RESEARCH METHODS NOTES

Research method is a systematic approach used to collect, analyse, and interpret data to
discover new information or improve understanding of a topic. It encompasses a variety of
techniques, like surveys, experiments, interviews, and observations, each designed to address
specific research questions. It is a systematic study or investigation into educational problems.
Such investigations involves the use of empirical or scientific procedures, which include:
a) Problem identification and definition
b) Formulation of research questions and hypotheses
c) Identification of sample and sampling techniques
d) Data collection and analysis
e) Drawing inferences and conclusion
Although the researchers may not always follow all the procedures strictly in conducting their
work, these steps are however reflected in any scientific investigation.

Significance of Education Research

The significance of Educational Research include the following
a) Advancement of knowledge: through research knowledge has continued t accumulate
and build up Several researches are being conducted in education, which help to expand
the knowledge of education
b) Increased understanding of educational phenomena: Research is significantly
increasing our awareness and understanding of educational phenomena.
c) Provision of solution to educational problems: The fundamental significance of
research is problem solving. Such problems may range from instructional and
materials, administration methodology and evaluation programmes, and level of
professionalism.
d) Improvement of Training practices: Research tends to improve teaching and
learning. This is because, research findings address current trend and issues in
education
e) Development and progress: It brings about overall progress and development in
machinery and methods of production. Most advanced countries rely on research
findings, which are used as basis for developmental innovations.

Types of Research
The four main types of research are descriptive, correlational, experimental, and
diagnostic. These types can be combined to gather more meaningful data.

Descriptive research: focuses on describing existing conditions, behaviours, or

characteristics by systematically gathering information without manipulating any
variables. It's about observing and documenting what is already happening.
Correlational research:
This examines the relationships between different variables without the researcher
controlling or manipulating them. It's about identifying patterns and associations between
variables.
Experimental research: is used to determine if there is a causal relationship between two or
more variables. The researcher manipulates one variable (independent) while controlling
others (dependent) to see if the manipulation causes a change.

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Diagnostic research: is used to understand the root cause of a problem or phenomenon. It
involves identifying the specific factors contributing to the issue and then developing
solutions or strategies to address them.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Research process is a set of sequential steps observed by the researcher in conducting a study
or investigation into educational matters. This process is derived from the scientific method
which is the underlying procedure in any research. The research process consists of the
following:
1. Identification and definition of research problem
2. Review of related literature
3. Formulating questions, research hypotheses and,
4. Research design
5. Data collection,
6. Data presentation and analysis as well as testing of research questions and hypotheses.
7. Drawing of inferences and conclusion.

1. IDENTIFICATION AND SELECTION OF RESEARCH TOPIC (PROBLEM)

A problem could be referred to as unanswered, imbalance, missing link or an unsatisfied need
that requires solution. Research problem can take one of the Following forms:
a) A need: Human need is dynamic and changes with time, thus requires constant solution.
A research problem could be in form of a need and if such need is not satisfied then a
problem emerges. For instance, because there is poor quality of teaching in our primary
schools, the need to organize workshops and seminars for teachers on current teaching
strategies and use of teaching materials arises. Therefore if one can establish that a
particular need exists, then one has identified problem.
b) Missing link: A problem may arise when there is missing link in professional practices.
For instance, every year a large number of candidates secure admission into
universities, but very few of them are absorbed by the respective universities What is
the fate of the remaining ones? This is the missing link.
c) Imbalance: Problem often comes up as a result of imbalance in the system. There may
be imbalance in the development and provision of facilities across different levels of
education. For instance government recognized and established colleges of education
for teacher training without corresponding provision for university of education, this
has eventually created an imbalance in education system thus, becoming a problem.
d) Unsatisfactory state of affairs: when one is not satisfied with the prevailing practice
then problem arises. When things are not what they suppose to be then something is
wrong somewhere and therefore need to be rectified. For instance, when maths teacher
enters into a class and discovers that all the students run out of the class, then there is
problem. This is an unsatisfactory state of affairs and there is the need to find out
whether the problem is due to the teacher, the school or the teaching strategies and
instructional materials employed.
Sources of Educational Problem (Topic)

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Sources of educational problems include the following:
a) Literature: These include books, encyclopaedia, Internet, journals, magazines and
newspapers.
b) Theory: This is used to provide explanation to certain phenomena. In education,
theory can provide a basis for identifying problems worthy of investigation
c) Personal experience: personal experience could come up during lectures,
fieldwork, teaching practice. environment, seminars and workshops etc. that can
lead to a very useful research problem.
Steps in Choosing a Research Topic
The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. Sometimes lecturers will
assign you a specific topic, usually they will ask you to select a topic that interests you. To
choose your own topic you will need to:
1. Brain storm for ideas;
2. Read general background information:
3. Focus in on a manageable topic,
4. Make a list of useful keywords:
5. Be flexible
6. Define your topic as a focused research question;
7. Research and read more about topic.
8. Formulate a research statement.
Note that, selecting a good topic is not easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be
interesting, yet broad enough find adequate information for your research. Before you Sect
your topic, make sure you know what your final research ject would look like. Endeavour to
formulate your research statement in problem form as shown in the table below:
Research Focused Research Keywords
problem research statement
question
Parental How can Parental Parent,
involvement in parental involvement in Students,
schools involvement primary school Parental
improve a can help the involvement,
child's child reach Primary
learning? academic school,
success Achievement.

Qualities of Good Research Problems (Topics)

Any good research problem (topic) must possess the following qualities:
a) Researchable: A good research topic or problem should be researchable. This means
that data for research is readily available and accessible. For instance, the role of
religion in nation building, relevance of laboratory in the teaching of sciences etc.
Positional or ethical issues are non-researchable problems.

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 b) Significant: A good research should be able to produce significant findings that
have relevant solutions to the problems understudy.
c. Novel: A good research problem (topic) should be such that produces new findings
at the time of study?
d. Suitability: A good research must be consistent with researches, competence,
interest and circumstance. For a problem to be judged good, it must be such that it falls
within the interest and competence of the researcher. Considering the level of the
researcher's skills resources and time at his disposal, it must be seen that the problem
can be adequately investigated.
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Literature review is the systematic study of all existing works that are relevant to the research.
In order words, it is a process by which the researcher identifies, locate, read and evaluate
previous studies, observations, opinions and comments related to his area of study. Literature
review help the researcher to know the areas that have been researched, he areas that is not
covered, the population, sampling, instruments and the data analysis procedures that will be
suitable for his study.
Relevance of Literature Review
a) To understand previous studies: Through the researcher ascertains the literature review,
extent to which previous research addressed the problem at hand therefore findings already
established are noted. Research questions or hypotheses for which answers have been found
are eliminated. Significant uses are identified thus preventing redundant, irrelevant, wasteful
or trivial research.
b) Sharpening the research focus: Literature review also helps to sharpen the research focus.
Unless one knows what has been done in a field, what remains to be done and what can actually
be done, he will have the difficulty of properly delivering the scope of his research.
c) Choice of methods: literature review gives guide to the adoption of a different and better
methodology for investigating the problem understudy. With improved meth methodologies,
apparent inconsistencies in earlier findings may be resolved or missing links may be identified.
d) Choice of instrument: Literature review helps researchers to be aware of the range of
appropriate instruments available for collection of data.
e) It saves time: Literature review provides the researcher the input, information, mistakes,
problems encountered and further suggestions from previous studies, thus saving time.

Sources of Literature Review

1. Encyclopaedia and dictionaries
2. Books
3. Journals and periodicals
4. Magazines and newspapers
5. Students projects, theses or dissertation
6. Internet

Preliminary Sources or Links to Related Literature

A preliminary link to related literature is one, which provides information leading to the
location and retrieval of major sources. These sources make the search for literature material
more effective and efficient. These links are search engines (internet), catalogues, index and
abstracts.

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a) Search Engine: Internet system provides relevant literature on-line. The software device
used to access the literature is called search engine. There are many search engines that link up
to several source of materials on-line such as [Link], [Link],
[Link] etc.
b) Catalogue: This provides information that lead to the location and retrieval of relevant
books in a library. Details of such books are usually arranged according to subjects and authors.
c) Index: This link gives information leading to the retrieval of articles published in a wide
range of journals. Such articles are usually arranged according to authors.
d) Abstract: An abstract is a short account of the work which highlights the purpose of the
study, a brief description of the methodology and findings in addition to information necessary
for the retrieval of the work, such as name of author, title of work, journal, volume number,
pages and date. This serves as a link to source materials.

Steps in Conducting Literature Review

1. The first step is to select the keywords, which are used to access relevant materials. For
instance if the research is concerned with indiscipline among secondary school students, the
keywords selected may include; indiscipline in secondary school; students indiscipline etc.
2. The list of selected keywords is used to access relevant researches from preliminary sources
of information such as library catalogue, indexes, and abstracts as well as the Internet.
3. With the list of useful references, the researcher then consults libraries and other information
depositories in order to access the referenced materials. For electronic sources (Internet) having
determined the search engine (i.e. [Link]) type the keywords and press enter, the
search machine will search and locate the referenced materials.
4. The researcher then reads and makes short notes from the available references. He should
endeavour to get an index or bibliography card on which to record information. The researcher
should always start with the latest article or book. Note should be brief and emphasis should
be on the problem, purpose, procedure, results, conclusions and your own remarks or
summaries.
Writing the Literature Review
Most often literature review is part of introduction to an essay, research report, or thesis. In
writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your readers what knowledge and
ideas have been established in a topic and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece
of writing, the literature review must be defined by guiding concepts (e.g. your research
objective, problem or issues you are discussing or your argumentative project). It is not just a
descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.
Benefits of Literature Review
Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review lets you gain
and demonstrate skills in two areas.
Information seeking: the ability to scan literature efficiently, using manual or computerised
method to identify a set of useful articles and books.
Critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid
studies.
Features of a good literature review
A good review of related literature must do these things.

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 • Be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are
developing.
• Synthesize results into a summary of what is and what is not known
• Identify areas of controversy in the literature.
• Formulate questions that use further research.

3. RESEARCH HYPOTHESES AND RESAERCH QUESTIONS

Research Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a proposition or intelligent guess based on observation, sometimes based on
theory, about cause-and-effect relationship between variables. Whenever a study is being
carried out, there is a problem to be solved that is, some unknown solution or explanation,
which the researcher is aiming at. Yet most people usually have in their mind some vague idea
regarding what that solution to the problem could be. This idea regarding the solution to the
problem, which in essence guess, or intelligent guess, is referred to as hypothesis.
Types of Research Hypothesis
Essentially, hypotheses can be classified into two major types i.e. Alternative hypothesis and
Null hypothesis.
a) Alternative Hypothesis: An alternative hypothesis is one, which suggests a direction of
predicted relationship or difference. Sometimes a notation likes HA or H is used to represent
alternative hypothesis. Examples:
i) There is a significant difference in the prevalence of cognitive processing weakness, among
male and female students.
ii) There will be significant difference in students absenteeism
The examples above illustrate the direction of relationship; they are therefore called alternative
hypotheses.
b) Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis is one that does not show relationship or difference in
the values of the variables under study. It shows that no difference or no relationship exist
between two or more variables. Sometimes a notation of HO is used to represent the null
hypothesis. Examples:
i) There is no significant difference in the prevalence of cognitive processing weaknesses
among male and female students.
ii) There will be no significant difference in students' absenteeism.
These examples however do not reveal any difference, therefore are called null hypotheses.

Research Questions
A research question is a question designed by the researcher that enables him seeks for solution
to research problems. Research questions are mostly used in exploratory studies. The purpose
of such study is to explore some areas more thoroughly in order to obtain specific answers that
can be used to solve specific problems.
Examples of research questions are:
i) Are there any relationship between parenting style and pro-social Self-concept of secondary
school students?
ii) To what extent are the students conforming to the dress code regulation?
iii) Is there any difference in the prevalence of attention disorders between male and female
students identified with learning disabilities?
Qualities of Good Research Questions
a) A good research question must be relevant to the research problem.
b) A good research question must provide focus and direct attention to the major issues in the
research.
c) A good research question must be clear and unambiguous.

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4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Data collection is the process whereby the researcher source for relevant information regarding
the major ideas of the hypotheses or research questions of the study for the purpose of providing
answers to the research questions, accepting the hypotheses or rejecting them. Data is of two
types; Primary data (collected directly from sources) and secondary data (already collected by
others). Selecting the appropriate data collection methods based on the research objectives,
available resources, and the nature of the data. This ensures the validity and reliability of
research findings.
Techniques for Data Collection
Research data is collected through two major techniques namely
a) Quantitative technique
b) Qualitative technique

Quantitative Technique of Data collection

This is a technique of data collection in which information is obtained in a form of scale, rating
or value. In this technique of data collection, the researcher remains distant and independent of
what is being collected. Responses are usually measured with numbers and analysed using
statistical techniques.
Forms of Quantitative Techniques
The general forms of quantitative techniques for data collection are-
i) Questionnaire.
ii) Measuring scales
iii) Test

Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a list of questions relating to the aims of study and research
questions and or hypotheses to verify, which the respondent is required to respond by indicating
his view. The questionnaire could be used to obtain information on a number of issues. It could
be used to obtain information on the distribution of a group of people in terms of such factors
as gender, state, qualification, age, socio-economic status and teaching experience.

Kinds of Questionnaire
There are two major kinds of questionnaires, namely
a) Structured or close-ended questionnaire
b) Unstructured or open-ended questionnaire
a) Structured or Close-ended Questionnaire: This kind of questionnaire is one in which
alternative responses are provided by the researcher for the respondent to freely choose. In the
structured questionnaire, the researcher assumes to know the possible responses of his subjects.
The type of questionnaire restricts the subject's response therefore does not allow him to
respond freely.
b) Unstructured or Open-ended Questionnaire: This is a kind of questionnaire in which
predetermined responses are not provided for the respondents to choose. Only questions
relevant to the problem are asked and the respondent is free to supply his response in his own
words.
Qualities of a Good Questionnaire
A good questionnaire should possess the following qualities:
1. It should be relevant to the purpose of the research.
2. It should yield consistent responses
3. It should be such that can be usable

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4. It should be clear to avoid possible misinterpretations
5. It should be legible.

ii) Measuring Scales

Measuring scales are scales used to rate the responses of the respondents in relation to problem
under investigation. The most widely used scale in educational research is rating scale (Likert
type scale), and checklist.

iii) Test
This is a structured device or instrument or systematic procedure for obtaining information
about a person's behaviour A research test could be:-
a) Psychometric: This is a test designed to obtain information about the cognitive potential or
intelligence of individual. Psychometric test could be in form of intelligence test, academic
achievement test, quantitative and verbal aptitude test or diagnostic test
b) Socio-metric: This is a test designed to obtain information about the social values of
individuals or social group. Socio-metric test could be used to obtain information regarding
social issues, career or personality traits. Examples of socio-metric tests are: interest inventory
test, personality test etc. A good research test should be standardized in order to allow for
objectivity and uniformity in scoring and interpretation.
c) Standardized Test: This type of test is usually prepared by professionals in the field of test
and measurement. A test is said to be standardized if it possess the following qualities: -
1. Reliability
2. Validity
3. Usability.

Qualitative Techniques of Data collection

This is a data collection technique, which he researcher interact with those he studies in order
to obtain information about the problem under study. Qualitative technique is carried out under
a natural setting and involves a process of building a complex and holistic picture of the
phenomenon of interest.
Forms of Qualitative Techniques
a) Interview Technique: An interview is a face-to-face interaction between the researcher
(interviewer) and the respondent (interviewee). For maximum success in an interview, the
interview situation should be kept as comfortable and permissive as possible.
b) Observation Techniques: Observation technique is a technique of data collection which
the researcher makes personal visit to the field or respondents and collect relevant data at
source. The observation is a device used to obtain direct information about an individual
behaviour, object or situation. Observation may be participant and non-participant.
Participant Observation: This refers to the technique in which the observer is involved in the
first hand experience of the happenings of given situation e.g. an observer taking part in
examination malpractice in order to understand how it occurs.
Non-Participant Observation: In the non-participant observation the observer is not a
member of the setting in which the observation is taking place. The researcher observes the
exhibition of a particular traits of event as it occurs but he is not involved in the performance
of such action. For example an observer watches keenly how examination malpractice takes
place. Electronic gadget could be used in this regard to record such action.

Data Analysis
Data analysis is a direct result of data collection, and the quality of analysis depends on the
quality of the data collected. The purpose is to organize, examine, and interpret collected data

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to identify patterns, relationships, and meaningful insights. It employs statistical techniques,
descriptive statistics, data visualization, and other analytical tools. This allows the
researchers to support or refute hypotheses, draw conclusions, and make informed decisions
based on evidence.
Data analysis methods
Data analysis methods in research can be broadly categorized into qualitative and quantitative
approaches. Qualitative methods, like thematic analysis or content analysis, focus on
understanding meanings, interpretations, and experiences, often using textual or narrative
data. Quantitative methods, on the other hand, involve using numerical data and statistical
techniques to explore relationships, make predictions, and test hypotheses.

Qualitative Data Analysis

a. Thematic Analysis: This involves identifying patterns, themes, and concepts
within qualitative data (e.g., interview transcripts, focus group discussions).
b. Content Analysis: This method focuses on analyzing the content of
communication to identify specific aspects, such as words, phrases, or themes.
c. Narrative Analysis: This approach examines the stories or narratives
participants tell about their experiences, often focusing on how they construct
and share meaning.
d. Grounded Theory: This method involves developing theories based on data,
often using iterative processes of data collection and analysis.

Quantitative Data Analysis

• Descriptive Statistics: This involves summarizing and organizing numerical data, such
as calculating means, medians, and standard deviations.
• Inferential Statistics: This uses sample data to make generalizations about a larger
population, often involving hypothesis testing and confidence intervals.
• Regression Analysis: This method examines the relationship between a dependent
variable and one or more independent variables.
• Correlation Analysis: This explores the strength and direction of the relationship
between two variables.
• Factor Analysis: This technique is used to identify underlying dimensions or factors
within a set of variables.
• Time Series Analysis: This focuses on analyzing data collected over time to identify
patterns and trends.
• ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): This statistical test is used to compare the means of
two or more groups.
• Chi-Square Tests: These tests are used to determine if there is a significant relationship
between categorical variables.
• Machine Learning: This approach uses algorithms to analyze data and make predictions
or classifications.
• Data Mining: This involves discovering patterns and insights from large datasets.
• Network Analysis: This method is used to study the relationships between entities in a
network.

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Referencing styles
Referencing styles in research are standardized formats for citing sources in academic writing.
Common styles include APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard. Each style has specific guidelines
for in-text citations and reference lists, ensuring clear attribution and consistency.
Here's a more detailed look at some popular referencing styles:
1. APA (American Psychological Association):
• Widely used in social sciences, psychology, and education.
• Employs an author-date system for in-text citations, using the author's last name and
year of publication within parentheses.
• Provides detailed guidelines for formatting reference lists.
2. MLA (Modern Language Association):
• Primarily used in the humanities, including literature, arts, and history.
• Often employs a parenthetical citation style with the author's last name and page
number.
• Provides a comprehensive guide for referencing various sources, including books,
articles, and websites.
•
3. Chicago/Turabian:
• Offers two citation styles: the Notes and Bibliography style and the Author-Date style.
• The Notes and Bibliography style uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations.
• The Author-Date style is similar to APA, using author-date in parentheses.
• Commonly used in history, business, and the fine arts.
4. Harvard:
• Another author-date system, similar to APA.
• In-text citations typically include the author's last name and year of publication.
• A reference list provides full details for each source cited.
5. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers):
• Used in technical and scientific fields, particularly in engineering and computer science.
• Often uses a numerical citation system, with numbers in brackets or as superscripts.
6. Vancouver:
• Commonly used in medicine and health sciences.
• Employs a numeric citation system, similar to IEEE, with numbers in brackets or as
superscripts

APA Format and Style

APA format and style is the style of writing used by journals published by the American
psychological Association (APA). The style is documented in the APA Publication Manual,
which can be found in almost any college or university bookshops or in the reference section.
The APA style and format manual is in its sixth edition, and the APA format described in it is
a widely recognized standard for scientific writing in psychology and education.
Use of Headings in your Projects or Thesis
APA format and style dictates that your font size should be at least 12 and your style should be
Courier or Times New Romans. Most dissertations will use at least three heading levels.
Avoiding Bias in your Research Project or Thesis
Using APA style and format in your research or thesis requires that you avoid using biased
language. This is not easy. as it seems. When writing, avoid using any kind of language that
might cause offense to someone. As a general APA style and format rule, do not use ethnic
labels.

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Use of Fonts
Many schools require certain font formats for depositing your work. You typically will be
required to use standard fonts as Times New Roman, Arial, Courier, Helvetica, and Symbol.
Be sure that the type size is at least 12 point. Letter size is important in the deposited copy of
your work, as your manuscript will be reduced in size on microfilm.
Meaning of citation
Citations are notes acknowledging the sources of ideas, information and quoted passages used
in a research paper. A complete citation typically includes the author, title, publisher, date and
other information to help readers locate the original source.
Reasons for citation
There are at least three good reasons for citing references:
1) It's the right thing to do. Using another witer's words or Ideas without citing the source
is plagiarism.
2) Citations allow readers to look up your sources. This helps put your ideas and
conclusions into context.
3) For school papers, citations are usually requlabel
In-Text Citations
References that appear within the body of a paper are called In-text citations. The first time
source is mentioned, it should be cited as part of the text. The citation, including the year of
publication, is enclosed in parentheses. For example:

............... By the end of the 1980s, Gorbachev was losing patience with the Lithuanian
Independence movement (Serril, 1990).............

The citation can also be written into a sentence, with the year of publication enclosed in
parentheses:

........ According to Serrill (1990), by the end of the 1980s. Gorbachev was losing patience with
the Lithuanian Independence movement.

List of References
The list of References, Cited or Bibliography is an alphabetized list of citations at the end of a
research paper. The list is double-spaced formatted with a hanging indent, that is the second
and subsequent lines are indented more than the first line. For example:

Bailey, G., & Peoples, J. (1999). Introduction to cultural anthropology. Belmont, CA:
Thomson Wadsworth

Citation Format and Examples

For each type of research source, a format "formula" is provided, followed by an example
drawn from an existing published work Each citation is shown in two forms: first as would
appear in the list of References, then as it would appear as an in-text citation,
Examples:
Salinger, J. D. (1951). The catcher in the rye (pp. 106-107). Boston: Little Brown and Company
In text: (Salinger, 1951).

Bailey, G. & Peoples, J. (1999) Introduction to Cultural anthropology, (pp. 96-99) Belmont,
CA: Thomsch Wadsworth
In text: (Bailey & Peoples, 1999).

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 Sebranek, P., Meyer, V., & Kemper, D. (2004) Witte for college(p. 231). Wilmington, MA:.
Great Source Education Group
In text: (Sebranek, Meyer, & Kemper, 2004).
Research Report for Dissertation, Theses, and Projects,
The research project report is usually presented following a particular format. The format varies from
place to place and from discipline to discipline. The format presented in this section is the one
considered to be widely used in this discipline as follows:
a) The Preliminaries
b) The Main Body
c) The Appendix
a) The preliminaries is made up of
1) The title page
2) Approval page
3) Acknowledgement
4) Table of contents
5) List of tables
6) List of figures
7) The abstract

1) The Title Page: This section carries information on the project, the programme (degree,
diploma or certificate for which the project is being undertaken. the department and the
university/institution to which the report is being presented, the particulars of the student
submitting the project, the month and year the project is submitted.
2) The Approval Page: This page makes provision for the signatures of the supervisor, the
internal examiner, the external examiner, the head of the department and dean of the faculty
3) The Acknowledgement: This section is used to express gratitude and indebtedness to
individuals, institutions or organizations that provided one form of assistance or the other
during the execution of the work.
4) The Table of Contents: The various elements, chapters or parts of the report and the pages
where they appear are listed. Only the first pages are Indicated.
5) The List of Tables and Figure: It follows after the table of contents.
6) The Abstract: This is a very short account of the work. This short account gives an idea of
the purpose of the work brief description of the methodology and the major findings of the
study.
b) The main body of the report: This section embodies the major report of the project The
materials in this section are usually arranged in five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter is arranged under sub-section as given below
1.1 Background to the-Study (Problem): Under this subsection, the researcher traces the
conditions and factors necessitating the study. Here, researcher presents all materials', which
will help his reader understand the development of the problem under investigation The essence
is to provide the necessary background information that will show the reader the conditions
circumstances and factors that have given rise to the problems under investigation.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem: Having traced the development of the problem in the preceding
subsection the problem is now formulated and defined in concise and precise terms. The
statement of the problem can be stated in either a declarative or an interrogative form in
whichever form the problem is stated the important thing is that it should be short (not
exceeding fait a quarto-sized Page) and unambiguous.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
This refers to what will be accomplished in the study, it represents a statement of the objectives
of the study. This can be written as a general statement of what the researcher Intends to
accomplish which is then broken down to specific statement of objectives in doing this ft is
important to strike a balance, between specificity and generality in other words, the objectives
should not be too specific as to result in a long and unmanageable list of specific objectives nor
too general as not to sufficiently guide action. Effort is always made to avoid preambles or any
materials that do not directly relate to the purpose of the study. Such materials are unnecessary
and could bore the reader of the report.
1.4 Research Questions and/or Hypotheses
Research question refer to the major questions to which the researcher seeks to provide answers
in the course of the Investigation, while hypotheses refer to 'Intelligent guesses' or hunches
which the researcher formulates to guide his search for the solution to the problem.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This can also be called the rationale or Importance of the study it has to do with contributions
the researcher hopes the work either to the theory or the practice of his field. This subsection
is concerned with the usefulness of the findings of the study to mankind either in a theoretical
or practical field. This provides the justification or rationale for undertaking the investigation,
Indeed, this is a very important subsection of any project report since it tries to establish
whether or not the work of some value.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

This chapter comprises the following sub-sections
3.1 Materials and Equipment
In this section all the essential items required for the execution of the whole work are listed
3.2 Procedure
This relates to the general approach adopted in executing the project. What is required hare is
for the researcher to specify the type of research design followed in the study,
3.3 Illustrations and Sketches
Here, the researcher displays sketches and pictures depicting how the work was carried out.
3.4 Data collection (where necessary)
This shows the population, the samples and sampling techniques used if required. The data
collected should be presented in simple tables.

Chapter 4 Results and Discussion

Here results obtained from the work carried out should critically examined and reported.
Results include observations and analysis of data collected. After the results were analysed,
interpretation then follows to see whether the aims of the work have been achieved.

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations

This chapter, which is the last chapter, comprises:

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5.1 Summary of major findings
The researcher provides a summary of the entire work i.e. a brief account of the entire report.
5.2 Conclusion
The major findings that emerged from the study should constitute the conclusion.
5.3. Recommendations
These are suggested actions, which could be taken in the light I findings to bring about
improvements in the system of in the discipline.
Bibliography and Reference List
The difference between bibliography and a reference is that whereas a bibliography consists of
a listing of all sources that proved useful in the execution of the study, a reference is a list of
all sources that were actually cited in the work
Appendix
This is the last part of a research project report Il consists of all materials that are related to the
report and which may be referred to for greater details but which are not suitable for inclusion
in the main body of the repot. Such materials include the instruments used, calculations, raw
data, letters of introduction, etc.

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