOR BUTT WELD BRANCH CONNECTION WHERE STANDARD TEE IS NOT AVAILABLE DUE
TO SIZE RESTRICTIONS AND THE PIPING IS OF CRITICAL / HIGH PRESSURE SERVICE. SOCKOLET
IS USED FOR SOCKET WELDING BRANCH CONNECTION, WHICH REQUIRE REINFORCING PAD.

38. WHAT IS THE MOC FOR SUPERHEATED HIGH PRESSURE STEAM LINES?
ANS: A 335 GR P 1 / P 11, COMPOSITION: 0.5 MO (P1) / 1.25 % CR-.5% MO
(P11)

39. WHAT IS THE NORMAL UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM STRAIGHT LENGTH OF ORIFICE
FLOW METER?
ANS: UPSTREAM - 15D DOWNSTREAM - 5D

40. What are the essential data required for the preparation of
equipment layout?
ANS: 1) PFD AND P&ID 2. PROJECT DESIGN DATA 3. EQUIPMENT SIZES &
BUILDINGS

41. WHAT ARE THE VARIOUS STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING

LAYOUT?
 STATE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION (SIDC)
 CENTRAL / STATE ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS (PCBS)
 FACTORY INSPECTORATE
 STATE ELECTRICITY BOARDS
 CHIEF CONTROLLER OF EXPLOSIVES (CCOE)
 STATIC & PRESSURE VESSEL RULES (SMPV)
 TARIFF ADVISORY COMMITTEE
 AVIATION LAWS
  CHIEF INSPECTOR OF BOILERS (CIB)
 OIL INDUSTRY DIRECTORATE (OISD)
 FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION (FDA)
 MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FOREST (MOEF)

42. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY INSULATED JOINT?

ANS: INSULATING JOINTS ARE A PREFABRICATED, NON-SEPARABLE UNION USED TO ISOLATE
SPECIFIC SECTIONS OF PIPELINES TO PREVENT CORROSION CAUSED BY STRAY ELECTRICAL
CURRENTS OR INTERFERENCE FROM OTHER PIPELINES AND POWER TRANSMISSION CABLES.

43. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY COMPOSITE FLANGE?

ANS: THE FLANGE THAT IS MADE UP OF MORE THAN ONE MOC IS CALLED A COMPOSITE
FLANGE.
A. LAP JOINT FLANGES. INSERT FLANGES ARE A SPECIALTY IN THE ARENA OF PIPE SIZE
FLANGES AND CONSIST OF TWO PARTS - THE INSERT AND THE FLANGE RING. THE FLANGE
RING IS THE OUTER PART OF THE INSERT FLANGE ASSEMBLY, CONTAINING THE BOLTHOLES.
THE TWO-PIECE CONSTRUCTION OF THE INSERT FLANGE ALSO OFFERS THE ECONOMY OF
MATCHING THE INSERT MATERIAL TO THE PROCESS PIPE (USUALLY SOME CORROSION
RESISTANT ALLOY) WHILE THE OUTER FLANGE RING MAY BE MANUFACTURED FROM STEEL.
WHEN THE ENVIRONMENT REQUIRES THE FLANGE RING TO BE MADE OF SOME ALLOY THE
ROTATING FEATURE IS STILL MAINTAINED.
B. RF FLANGES WITH RAISED OF ONE MOC AND REST OF THE FLANGE WITH DIFFERENT
MOC
C. RF BLIND FLANGE WITH AN OVERLAY OF 90/10 CUNI FOR SEAWATER SERVICE.

44. WHAT IS MEAN BY ‘PWHT’? WHY IT IS REQUIRED?

ANS: “POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT” THIS IS DONE TO REMOVE RESIDUAL STRESS
LEFT IN THE JOINT, WHICH MAY CAUSE BRITTLE FRACTURE.

45. DESCRIBE DIFFERENT TYPES OF DESTRUCTIVE AND NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS?

ANS: DESTRUCTIVE TEST: BEND TEST, TENSILE TEST, IMPACT TEST, AND HARDNESS
TEST.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST: DPT, MPT, RADIOGRAPHY AND ULTRASONIC TEST
46. WHAT ARE INSULATING GASKET KITS?
ANS: INSULATION GASKET KITS ARE DESIGNED TO COMBAT THE EFFECTS OF CORROSION
OFTEN FOUND IN FLANGED PIPE SYSTEMS. GALVANIC CORROSION BETWEEN DISSIMILAR
METAL FLANGES (FLOW OF CURRENTS), FLANGE INSULATION ASSOCIATED WITH CATHODIC
PROTECTION OF UNDERGROUND PIPING ARE ALSO THE PLACES WHERE INSULATING GASKET
KITS ARE USED. IT CONSISTS OF
GASKET NEOPRENE FACED PHENOLIC /GLASS REINFORCED EPOXY (G10)
INSULATION SLEEVE REINFORCED PHENOLIC/NYLON/POLYETHYLENE/(G10)
INSULATION WASHER REINFORCED PHENOLIC/NYLON/POLYETHYLENE/(G10)
PLATED WASHER ELECTRO PLATED STEEL WASHER

47. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY JACKETED PIPING?

ANS: PIPING WHICH IS RECOGNIZED AS PROVIDING THE MOST UNIFORM APPLICATION OF
HEAT TO THE PROCESS, AS WELL AS MAINTAINING THE MOST UNIFORM PROCESSING
TEMPERATURES WHERE STEAM TRACING IS NOT CAPABLE OF MAINTAINING THE TEMPERATURE
OF FLUID CONSTANT. USUALLY USED FOR MOLTEN SULPHUR, POLYMERS SERVICE.
48. WHAT IS THE MINIMUM DISTANCE TO BE MAINTAINED BETWEEN TWO WELDS IN A PIPE?
ANS: THE RULE OF THUMB IS THAT THE MINIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN ADJACENT BUTT
WELDS IS 1D. IF NOT, IT IS NEVER CLOSER THAN 1-1/2". THIS IS SUPPOSEDLY TO PREVENT
THE OVERLAP OF HAZ S. MINIMUM SPACING OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS BETWEEN CENTER
LINES SHALL NOT BE LESS THAN 4 TIMES THE PIPE WALL THICKNESS OR 25 MM WHICHEVER
IS GREATER.

49. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT HARDNESS TESTS CARRIED OUT?

ANS:
 BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
 ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
 VICKER HARDNESS TEST

50. WHAT IS THE RELATION BETWEEN BRINELL HARDNESS NO AND ROCKWELL HARDNESS
NO?
ANS: 22 HRC (ROCKWELL HARDNESS) = 238 BHN (BRINELL HARDNESS NO) HARDER

51. DURING FABRICATION YOU OBSERVED THAT ONE SMALL CRACK HAS APPEARED ON A
FRESH PLATE, WHAT TYPE OF MEASURE YOU WILL TAKE TO OBTAIN DESIRED QUALITY
WITH MINIMUM WASTAGE?
ANS: FIRST IDENTIFY THE EXACT LENGTH OF CRACK BY DP TEST. DRILL ON THE END POINT
TO RESIST FURTHER CRACK. REMOVE THE CRACK PORTION BY CUTTING THE STRIP.

52. WHAT IS THE MINIMUM THICKNESS OF PIPE THAT REQUIRES STRESS RELIEVING TO BE
DONE AS PER B31.3?
ANS: 19 MM THICKNESS.

53. WHAT IS THE DIFF. BETWEEN THERMOSTATIC AND THERMODYNAMIC STEAM TRAP?
ANS: THERMOSTATIC TRAP IS ACTUATED BY TEMP DIFFERENTIAL AND IS ECONOMIC AT
STEAM PRESSURE LESS THAN 6 PSI. IT IS OPERATED BY THE MOVEMENT OF LIQUID FILLED
BELLOWS OR BY BIMETAL ELEMENT, WHICH MAY GET DAMAGED BY WATER HAMMER.
THERMODYNAMIC TRAPS ARE MOST SUITED TO APPLICATIONS WHERE THE PRESSURE
DOWNSTREAM OF TRAP IS ALWAYS LESS THAN ABOUT ½ THE UPSTREAM PRESSURE. THESE
ARE SUITABLE FOR PRESSURE HIGHER THAN 8 PSI. WATER HAMMER DOESN’T AFFECT IT.

54. WHAT IS THE CODE FOR SOUR SERVICE?

ANS: CODE FOR SOUR SERVICE IS NACE MR–0175), NACE: NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF
CORROSION ENGINEERS.

55. WHAT ARE GLANDLESS PISTON VALVES? WHERE THESE ARE USED?
ANS: GLANDLESS PISTON VALVES ARE MAINTENANCE FREE VALVES USED IN THE STEAM
SERVICE.

56. WHAT IS THE OBJECTIVE OF STRESS ANALYSIS?

ANS: 1. TO ENSURE THAT THE STRESSES IN PIPING
COMPONENTS IN THE SYSTEM ARE
WITHIN ALLOWABLE LIMITS
2. TO SOLVE DYNAMIC PROBLEMS DEVELOPED DUE TO MECHANICAL VIBRATION, FLUID
HAMMER, PULSATION, RELIEF VALVES, ETC
3. TO SOLVE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED DUE TO HIGHER OR LOWER OPERATING TEMPERATURE
SUCH AS A) DISPLACEMENT STRESS RANGE B) NOZZLE LOADING ON CONNECTED
EQUIPMENTS C) PIPE DISPLACEMENTS D) LOADS & MOMENTS ON SUPPORTING STRUCTURE

57. How much should be the pressure for Hydro-Test?

ANS: HYDRO TEST PRESSURE SHOULD BE CALCULATED AS FOLLOW EXCEPT AS PROVIDED
AGAINST POINT NO-4.
1. 1.5 TIMES OF DESIGN PRESSURE.
2. FOR A DESIGN TEMPERATURE ABOVE THE TEST TEMPERATURE, MINIMUM TEST
PRESSURE CAN BE CALCULATED AS:
PT = (1.5 X P X ST) / S
WHERE: -
PT = MINIMUM TEST PRESSURE. P = INTERNAL DESIGN PRESSURE.
ST = ALLOWABLE STRESS AT TEST TEMPERATURE.
S = ALLOWABLE STRESS AS DESIGN TEMPERATURE. (SEE SE IN TABLE A-1 OR S IN TABLE
B-1/2/3).
3. IF A TEST PRESSURE AS PER ABOVE WOULD PRODUCE A STRESS IN EXCESS OF THE YIELD
STRENGTH AT TEST TEMP. THE TEST PRESSURE MAY BE REDUCED TO MAXIMUM PRESSURE
THAT WILL NOT EXCEED THE YIELD STRENGTH AT TEST TEMP.
4. IF THE TEST PRESSURE OF PIPING EXCEEDS THE VESSEL PRESSURE AND IT IS NOT
CONSIDERED PRACTICABLE TO ISOLATE PIPING FROM VESSEL, THE PIPING AND VESSEL MAY BE
TESTED TOGETHER AT TEST PRESSURE OF THE VESSEL WHEN APPROVED BY OWNER AND
PROVIDED THE TEST PRESSURE FOR VESSEL IS NOT LESS THAN 115% OF PIPING DESIGN
PRESSURE ADJUSTED FOR TEMPERATURE AS PER POINT NO 2.

58. HOW DO YOU CALCULATE THE PIPE SPACING?

ANS: PIPE SPACING (MM) = (DO + DT) / 2 + 25MM + THICKNESS OF INSULATION (MM).
WHERE: D0 = OD OF SMALL SIZE PIPE (MM), DT = OD OF FLANGE OF LARGE SIZE PIPE
(MM).

59. HOW DO YOU CALCULATE THE WIDTH OF PIPE RACK?

ANS: W = (F X N X S) + A + B. WHERE,
F: SAFETY FACTOR
= 1.5 IF PIPES ARE COUNTED FROM PFD.
= 1.2 IF PIPES ARE COUNTED FROM P&ID.
N : NUMBER OF LINES IN THE DENSEST AREA UP TO SIZE 450 NB
= 300 MM (ESTIMATED AVERAGE SPACING)
= 225 MM (IF LINES ARE SMALLER THAN 250 NB)
A: ADDITIONAL WIDTH FOR –
 LINES LARGER THAN 450 NB.
 FOR INSTRUMENT CABLE TRAY / DUCT.
 FOR ELECTRICAL CABLE TRAY.
S: 300 MM (ESTIMATED AVERAGE SPACING)
: 225 MM (IF LINES ARE SMALLER THAN 250 NB)
B: FUTURE PROVISION = 20% OF (F X N X S) + A

60. WHICH FLUID IS USED IN HEAT EXCHANGER IN SHELL SIDE AND TUBE SIDE?
ANS: GENERALLY CORROSIVE FLUID IS USED FROM THE TUBE SIDE (AS TUBE CAN BE EASILY
REPLACED) AND CLEANER FLUID IS USED FROM SHELL SIDE. SOMETIMES HOT FLUID IS ALSO
USED FROM THE SHELL SIDE.
61. WHAT IS REYNOLD’S NUMBER AND WHAT IS THE VALUE OF THIS UP TO WHICH THE
FLOW IS LAMINAR?
ANS: IT’S A DIMENSIONLESS NUMBER TO CLASSIFY THE NATURE OF FLOW - RE= AVD / F
WHERE: RE = RAYNOLD’S NO. A = DENSITY OF FLUID. D = DIAMETER OF
PIPE.
V = AVERAGE VELOCITY OF FLUID. F = VISCOSITY OF FLUID.
FLOW IS LAMINAR UP TO RE = 2100

62. Give some Examples for occasional Loads.

ANS: WIND, WAVE & EARTHQUAKE

63. WHAT ARE THE STEPS INVOLVED IN STRESS ANALYSIS (OR ANY STRESS PACKAGE
CARRIES OUT)?
ANS:1. IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL LOADS THAT THE PIPING SYSTEM WOULD ENCOUNTER
DURING THE LIFE OF THE PLANT
2. RELATE EACH OF THESE LOADS TO THE STRESSES AND STRAINS DEVELOPED
3. GET THE CUMULATIVE EFFECT OF THE POTENTIAL LOADS IN THE SYSTEM
4. DECIDE THE ALLOWABLE LIMITS THE SYSTEM CAN WITHSTAND WITHOUT FAILURE AS PER
CODE
5. AFTER THE SYSTEM IS DESIGNED TO ENSURE THAT THE STRESSES ARE WITHIN SAFE LIMITS

64. HOW DO YOU CARRY OUT ESTIMATION?

ANS: 1. INPUT FROM BID:
 P&ID, LINE LIST, TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE.
 OVERALL PLANT LAYOUT AND PIPING CORRIDOR PLAN.
 SCOPE OF WORK AND THE SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE JOB.
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR MATERIALS LIKE PMS AND VMS.

2. VALUE ADDITION:
 ITEMS LIKE VALVES, FLANGES, SPECIALTY ITEMS, REDUCERS CAN BE ESTIMATED FROM
P&ID.
 LENGTH OF PIPES, ELBOWS, WIDTH OF PIPE RACK CAN BE ESTIMATED BY REFERRING
P&ID AND OVERALL PLOT PLAN.
 NO OF TIRES (ON RACK) CAN BE ESTIMATED BY REFERRING THE SPACING REQUIRED
FOR PIPES AND ALSO THE SPACE AVAILABLE.
 MTO FOR STEAM TRAPS, VALVES (FOR VENT AND DRAIN) CAN BE CALCULATED BY
USING THUMB RULES.
3. LOADS:
 HYDRO TEST LOADS: CAN BE ESTIMATED BY ASSUMING ALL THE PIPES (ON A GRID)
EMPTY EXCEPT SOME BIGGER SIZE LINES FILLED WITH WATER.
 ACTUAL OPERATING LOADS: GAS LINES TO BE CONSIDERED AS EMPTY AND REST
OF THE LINES TO BE CONSIDERED AS FILLED WITH THE FLUID (WHICH THEY ARE
SUPPOSE TO CARRY IN OPERATING CONDITION).
The load which ever is higher from above two cases should be referred for
structural loading.
65. WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRESSES THAT MAY GET GENERATED WITHIN PIPE
DURING NORMAL OPERATION?
ANS: AXIAL STRESSES (TENSILE / COMPRESSIVE), SHEAR STRESSES, RADIAL STRESSES,
HOOPES STRESSES.

66. HOW ARE THE LOADS CLASSIFIED IN STRESS ANALYSIS PACKAGE?

ANS: 1. SUSTAINED LOADS 2. OCCASIONAL LOADS 3. DISPLACEMENT LOADS
(SELF LIMITING STRESSES DUE TO THERMAL EFFECTS)

67. WHAT ARE THE INPUTS FOR STRESS ANALYSIS OF A PIPING SYSTEM?
ANS: A) PIPE SIZE B) FLUID TEMPERATURE C) PIPE MATERIAL D) MODEL
E) DESIGN PRESSURE F) INSULATION THICKNESS G) SPECIFIC GRAVITY H)
FRICTION COEFFICIENT.

68. WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF SUSTAINED LOADS GENERATED IN PIPING SYSTEM?
ANS: A. PRESSURE B. DEAD WEIGHT OF PIPE AND ATTACHMENTS
SUSTAINED LOAD IS CALCULATED AS
WEIGHT OF PIPE WITH FLUID + PRESSURE LOAD + LOAD DUE TO SPRINGS W+P1

69. HOW DO YOU CALCULATE THE OPERATING LOAD?

ANS: W+P1+T1, T1 – LOAD DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION

70. MENTION SOME OF PRIMARY LOADS (HAVE THEIR ORIGIN IN FORCE)

ANS: DEAD WEIGHT, PRESSURE, FORCES DUE TO RELIEF OR BLOW DOWN, FORCE DUE TO
WATER HAMMER EFFECTS.

71. MENTION SOME OF SECONDARY LOADS (HAVE ORIGIN IN DISPLACEMENT)

ANS:
 FORCE ON PIPING DUE TO TANK SETTLEMENT
 VESSEL NOZZLE MOVING UP DUE TO EXPANSION OF VESSEL
 PIPE EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION
 VIBRATION DUE TO ROTATIONAL EQUIPMENTS

72. WHAT IS DESIRED LIFE CYCLE FOR PIPING IN OPERATION?

ANS: DESIRED LIFE CYCLE FOR PIPING IN OPERATION IS 20 YEARS (7000 CYCLES). THE
NORMAL NO. OF CYCLES FOR WHICH THE DISPLACEMENT OR THERMAL STRESSES ARE
DESIGNED IS 7000 CYCLES.

73. WHAT IS THE FAILURE THEORY SUBSCRIBED UNDER ASME B31.3?

(A) MAXIMUM PRINCIPAL STRESS THEORY (RANKINES THEORY)
(B) MAXIMUM SHEAR THEORY
(C) TRESCA THEORY
ANS: (A)

74. WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF FAILURES ENCOUNTERED IN PIPING?

ANS: A. CATASTROPHIC FAILURE B. FATIGUE FAILURE

75. Select the failure stress range for fatigue failure due to thermal
expansion as per B31.3.
(A) (1.6SC+1.6SH) F (B) 0.78 SH (C) (1.25 SC+0.25SH) F (D)
SC+SH
ANS: (C)
SC AND SH = BASIC ALLOWABLE MATERIAL STRESS IN COLD & HOT CONDITIONS
RESPECTIVELY.
F = IS THE STRESS RANGE REDUCTION FACTOR(1 FOR 7000 CYCLES)

76. HOW DO YOU CALCULATE THE STRESS DEVELOPED DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION?
ANS: STRESS DEVELOPED = E X E / L
E = YOUNG’S MODULUS E = INCREASE IN LENGTH DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION
L = ORIGINAL LENGTH OF THE PIPE

77. HOW DO YOU CALCULATE THE THERMAL EXPANSION IN A PIPE?

ANS: THERMAL EXPANSION E= A X L X RISE IN TEMPERATURE, WHERE,
A = COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION L = LENGTH OF PIPE

78. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR (SIF)? GIVE SOME EXAMPLES.
ANS: STRESS INTENSITY FACTOR (SIF) IS THE RATIO OF MAXIMUM STRESS INTENSITY TO
NORMAL STRESS. IT IS USED AS SAFE FACTOR TO ACCOUNT FOR THE EFFECT OF LOCALIZED
STRESS ON PIPING UNDER RESPECTIVE LOADING. IN PIPING IT IS APPLIED TO WELDS,
FITTINGS, BRANCH CONNECTIONS ETC WHERE STRESS CONCENTRATION AND POSSIBLE
FATIGUE FAILURE MAY OCCUR.
EG: SIF FOR REDUCER AND WELD NECK FLANGE: 1.0
SIF FOR SOCKET WELD FLANGE: 1.3

79. WHICH ARE THE CRITERIA FOR PIPE SUPPORTING?

ANS: FOLLOWING ARE THE POINTS, WHICH SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT FOR PROPER
SUPPORTING –
 LOAD OF BARE PIPE + FLUID + INSULATION (IF ANY).
 LOAD OF BARE PIPE + WATER FILL.
 LOAD OF VALVES AND ONLINE EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENT.
 THERMAL LOADS DURING OPERATION.
 STEAM OUT CONDITION, IF APPLICABLE.
 WIND LOADS FOR PIPING AT HIGHER ELEVATION, IF REQUIRED.
 FORCED VIBRATION DUE TO PULSATING FLOW.
 BARE PIPE WITH SIZE ABOVE 12” SHALL BE SUPPORTED WITH PAD OR SHOE

80. WHAT IS THE BASIC SPAN OF SUPPORTS FOR 2”/6”/10”/24” PIPE.

ANS: BASIC SPAN IS 5.5M / 9M / 11.5M / 15M RESPECTIVELY.

81. HOW DO WE DECIDE THE ANCHOR / CROSS GUIDE AND GUIDE FOR OFFSITE RACK
PIPING?
ANS: ANCHOR IS PROVIDED TO RESTRICT ALL THE AXIAL AND ROTATIONAL MOVEMENTS OF
PIPE, WHEREAS CROSS GUIDE IS PROVIDED TO RESTRICT DISPLACEMENTS OF PIPE ALONG
WITH THE AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO IT’S CENTER LINE AND GUIDE IS PROVIDED TO RESTRICT
THE LONGITUDINAL MOVEMENTS OF PIPES ALONG WITH IT’S AXIS.

82. What are the things to be taken care of while doing pump
piping?
ANS: PIPE STRAIN MAY DISTORT EQUIPMENT ALIGNMENT, SO WELDING SHOULD BE DONE IN
SUCH A WAY THAT THE TENSION IN THE EQUIPMENT FLANGE IS MINIMIZED.

83. WHERE DO YOU PROVIDE ANCHOR AND SLOTTED SUPPORT OF HEAT EXCHANGER?
ANS: ANCHOR SUPPORT OF HEAT EXCHANGER IS PROVIDED ON THE SIDE FROM WHICH
TUBE BUNDLE WILL BE PULLED OUTFOR THE PURPOSE OF MAINTENANCE WORK ALSO IT IS
BASED ON THE GROWTH OF THE CONNECTING PIPING, AS EXCHANGER SHOULD GROW WITH
THE PIPING.

84. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY HOOP STRESSES AND HOW DO YOU CALCULATE IT?
ANS: STRESSES WHICH ARE GENERATED CIRCUMFERENTIALLY DUE TO THE ACTION OF
INTERNAL PRESSURE OF PIPE ARE CALLED AS HOOP STRESS. IT IS CALCULATED BY
HOOP STRESS (SH) = PDO / 4T
WHERE, P = FORCE ACTING FROM INSIDE. DO = OD OF PIPE. T = PIPE THICKNESS.

85. HOW DOES HOOP STRESS AFFECT THE SYSTEM?

ANS: AS PER MEMBRANE THEORY FOR PRESSURE DESIGN OF CYLINDER, AS LONG AS HOOP
STRESS IS LESS THAN YIELD STRESS OF MOC, THE DESIGN IS SAFE. HOOP STRESS INDUCED
BY THERMAL PRESSURE IS TWICE THE AXIAL STRESS (SL). THIS IS WIDELY USED FOR
PRESSURE THICKNESS CALCULATION FOR PRESSURE VESSEL.

86. WHAT IS THE DESIGN STANDARD FOLLOWED FOR THE CALCULATION OF ALLOWABLE
FORCES / MOMENTS IN NOZZLES OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR & STEAM TURBINES
NOZZLE?
ANS: FOR STRAIN SENSITIVE EQUIPMENT PIPING TO BE ROUTED AND SUPPORTED TO LIMIT
NOZZLE LOADINGS AND MOMENTS IN EQUIPMENT WITHIN ALLOWABLE LIMITS FURNISHED BY
RESPECTIVE VENDORS OR IN ABSENCE OF VENDOR DATA API 560/610/615/621/661 &
NEMA SM23.
NEMA – SM 23 (REFERRED BY API 617) IS USED FOR COMPRESSOR & STEAM TURBINE
NOZZLE.

87. WHAT IS THE MILL TOLERANCE TO BE CONSIDERED FOR THE THICKNESS OF PIPE
DURING STRESS ANALYSIS AS PER ASME B31?
(A) 1% (B) 2.5%
(C) 7.5% (D) 12.5%
ANS: D

88. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF PROVIDING GRAPHITE PADS IN SUPPORTS BELOW SHOES?
ANS: TO REDUCE THE FRICTION FACTOR. THE CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION FOR GRAPHITE
PADS IS 0.1

89. HOW IS PIPING TO TANK INLET NOZZLE IS SUPPORTED AND WHY?

ANS: PIPING TO TANK NOZZLE IS SUPPORTED WITH SPRING TYPE SUPPORT (FIRST SUPPORT
FROM NOZZLE) IN ORDER TO MAKE THE NOZZLE SAFE FROM THE LOADS, WHICH OCCURS
DUE TO THE DISPLACEMENT OF PIPE (THERMAL EXPANSION OF PIPE / TANK MATERIAL, TANK
SETTLEMENT ETC).

90. WHAT ARE THE TWO TYPES OF FLEXIBLE SPRING HANGERS?

ANS: 1. CONSTANT SPRING AND 2. VARIABLE SPRING

91. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN STATIC LOAD AND DYNAMIC LOAD.

ANS: A PIPING SYSTEM MAY RESPOND FAR DIFFERENTLY TO A DYNAMIC LOAD THAN IT
WOULD TO A STATIC LOAD OF THE SAME MAGNITUDE. STATIC LOADS ARE THOSE, WHICH ARE
APPLIED SLOWLY ENOUGH THAT THE SYSTEM HAS TIME TO REACT AND INTERNALLY
DISTRIBUTE THE LOADS, THUS REMAINING IN EQUILIBRIUM. IN EQUILIBRIUM, ALL FORCES AND
MOMENTS ARE RESOLVED (I.E., THE SUM OF THE FORCES AND MOMENTS ARE ZERO), AND
THE PIPE DOES NOT MOVE.
WITH A DYNAMIC LOAD—A LOAD WHICH CHANGES QUICKLY WITH TIME—THE PIPING SYSTEM
MAY NOT HAVE TIME TO INTERNALLY DISTRIBUTE THE LOADS, SO FORCES AND MOMENTS ARE
NOT ALWAYS RESOLVED—RESULTING IN UNBALANCED LOADS, AND THEREFORE PIPE
MOVEMENT. SINCE THE SUM OF FORCES AND MOMENTS ARE NOT NECESSARILY EQUAL TO
ZERO, THE INTERNALLY INDUCED LOADS CAN BE DIFFERENT EITHER HIGHER OR LOWER THAN
THE APPLIED LOADS.

92. WHAT IS WRC 107 / WRC 297?

ANS: LOCALIZED STRESSES AT NOZZLE TO SHELL IS CALCULATED BY WRC 107 / 297
AND THESE COMPUTED STRESS VALUES SHALL BE LIMITED IN ACCORDANCE WITH ASME SEC
VIII FOR PRESSURE VESSELS.

93. GIVE DIFFERENT TYPES OF DYNAMIC LOADS WITH EXAMPLE.

ANS: 1. RANDOM – WIND, EARTHQUAKE 2. HARMONIC – EQUIPMENT
VIBRATION, PULSATION, ACOUSTIC VIBRATION 3. IMPULSE – FLUID HAMMER, RELIEF
VALVE OPENING, SLUG FLOW

94. WHAT IS THE MAXIMUM EXPANSION ABSORBED IN LOOPS IN NORMAL DESIGN?

ANS: 10 INCHES

95. WHAT IS THE LIMITING FACTOR IN DECIDING THE LENGTH OF THE SPOOL IN JACKETED
PIPING?
ANS: FORCE EXERTED BY DISSIMILAR EXPANSION OF INNER PIPE = FORCE EXERTED BY
DISSIMILAR EXPANSION OF JACKET PIPE. THE STRESS DEVELOPED DUE TO THIS SHOULD BE
WITHIN LIMITS AS PER ANSI B31.3 (ALSO FABRICATION CONSTRAINTS)

96. WHAT IS THE ALLOWABLE STRESS RANGE FOR CS PIPES?

ANS: 2070 KG/CM 2

97. WHAT IS THE FACTOR TO BE CHECKED CONCERNING THE EXPANSION OF HEADER

ATTACHED TO AIR COOLER PIPING?
ANS: VENDOR DRAWING TO BE CHECKED TO SEE HOW MUCH MOVEMENT IS PERMITTED TO
COMPENSATE LINE EXPANSION. TO ACCOMMODATE THE DIFF. EXPANSION BETWEEN INLET
AND OUTLET (THE INLET TEMPERATURE >THE OUTLET TEMPERATURE) OFFSET CAN BE BUILT
IN TO OUTLET PIPING TO COMPENSATE FOR [Link]. SINCE THE TUBES ARE OF
FLOATING DESIGN THE NOZZLE FLANGE IS OF 150# AND LOADS TRANSFERRED ARE TO BE
KEPT MINIMUM. SINCE THE TUBES ARE OF FLOATING DESIGN, THE NOZZLE FLANGE IS 150#.
LOAD OF THE NOZZLE TO BE KEPT MINIMUM.

98. WHAT IS THE MAXIMUM NO. OF CELL NOZZLES CONNECTED TO A SINGLE HEADER OF
AIR COOLER PIPING HEADER IN NORMAL PRACTICE?
ANS: SIX NOS.

99. WHAT ARE THE INSULATION MATERIALS USED FOR PIPING SYSTEMS?
ANS: A. FIBROUS – ROCK & GLASS WOOL
B. RIGID - CALCIUM SILICATE, POLYISOCYANURATE, CELLULAR GLASS

100. WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF EXPANSION BELLOWS?

ANS: EXPANSION BELLOWS ARE USED ABSORB AXIAL COMPRESSION OR EXTENSION,
LATERAL SHEAR OR ANGULAR TORSION DEVELOPED IN THE PIPES (SPECIALLY NEAR NOZZLES)
101. WHAT IS DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND WHY IT IS USED?
ANS: DYNAMIC ANALYSIS IS PERFORMED FOR ALL TWO PHASE LINES IN ORDER TO ENSURE
THAT THE LINE SUPPORTED IS SAFE FROM VIBRATIONS LOADS WHICH MAY OCCUR DURING
NORMAL OPERATION AS WELL AS IN START UP OR ANY UPSET CONDITION. (DIESEL MIXED
WITH HYDROGEN IN DHDT PROCESS)

102. WHAT SHOULD BE THE MATERIAL OF SHOES FOR SUPPORTING AS PIPES & WHY?
ANS: IF CS SHOES ARE USED PAD IN CONTACT WITH THE PIPE TO BE OF ALLOY STEEL TO
AVOID DISSIMILAR WELDING AT PIPE. TO AVOID ALLOY STEEL WELDING AND DISSIMILAR
WELDING FABRICATED CLAMPS EITHER OF CS OR SS CAN BE USED.

103. In an offsite pipe rack change in direction during analysis it is found two adjacent
pipes are having unequal expansion with the inner pipe having 50 cm thermal expansion.
What can be done to eliminate collision during hot condition?
ANS: USE COLD PULL TECHNIQUE. CALCULATE THE THERMAL EXPANSION OF THE INSIDE
PIPE, CUT AN EQUAL LENGTH FORM THE ELBOW JOINT AND THEN REWELD WITH A SHORTER
LENGTH TO TAKE CARE OF EXPANSION IN HOT CONDITION.

104. WHAT ARE SWAY BRACES?

ANS: SWAY BRACES ARE ESSENTIALLY A DOUBLE-ACTING SPRING, HOUSED IN A CANISTER.
UNLIKE VARIABLE EFFORT SUPPORTS, SWAY BRACES ARE NOT INTENDED TO CARRY THE
WEIGHT OF PIPE WORK; THEIR PURPOSE IS TO LIMIT UNDESIRABLE MOVEMENT. SWAY BRACES
ACT LIKE A RIGID STRUT UNTIL A SMALL PRELOAD IS REACHED, WHERE AFTER THE
RESTRAINING FORCE INCREASES IN PROPORTION TO THE APPLIED DEFLECTION. FIG. 1
UNDESIRABLE MOVEMENT CAN OCCUR DUE TO MANY PHENOMENA, SUCH AS WIND LOADING,
SYMPATHETIC VIBRATION, RAPID VALVE CLOSURE; RELIEF VALVES OPENING, TWO PHASE FLOW
OR EARTHQUAKE. IT MAY BE NECESSARY TO LIMIT THIS TYPE OF DEFLECTION TO PREVENT THE
GENERATION OF UNACCEPTABLE STRESSES AND EQUIPMENT LOADINGS.
THE SWAY BRACE IS A COST-EFFECTIVE MEANS OF LIMITING PIPE WORK DEFLECTION. IT
SHOULD BE NOTED HOWEVER THAT IT DOES PROVIDE SOME RESISTANCE TO THE THERMAL
MOVEMENT OF THE PIPE WORK AND CARE SHOULD BE TAKEN WHEN SPECIFYING TO ENSURE
THAT THIS IS ACCEPTABLE. INSTALLATION OF SWAY BRACES WILL HAVE THE EFFECT OF
RAISING THE FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY OF VIBRATION OF A PIPE WORK SYSTEM; THIS IS
LIKELY TO REDUCE UNDESIRABLE DEFLECTIONS. SWAY BRACES ARE OFTEN USED TO SOLVE
UNFORESEEN PROBLEMS OF RESONANT VIBRATION. FOR SITUATIONS WHERE THE RESISTANCE
TO THERMAL MOVEMENT PROVIDED BY SWAY BRACES IS UNACCEPTABLE, YOU ARE REFERRED
TO PIPE SUPPORTS LIMITED’S RANGE OF HYDRAULIC SNUBBERS AND DAMPERS.

105. WHAT IS FLUID HAMMER AND HOW IT IS GENERATED?

ANS: WHEN THE FLOW OF FLUID THROUGH A SYSTEM IS SUDDENLY HALTED AT ONE POINT,
THROUGH VALVE CLOSURE OR A PUMP TRIP, THE FLUID IN THE REMAINDER OF THE SYSTEM
CANNOT BE STOPPED INSTANTANEOUSLY AS WELL. AS FLUID CONTINUES TO FLOW INTO THE
AREA OF STOPPAGE (UPSTREAM OF THE VALVE OR PUMP), THE FLUID COMPRESSES, CAUSING
A HIGH-PRESSURE SITUATION AT THAT POINT. LIKEWISE, ON THE OTHER SIDE OF THE
RESTRICTION, THE FLUID MOVES AWAY FROM THE STOPPAGE POINT, CREATING A LOW
PRESSURE (VACUUM) SITUATION AT THAT LOCATION. FLUID AT THE NEXT ELBOW OR CLOSURE
ALONG THE PIPELINE IS STILL AT THE ORIGINAL OPERATING PRESSURE, RESULTING IN
UNBALANCED PRESSURE FORCE ACTING ON THE VALVE SEAT OR THE ELBOW. THE FLUID
CONTINUES TO FLOW, COMPRESSING (OR DECOMPRESSING) FLUID FURTHER AWAY FROM THE
POINT OF FLOW STOPPAGE, THUS CAUSING THE LEADING EDGE OF THE PRESSURE PULSE TO
MOVE THROUGH THE LINE. AS THE PULSE MOVES PAST THE FIRST ELBOW, THE PRESSURE IS
NOW EQUALIZED AT EACH END OF THE PIPE RUN, LEADING TO A BALANCED (I.E., ZERO)
PRESSURE LOAD ON THE FIRST PIPE LEG. HOWEVER THE UNBALANCED PRESSURE, BY PASSING
THE ELBOW, HAS NOW SHIFTED TO THE SECOND LEG. THE UNBALANCED PRESSURE LOAD
WILL CONTINUE TO RISE AND FALL IN SEQUENTIAL LEGS AS THE PRESSURE PULSE TRAVELS
BACK TO THE SOURCE (OR FORWARD TO THE SINK). THE RAMP UP TIME OF THE PROFILE
ROUGHLY COINCIDES WITH THE ELAPSED TIME FROM FULL FLOW TO LOW FLOW, SUCH AS THE
CLOSING TIME OF THE VALVE OR TRIP TIME OF THE PUMP. SINCE THE LEADING EDGE OF THE
PRESSURE PULSE IS NOT EXPECTED TO CHANGE AS THE PULSE TRAVELS THROUGH THE
SYSTEM, THE RAMP DOWN TIME IS THE SAME. THE DURATION OF THE LOAD FROM INITIATION
THROUGH THE BEGINNING OF THE DOWN RAMP IS EQUAL TO THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE
PRESSURE PULSE TO TRAVEL THE LENGTH OF THE PIPE LEG.

106. WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARIABLE SPRING HANGER AND CONSTANT
SPRING HANGER?
ANS: VARIABLES USE COILED SPRINGS TO SUPPORT A LOAD AND ALLOW MOVEMENT. THE
RESISTANCE OF THE COIL TO A LOAD CHANGES DURING COMPRESSION, WHICH IS WHY THESE
DEVICES ARE CALLED "VARIABLES". CONSTANT SPRING HANGER PROVIDES CONSTANT
SUPPORT FORCE FOR PIPES AND EQUIPMENT SUBJECTED TO VERTICAL MOVEMENT DUE TO
THERMAL EXPANSION AT LOCATIONS WHERE MAINTAINING A CONSTANT STRESS IS CRITICAL.
THIS CONSTANT RESISTANCE IS ACHIEVED BY HAVING TWO MOMENT ARMS PIVOTED ABOUT A
COMMON POINT. THE LOAD IS SUSPENDED FROM ONE OF THESE ARMS, AND A SPRING IS
ATTACHED TO THE OTHER. WITH AN APPROPRIATE CHOICE OF MOMENT ARMS AND SPRING
PROPERTIES, A RESISTING FORCE CAN BE PROVIDED THAT IS NEARLY INDEPENDENT OF
POSITION. CONSTANT SUPPORT HANGERS ARE PRINCIPALLY USED TO SUPPORT PIPES AND
EQUIPMENT SUBJECTED TO VERTICAL MOVEMENT DUE TO THERMAL EXPANSION AT LOCATIONS
WHERE TRANSFER OF STRESS TO OTHER SUPPORTS OR EQUIPMENT CAN BE CRITICAL. THE
MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED VARIATION ACCORDING TO MSS STANDARD FROM THE OPERATING
LOAD IS 25% FOR VARIABLE SPRING HANGERS. IF THE VARIATION EXCEEDS 25%, A
CONSTANT SUPPORT HANGER SHOULD BE USED. THE CONSTANT RESISTANCE TO A LOAD IS
ACHIEVED BY COMBINING A SPRING COIL WITH A CAM, WHICH ROTATES ABOUT A MAIN PIVOT
POINT. THE CAM IS DESIGNED SUCH THAT THE DISTANCES FROM THE MAIN PIVOT CHANGES
TO COMPENSATE FOR THE VARIABLE RESISTANCE DURING COMPRESSION OF THE COIL. THE
MSS STANDARD PROVIDES FOR A TOLERANCE OF 6% IN THE CONSTANT LOAD THROUGH THE
TRAVEL RANGE. CONSTANT SUPPORT HANGERS ARE DESIGNED PER MSS, ANSI, AND ASME
STANDARDS. THE SIZING OF CONSTANTS PRIMARILY DEPENDS ON THE TOTAL TRAVEL AND
LOAD.

107. HOW TO GET THE FOUNDATION LOADS?

ANS: FOUNDATION LOADS FOR PIPE RACK SHOULD INCLUDE THE LOADS OF PIPES, CABLE
TRAYS AND INSTRUMENTATION DUCT AT THAT LOCATION AND ALSO THE DESIGN LOAD FOR
FUTURE TIER SHALL BE FULL LOAD OF THE MOST HEAVILY LOADED TIER IN ADDITION TO ALL
OTHER WIND/SEISMIC/FRACTION AND PIPING THERMAL LOADS FOR FUTURE PIPES. LOAD OF
PIPES FILLED WITH WATER (LARGEST OF
1ST CASE – DURING HYDRO TESTING DEAD WEIGHT (WT/M X PIPE RACK SPACING) OF PIPES
+ 2 –3 MAXIMUM SIZE PIPES FILLED WITH WATER.
2ND CASE – ACTUAL COMMISSIONED CONDITION EXCEPT THE GAS LINES) + PROPORTIONATE
WT OF EXTRA SPACE REQUIRED BY CLIENT (NORMAL 30%) + LOAD OF 1 HEAVILY LOADED
TIER + ELECTRICAL CABLES + INSTRUMENT DUCT + GUIDE LOAD FOR 50% OF LINES GUIDE
LOAD = 0.3X(DEAD WT OF PIPES AT INCLUDING WATER)
THE MAXIMUM INDUCED THERMAL LOADS ON THE ANCHOR AT THE BATTERY LIMIT SHALL BE
LIMITED TO
F IN KG <= 150 X NB OF PIPE IN INCHES (IT SHOULD BE <2 TONES)
M IN KGM <=75 X NB OF PIPE IN INCHES.
HORIZONTAL LOAD = 0.3 X (DEAD WT OF PIPES INCLUDING WATER)
THIS LOAD IS USED FOR DESIGNING OF FOUNDATION BOLTS. FOUNDATION LOADS FOR ANY
VESSEL HAVING AGITATOR MOUNTED ON TOP SHOULD CONTAIN WEIGHT OF TANK AT
OPERATING OR DESIGN CONDITION (WHICHEVER IS MORE) PLUS 20% OF IT FOR DYNAMIC
LOADING.