Course content

• Course No.: Agron. 303

• Course title: Rainfed Agriculture
and Watershed Management
• Credit Hrs.: 1+1
 Lecture Schedule
Topic Number of Book (page no.)
lectures

Rainfed agriculture: Introduction and its types 1 A (472-473), D (3), E (308)

History of rainfed agriculture and watershed 2 C (9-16), F (18-19)

management n India
Problems and potentials of rainfed agriculture in 2 B (27-53), C (21-22), D (18-19), E (310-
India 312), F (51-65)

Soil and climatic conditions prevalent in rainfed 1 C (23-32), D (8-10), F (20-27)

areas
Soil and water conservation techniques 2 A (500-515), E (325-332), F(137-180)
Drought: types, effect of water deficit on physico- 2 C (48-52), D (67-70, 81),
morphological characteristics of the plants F (67-73, 77-79)
Crop adaptation and mitigation to drought 2 C (63-74), E (316-317)
Water harvesting: importance, its techniques 1 B (15-21), E (321-322)
Efficient utilization of water through soil and crop 1 C (90-93), (325-340)
management practices
Management of crops in rainfed areas 1 C (94-99),
Contingent crop planning for aberrant weather 1 C (108-110), D (97-98), F (87-99)
conditions
Concept, objective, principles and components of 2 D (227-240), E (320-325), F (227-232)
watershed management, factors affecting
watershed management.
 Text books
Reference books
Handbook of Agriculture (2011)
Directorate of Knowledge Management for Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi.
Chapter 11. Soil and Water Conservation. p. 298-322.
Chapter 13. Watershed Management. p. 422-453.

Modern Concepts and Advanced Principles in Crop Production

S C Panda (ed.). Agrobios (India). Chapter 13. Dry Land Farming. p. 307-352.

A Text Book of Agronomy

B Chandrasekran, K Annadurai and E Somasundaram. New Age International (P) Ltd Publishers. New Delhi.
Chapter 13. Dry Land Agriculture. p. 455-510.

Physiological Aspects of Dryland Farming (1992)

U S Gupta Oxford and IBH publication. Seventh edition.
Chapter 4. Role of mulches in dryland agriculture. p. 237-260.
Chapter 7. Role of antitranspirants in arid agriculture. p. 315-328.

Fifty Years of Dryland Agricultural Research in India (1999)

H P Singh, Y S Ramakrishna, K L Sharma and B Venkeswarlu (ed.). ICAR- Central Research Institute of
Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad.

Dryland Agriculture (2015)

S R Reddy and G P Reddy.
Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana
 Examination Schedule
Test Weightage Date
First Hourly 10 % As per schedule
Mid-term 20% As per schedule
Practical 35 % One week before
End Semester Exam
Final 35% As per schedule
 Institutes working on rainfed farming
ABB : Institute Location
CRIDA : Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture Hyderabad, 1985
CAZRI : Central Arid Zone Research Institute Jodhpur, 1959
CSSRI : Central Soil Salinity Research Institute Karnal, 1969
CSWCR& TI : Central Soil and Water Conservation Research Dehradun, 1974
and Training Institute
ICARDA : International Centre for Agricultural Research in Aleppo, Syria
Dry Areas 1975
ICRISAT : International Crops Research Institute for Semi- Hyderabad, 1972
Arid Tropics
IMD : Indian Meteorological Department Pune/Delhi, 1944
NBSS & LUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Nagpur, 1976
Planning
NCA : National Commission on Agriculture 1976
NRSC : National Remote Sensing Centre) Hyderabad, 2008
 Indian statistics
Parameter Area (m ha)
Geographical area 328.73 M ha
Net cultivated area (arable) 143 M ha
Net sown area 141.4 M ha
Cropping intensity 142%
Net irrigated 68.10 M ha
Forest cover 67.71 M ha
Livestock population 535.8 millions
 Area (million hectares)
Year 1950-51 2013-14 (P)
Net sown (M ha) 118.7 141.4

Gross cropped (M ha) 131.9 200.9

Cropping intensity (%) 111.0 142.0
Net irrigated area (M ha) 20.8 68.1

Gross irrigated area (M ha) 22.6 95.8

Water cycle
 Water resources
• Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered with
water.
• 97% water is in the oceans and seas and is too
saline for any use.
• Only about 2.7% of the global water available is
fresh water and of this, only 30% is available to
meet the requirements of human and livestock
population.
• About 1,10,000 cubic kilometres (km3) water
precipitates annually on the earth surface.
• About 61,000 km3 (55%) evaporates directly back
in to atmosphere and the remaining (49,000 km3)
flows down to the sea.
• India has 2.3% of the world’s land and supports
about 17% of the world population with only 4% of
the world’s freshwater resources
 Water resources
• It is the precipitation in the catchment area
that fills the dams, reservoirs, river, ponds
etc and recharges groundwater.
• Of the 4000 billion cubic metres (BCM) of
average precipitation in India, the utilizable
surface and groundwater resources have
been estimated at 690 BCM and 432 BCM,
respectively.
• India has been divided in to 20 river basins
comprising 12 major with each having
catchment area of 20,000 km2 and, eight
composite river basins.
• About one-third of the country’s area is
drought prone while about 40 M ha has been
estimated to be susceptible to flooding of
which 9 M ha gets affected every year.
• The annual rainfall including snowfall is estimated at 400 M
ha-m (4000 km3 or 4000 BCM).
• About 20 M ha-m is brought from outside India making it total
of 420 M ha-m of water resources.
• About 300 M ha-m of this is generated during SW monsoon
(June-September) and about 100 M ha-m during rest of the
year.
• The potential evapo-transpiration (PET) which is the realistic
measure of the water requirements for optimum vegetation
and crop growth throughout the year, varies widely due to
wide variation in topography, temperature, wind speed, solar
radiation, relative humidity and altitude.
• The average PET of India is about 1771 mm which varies
from 1239 mm in the north (Jammu and Kashmir) to 2052
mm in the south-central region (Andhra Pradesh) of the
country.
Per capita water availability (cubic metres)

Year Per capita water

availability
1951 5177
1991 2209
2001 1820
2025 (projected) 1341
2050 (projected) 1140
 All India per cent irrigated area under
different crops
Crop Irrigated Crop Irrigated Crop Irrigated
area (%) area (%) area (%)
Cereals Pulses Oilseeds
Rice 59.6 Chickpea 35.2 Rapeseed- 76.6
Mustard
Maize 27.2 Arhar 4.3 Groundnut 25.8
Jowar 9.6 Total 19.7 Sunflower 28.6
pulses
Bajra 9.0 Total Soybean 0.6
Wheat 93.6 foodgrains Total 27.3
(cereals + oilseeds
Barley 76.6 pulses) 51.9 Cotton 32.5
Total 59.5 Sugarcane 95.3
cereals
 RAINFED AGRICULTURE
• Where cultivation of crops is
entirely under rainfed conditions.
It is of three types
–1. Dry Farming
–2. Dry Land Farming
–3. Rainfed Farming
 1. DRY FARMING
• In areas where annual rainfall is less
than 750mm / annum.
• Crop failures due to prolonged dry
spells during crop period are most
common.
• Dry faming is practiced in arid regions
with the help of moisture conservation
practices.
• Alternate land use system is suggested
in this region.
 2. DRY LAND FARMING
• Areas where annual rainfall is more
than 750 mm but less than 1150
mm/annum.
• Crop failures are less frequent.
• Higher evapo transpiration (ET ) is main
reason for moisture deficit in these
areas.
• Drainage facility may be required
especially in black soils.
 3. RAINFED FARMING

• Areas where annual rainfall is more

than 1150 mm/annum.
• There are less chances of crop failures
due to dry spells.
• There is adequate rainfall and drainage
becomes the major problem.
• This farming is practiced in humid
regions.
 Classification based on UN social and
economic commission
Component Dry farming Dryland farming Rainfed farming
Rainfall (mm) Less than 750 750-1150 More than 1150
Available crop Less than 75 75-150 More than 150
growth period (days)
Water availability • Acute shortage • Higher ET than RF There is no shortage
• Prolonged dry • Moisture deficit in these of water
spell areas
• Crop failure • Crop failure not common
common • Dry spell shorter than DF
Type of cropping Monocropping. Monocropping and Intercropping and
Short duration intercropping double cropping
crops. is possible
Growing regions Arid and semiarid Semiarid and subhumid Humid and
uplands subhumid
Constraints Lack of water Water and soil Drainage of excess
conservation conservation practices are water is important.
practices important. Drainage Soil conservation is
required in black soils. important.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY
LAND AGRICULTURE
1. Uncertain and limited annual
rainfall-
• Rain is not well distributed.
• Crops very often suffer from
aberrant weather like delayed
onset of monsoon.
• Long gap in rain and early
withdrawal of monsoon.
2. Excessiveclimatic hazarads
• Intensity of rains varies.
• Accelerated run-off and drought.
About one-third of the country’s area is drought prone.
• Flooding may be there.
About 40 M ha has been estimated to be susceptible to
flooding of which 9 M ha gets affected every year.

• Sometimes partial and sometimes

total crop failure.
Physical
Agroclimatic conditions
Dominant features of rainfall in drylands are its limited amount, temporal
and spatial distribution, unpredictability. There is great variation in the
amount, intensity and distribution of rainfall during crop growing
season.
Rainfall varies from less than 100 mm in western Rajasthan to more than
3600 mm in N-E states and from 1100 mm from east coast to about
3000 mm in west coast.
Season Rainfall (million ha-m) Per cent of total
Winter (Jan-February) 12 3
Pre-monsoon (March-May) 52 13

South-west monsoon (June-September) 296 74

North-east monsoon (October-December) 40 10

Total 400
3. Undulating soil surface
• During rainy season water erosion
and wind erosion during summer.
• Leads to eroded gullies or rills.
• Cultivation is being done on
undulating soils.
• Economic condition is poor.
4. Extensive holding
• Due to crop failure cattle and human
life becomes very difficult.
• Population density is poor.
• Land holdings higher.
5. Extensive agriculture
• Agriculture is extensive due to
frequent crop failure and less/no
irrigation facilities.
• Keep fellow during rainy season.
• Only take rabi crops.
• Sometimes grow pigeonpea based
intercropping.
6. Larger plot size
• Due to crop failure and no irrigation
facility, plots are of larger sizes.
• Bigger sizes also due to fully
mechanized.
7. Similar types of crops
• Only drought resistant crops are grown.
• Pigeonpea, castor, millets and oilseeds.
• If you find poor crop with big and
undulating plots, it is rainfed crop.
 Constraints in Dryland Agriculture
Physical
• Agroclimatic conditions
• Soil characteristics – Physical, chemical, biological
Technological
• Soil fertility
• Crop improvement
• Production practices
Institutional and Infrastructural
• Credit
• Marketing and distribution
• Research and technology transfer
• Fertilizers and other agro-chemicals
• Farm level knowledge base
Socio-economic
• Population growth
• Land tenure and fragmentation
• Role of women
• Non availability of labour
• Bio-diversity
Various constrains that limit farming in drylands can be categorized as:
1. Physical
▪ Agro-climatic conditions
▪ Soil characteristics – Physical, chemical, biological

2. Technological
▪ Soil fertility
▪ Crop improvement
▪ Production practices – Agronomic, mechanical/power, fallow

3. Institutional and infrastructural

▪ Credit
▪ Inputs supply and marketing of produce
▪ Research and technology transfer
▪ Fertilizer and agrochemicals
▪ Farm level knowledge

4. Socio-economic
▪ Population growth
▪ Land tenure and fragmentation
▪ Participation of women in farming activities
▪ Bio-diversity
 1. Physical constraints
• Agro-climatic conditions
• Precipitation, temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, wind, evapo-
transpiration, cloudiness
Rainfall
Onset, amount, intensity and distribution of rainfall is very important for successful
crop production.
Dominating features of rainfall are:
Unpredictability, temporal and spatial variability (irregular distribution), limited
availability.
Average annual rainfall of India is 1196 mm which amounts to 400 Mha-m of
rainwater over the geographical area of 329 Mha.
Distribution: less than 100 mm in western Rajasthan (extreme arid zone) to more
than 3600 mm in N-E states.
1100 mm from east coast to about 3000 mm in west coast.
Cherrapunji (Meghalaya) on the southern slope of Khasi hills received the largest
amount of rainfall annually (11,420 mm) whereas the Thar desert in Rajasthan
receives the lowest amount of rainfall (less than 100 mm).
Rainfall pattern in India
Season Rainfall
M ha-m Per cent
Winter (January- 12 3
February)
Pre-monsoon (March- 52 13
May)
South-west monsoon 296 74
(June-September)
North-west monsoon 40 10
(October-December)
Total 400 100
There are at least four kinds of variations in rainfall.
i) The commencement of rains may be quite early or considerably
delayed.
ii) ii) There may be prolonged dry spell in between two rainfall
events. These breaks in monsoon rains can be of different
duration. The breaks of 5 to 7 days may not be all serious
concern but breaks of longer duration of 2 - 3 weeks create the
situation of plant water stress leading to reduction in agricultural
production.
iii) iii) The rains may terminate considerably earlier or persists
longer than usual.
iv) iv) Uneven distribution of rains.
Temperature
Temperature extremes limit crop growth and productivity.
Low altitude tropical and sub-tropical regions experience high
temperature for longer part of the year.
Higher altitude temperate (continental) regions experience
excessively lower temperatures.

During the winter season, the north-east India experiences very

low temperature which range from -9 to -14°C in the Ladakh
region (cold arid zone) to 3 – 10°C in arid regions of Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan. Frost often occurs in north-west
India.
May and June are the hottest months and the temperature as
high as 48°C. On an individual days temperature of about 50°C
are also recorded. Heat waves occur during this period.
With the onset of monsoon, the mean daily temperature falls
sharply from 42°C in June to 33°C in July and 36°C in August to
September.
Sunshine
Duration of bright sunshine hours is an important factor in dry
areas.
The daily average sunshine hours are 7 to 9 in winter over arid
zone except cold arid parts where the duration is less than 2.5
hours per day. During the summer season the arid zones record
9 to 10 hours per day and highest over Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Maharashtra regions while in cold arid zone, it is less than 8
hours.
With the onset of monsoon the hours of bright sunshine decreases
sharply to 4 to 5 hours per day in southern arid zone 4 to 7
hours in northern arid zone. In the month of October when
south west monsoon is withdrawn over major part of the
country, the highest bright sunshine hours of 10 per day are
recorded over western Rajasthan which decrease south wards
and are around 5 to 8 hours in southern arid zone on an annual
basis. The northern arid zones recorded slightly higher number
of sunshine hours (>8 hours per day) as compared to southern
arid zone (7 to 8 hours per day).
Winds
Many dryland areas are subject to strong winds that
adversely affect the water economy of plants by way of
increased evapo-transpiration and cause soil erosion.
Wind often accentuates the effect of temperature
extremes on plant growth.
In these areas wind regime is very strong in Gujarat
followed by Western Rajasthan, where mean wind
speed may be >20 km per hour during April to July.
In southern arid zone stronger wind regime (>18 km/hour)
prevails in Kurnool region of Andhra Pradesh and over
Raichur region of Karnataka during June to August.
Physical damage to the plants caused by blowing sand can
be a serious problem in some areas.
The potential evapo-transpiration (PET) is the realistic measure of the water
requirements for optimum vegetation and crop growth throughout the year. It
varies widely due to wide variation in topography, temperature, wind speed, solar
radiation, relative humidity and altitude. The average PET of India is about 1771
mm which varies from 1239 mm in the north (Jammu and Kashmir) to 2052 mm in
the south-central region (Andhra Pradesh) of the country.

• Time of onset of rainy season may help in deciding about the crop, plant
population to be maintained, investment on fertilizers and other inputs.
• Early onset of rainfall indicates increased probability of above average
rainfall. So longer duration crop, higher plant population and higher
doses of mineral fertilizers should be used.
• Of late, there is evidence of erratic behaviour of rainfall (increased
frequency of high intensity rains, reduced number of rainy days and shift
in rainfall pattern).
• In future, rainfall distribution is likely to be more erratic with high
intensity storms followed by long dry spells.
 Soil characteristics
• Major soil types in India are: black, alluvial, red (laterite
and lateritic), sierozems and sub-mountane soil.
Alluvial: 78 M ha, Black: 51.8 M ha, Red: 51 M ha,
Lateritic: 12.6 M ha and Desert: 37 M ha.

• Alluvial, sierozems and sub-mountane soil dominate in

north-west India.
• Black and red soils are mainly present in central and
south India
• Laterite and lateritic soils predominate the high rainfall
regions and coastal areas.
Vertisols
• Vertisols (Black soils) occupy 72 million ha in India and constitute
22% of the country’s geographical area. Vertisols are
predominant in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Nearly 84% of Maharashtra, 44% of Gujarat, and 38% of Madhya
Pradesh are occupied by these soils. The annual rainfall is 500 mm.
• These soils have high clay content (30 to 70%) and high water
holding capacity, the water intake capacity early in the monsoon
season is high due to deep cracks and larger water retention
capacity.
Alluvial soils
• These soils occupy nearly 21% of the geographical area.
• Alluvial soils are generally loamy sand or sandy loam, very deep
with low water holding capacity.
• Water intake is high and the soils tend to crust on the surface
with a beating rain which leads to runoff during subsequent rains.
Alfisols
• Alfisols (Red soils) are agriculturally important soils in drylands.
These soils occupy about 20% of the geographical area. The clay is
predominantly Kaolinitic in nature and dominated by calcium.
These clay are red or reddish brown to yellowish brown is colour.
• The plant available moisture storage in the root zone of these soils
is usually less than 10 cm.
• Alfisols generally have inherently low water retention capacity.
• Although there soils are easy to till when wet, they become hard
when dry and are difficult to plough.

Laterite soils
• These soils cover 13 M ha in India.
• These soils are well drained with a satisfactory hydraulic
• conductivity. The clay is mostly either Kaolinitic or illitic type.
• Laterite soils are generally associated with undulating topography
with a relatively high annual rainfall.
Sierozemic soils
• Sierozemic soils are extremely rich in sands, loamy sand and
sandy loam.
• Soil erosion through wind is common. These soils are light
textured and hence hold less water and nutrients.
• Calcium carbonate concretions occur at various depths,
influencing the effective soil depth. Surface crusting is a
serious problem.
• Subsoil salinity is common due to extreme aridity.
Submontane soils
• The land is generally undulating.
• These soils are spread in the hill and foothill regions of India.
• Soils are silty loam to loam. These are medium to deep.
• Land slide and soil erosion are common. The stored water in
these soils may very from 20 to 30 cm per metre profile.
• Adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation measure
is a must.
Physical
Poor physical properties of soils are the major constraints in
Drylands. Such soils are:
• Susceptible to wind and water erosion
• Shallow, stony with restricted drainage
• Many upland soils in the tropical regions are sandy,
gravelly and often shallow. Such soils have low water
holding capacity.
• Soil crusting
• Soil compaction by tillage implements
• Such conditions lead to large amount of water runoff, poor
biomass production and hence low organic matter
addition in to soil.
• Crusting and cracking lead to high rate of evaporation and
mechanical injury to plants
• Uneven topography with high erodibility.
• Shallow or very deep soil with extreme permeability.
• Waterlogging in level lands, flooding.
• Low moisture storage and release capacity particularly of Alfisols.

Vertisols
• Have high water holding capacity but are difficult to manage.
These are very soft when wet and very hard when dry.
• Difficulty in workability. These require lot of energy/ power for
tillage.

Deep black soils have capacity to store more than 300 mm of water
per meter depth whereas the desert soil can store only 100 mm
of water per meter soil depth. The impact of drought is felt
more quickly in the soil having less water holding capacity but in
sols with high storage capacity 15 days, dry break may not affect
the crop
 Chemical
• Poor and marginal soils with inherent low fertility.
• Deficiency of major and minor nutrients.
For example, poor P availability restricts root development.
• Poor soil organic matter content
• Presence of dissolved salts in ground water.
• High concentration of soluble salts in the surface
soils
• Acidity, toxicity of aluminium
 Biological
• Biological activity in dryland soils is generally much lower
than humid regions due to low organic matter levels and
lack of moisture.
• Organic matter present in dryland soils is chemically and
biologically less stable. This results in low water and
nutrient retention, increase in soil acidity and poor plant
growth which in turn reduces supply of organic residues.
In drylands, crop residues are used as dry fodder and fuel.
Tillage is often necessary for increasing infiltration but
it should be practices as minimum as possible. Any
practice that stirs the soil exposes more surface area
and thus increases organic matter decomposition,
Excessive tillage increases rate of decomposition of
organic matter.

Sub-surface tillage which ensures retention of residues

on the surface and exposes fewer soil surface
increases infiltration, reduces erosion and results in
less organic matter decomposition.
This improves the overall biological condition of the soil
and physical and chemical characteristics of the soil.
 2. Technological constraints
Soil fertility
Low native fertility is widespread particularly in sandy/light textured
soils.
Keeping land fallow/uncropped, low biomass production, loss of fertile
top soils due to erosion lead to decline in soil fertility.
• Application of desired nutrients in optimum amounts and time is
important. It must coincide with moisture availability. Maintaining
weed free conditions is equally important.
• Inclusion of legumes in cropping systems
• BNF, inoculation of legumes with proper rhizobium or cereals with
appropriate biofertilizers (Azobacter, Azospirillum, VAM etc.)
• Adequate phosphorus and starter dose of nitrogen is important for
BNF.
• Application of organic manures to supply major and micro-nutrients
and favourable physical conditions of the soil.
• Combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.
• Incorporation of crop residues.
Crop improvement
• Choice of crops: drought tolerant crops and cultivars
Coarse cereals, pulses, oilseeds, legume fodders
• Duration of crops: Short duration, critical growth periods matching with
soil moisture availability.
60-70 days pearl millet, 80-90 days groundnut, sesame, 70-80 days legumes

Livestock is an important component of production system in drylands.

India has world’s largest livestock population with 55% and 16% of world’s
buffalo and cattle populations. Rainfed areas account for two-third of the
total livestock population.
It has increased from 445 million in 1961 to about 500 million in 2000 AD. It
is largely responsible for continuous degradation of forests, grasslands,
village common lands and alpine pastures. The average grazing intensity
is about 42 animals per ha of land against the threshold of 5 animals per
ha.
Straw is equally important to grain.
Production practices
• Technologies must suit the local environment as well
as to the prevailing social, economic and institutional
conditions.
• Refinement of existing technologies in a particular
ecosystems is most desired. Role of Indigenous
Technological Knowledge (ITKS) is very important.
• Farmer with limited resources finds it difficult and
risky to adopt several new technologies that require
shifting of existing practices and additional resources.
• Adoption of technologies under dryland conditions is
slow.
Agronomic, mechanical/power, fallow
• Soil and moisture conservation practices
• Increased biomass production and soil cover
Contour bunding, tied ridges, water harvesting, erosion
control.
▪ Tillage – to improve infiltration, facilitate sowing, weed control
▪ Selection of crops and cultivars including intercropping
▪ Time and method sowing
▪ Plant population
▪ Weed management,
▪ Mulching,
▪ Organic manures and chemical fertilizers (Type, amount,
time of application),
▪ Disease and pest management.
3. Institutional and infrastructural constraints
Credit – Affordable to resource poor farmers.
Easy availability
Input availability and marketing of produce
• Inputs not available in time and at affordable prices.
• Difficulty in obtaining parts and maintaining equipments.
Production ranges from very low in poor rainfall years to
abundance in good rainfall years. There should be
remunerative price, assured purchase price stability.
Purchase by agencies at MSP.
Need to strengthen cooperative and trade organizations
and to promote custom hiring.
Creation of storage facilities.
Improved infrastructure and connectivity
Research and
• Innovative and improved technologies to suit the
local conditions.
• Technologies should be less risky, technically
feasible, affordable, economically viable, socially
acceptable and sustainable.
Technology transfer
Involvement of local farmers in technology
dissemination is very important.
Information about need, technical and economic
benefits, ease of adoption in comparison to
traditional practices is important.
4. Socio economic constraints
Population growth
• Population pressure affects resource base. Demand of land for habitation,
infrastructure is increasing.
• Demand of food, fiber, fodder, fuel is increasing.
• Pressure on land to produce more per unit of land and water is increasing.
Land tenure and fragmentation
• Land management practices required for soil and moisture conservation
such as terracing, contour bunding are difficult on small holdings.
• Use of modern machinery is difficult on smaller plots.
Participation of women
• Women do more than half the work involved in food production in south-
east Asia.
• Women seldom hold title to land or other items of significant worth to use
as collateral.
• Participation of women in training programmes particularly those related to
farming practices is low.
• Light weight, easy to use implements are needed.
Non availability of labour: There is increased movement of people to
cities to look for job opportunities.
• Timelines of farming operations is dry faming is very critical. Labour
is generally not available in time for crucial operations such as
sowing, thinning, weeding, harvesting, etc.
• Cost of labour is also very high. With development of new
technologies, there is also dearth of skilled labour.
• Women folk have to spend significant part of the day to collect
drinking water and fuel from far flung areas.
Biodiversity
• India is rich in biodiversity because of diverse physiographic and
climatic conditions and is one of the 12 mega biodiversity centres of
the world.
• India has immensely rich natural/agricultural biodiversity in terms
of plants, crops, wild plants, aquatic species, below groundnut
biota, microbes etc.
• India ranks seventh in the world in number of species contributing
to agriculture and animal husbandry. Our forests which are all
rainfed are rich in biodiversity.
• Forests have immense role in arresting climate change, rainfall and
providing wood, fuel and fodder.
 HISTORY OF DRYLAND AGRICULTURE

Year Development
1920 : Royal Commission on Agriculture emphasized the
need to develop plans for agricultural development in
water scarce area.
1923 : First Dryland Farming Research Station (a small farm)
was established at Manjri near Pune by Tamhane.
1933 : Research stations were established at Bijapur
(Karnataka) and Sholapur (Maharastra).
1934 : Research stations were established at Hagari and
Raichur (Karnataka).
1935 : Research station was established at Rohtak (Haryana,
estwhile combined Punjab).
1942 : Bombay Land Development Act was passed.
1944 : Monograph on dryfarming in India was published by
Kanitkar.
Kanitkar was involved in the project on dryland farming
at Pune since 1926.
1953 : Central Soil Conservation Board was established.
1954 : Eight Soil Conservation Research Centres established.
1955 : Demonstration centres to showcase dry farming
practices were started.
1970 : Twenty three research stations were established in the
country under AICRPDA
(Hyderabad, Anantpur, Bellary, Bangalore, Kovilpatti,
Bhubaneswar, Ranchi, Varanasi, Rewa, Jhansi,
Dehradun, Ludhiana, Samba, Hisar, Agra, Jodhpur,
Udaipur, Rajkot, Anand, Indore, Akola, Sholapur and
Bijapur).
1972 : ICRISAT was established at Hyderabad.
1976 : Dryland Operational Research Projects started.
1977 : Krishi Vigyan Kendra was established at Hyatnagar
1983 : 47 Model Watersheds were set up by ICAR.
1984 : Dryland Development Board was established in
Karnataka.
World Bank assisted Watershed Development
Programmes were started in four states.
1985 : CRIDA was established at Hyderabad
1986 : NWDPRA programmes were started in 15 states by
Govt of India.
1933- : Rainfall analysis, physico-chemical properties of
1944 soils, physiological studies on mainly on millets led to
development of several agronomic practices such as
contour bunding, deep ploughing, application of FYM,
wider spacing, lower seed rate, mixed cropping, crop
rotations.
Bombay dry farming practices, Hyderabad dry
farming practices, Madras dry farming practices.
1950s : Soil management practices (soil and mositure
conservation). Eight Soil Conservation Research
Centres were established.
1960s : Importance of short duration varieties was realized.
Use of high yielding varieties and hybrids was felt.
1970s : With the establishment of AICRPDA in 1970, focus
shifted to multidisciplinary approach.
 History of dryland agriculture
1986 NARP Phase II by National Watershed Development
Board (NWDP)
1988 National Research Centre for Agroforestry
1988 National Land Use Policy
1989 Integrated Watershed Development Projects (IWDP)
by NWDP
1998 National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)
1990 NRC for Arid-Horticulture at Bikaner
2005 National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP)
2006 National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA)
1970- : ICAR-ICRISAT collaborative research focused on
1987 biological nitrogen fixation, agro forestry, soil and
moisture conservation, vegetative barriers for soil and
water conservation, economics of watershed
technologies.
1980s - : Under Indo-US collaborative project and CRIDA-US
collaborative project, focus in on fertilizer use efficiency,
germplasm enhancement, evaluation of legumes for
higher nitrogen fixation , development of implements for
dryland agriculture, crop simulation modeling.
This project aims at identification of constraints
responsible for lower yields and to develop location
specific research programmes to solve these production
constraints.
16 Agro-Economic research centres,
5 Centres for pasture research and development studies,
4 Centes for operational research,
One KVK for dryland agriculture and
One Trainers’ Training centre.
 Drought
In general, drought denotes the scarcity of water at a
particular location/region. It refers to prolonged period
without rainfall.
“when actual seasonal rainfall is deficient by more than
twice the mean deviation’.
‘A period of abnormally dry weather sufficiently prolonged
for lack of water to cause severe hydrological imbalance
in the area affected’.
Drought is the result of imbalance between soil moisture
and evapo-transpiration needs of an area over a fairly
long period as to cause damage to standing crop
leading to reduction in crop yield.
Thus prolonged drought affects crop growth and
productivity.
Aridity and Drought
Both aridity and drought are caused by
insufficient moisture.
Aridity is a permanent climatic feature and is
the result of long term processes.
Drought is a temporary condition which occurs
for a short period due to insufficient precipitation
for vegetation, water supply and river flow.
Drought is due to anomaly in atmospheric
circulation.
 Distribution of drylands in India
Mean annual Climate zone Net dryland Geographical
rainfall (mm) area (mha) area (mha)
<500 Arid 10.9 52.1
500-750 Dry semi arid 22.2 40.3
750-1000 Wet semi arid 21.2 65.5
1000-1250 Sub humid 19.6 -
>1250 Humid 27.7 -
1000-2500 - - 137.2
>2500 - - 32.6
Total 101.6 327.7
 Agro-climatic characterization of drylands
Thorthwaite (1948) was the first to utilize the concept of PET and water balance for
a rational classification of climates.
Based on his approach, Subrahmanyan (1956) gave first rational climate
classification of India known as Moisture Regime Classification.
There are six types of climates
No. Type of climate Region/state
i. Per humid : North east, west coast and adjoining hills
ii. Humid : North east, west coast and adjoining hills
iii. Moist sub humid : Punjab (northern part), Haryana, U.P., Bihar, West
Bengal, Odisha, M.P. Vidarbha, northern A.P
iv. Dry sub humid : Coastal Tamil Nadu
v. Semi arid : Kanyakumari in south to Punjab in north, Peninsular
(rainfall 500-750 mm) east coast of western ghats
vi. Arid (rainfall <500 mm) : Western Rajasthan, Saurastra and Kutch region of
Gujarat, Bellary-Anantpur areas of Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, Tirunelveli region of Tamil Nadu
Desert: It is the place/region where the annual rainfall is less
than 250 mm with extreme temperature fluctuations. Most
of the vegetation is restricted to only during short rainy
season.

Arid region: An area where annual rainfall is less than 500

mm. Drought is almost invisible during most of the years.
Crop cultivation is not possible without irrigation.

Semi-arid region: An area where annual rainfall is between

500-750 mm.
Rainfall is sufficient for cultivation of certain crops with proper
management.

Drought occurs due to deficit seasonal rainfall or inadequate

soil moisture availability between two successive rainfall
events. The chances of drought in this region are 40%-60%.
Aridity: It means excess of evaporation over
precipitation. It is the permanent climatic feature
and is the culmination of number of long term
processes. Like drought, aridity is also due to
insufficient water.
Both aridity and drought are due to insufficient
water availability.
Aridity is a permanent climatic feature and is the
culmination of a number of long term processes
whereas, drought is a temporary condition that
occurs for a short period due to deficient
precipitation for vegetation, river flow, water
supply for irrigation and human consumption.
 DROUGHT
Drought denotes the scarcity of water in a particular
location/region.
It is a prolonged period without rainfall.
It is the situation when actual seasonal rainfall is
deficient by more than twice the mean deviation.
Water demand is more than the its supply or availability.
Drought is a period of abnormally dry weather
sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause severe
hydrological imbalance in the affected area (American
Meteorological Society) .
Drought is a situation in any area when annual rainfall is
less than 75% of the normal (Indian Meteorological
Department). When deficiency of rainfall exceeds 50% of
the normal, such drought is considered as ‘severe
drought’.
 Drought
Drought is due to anomaly of atmospheric circulation.
Drought is the result of imbalance between soil moisture
and evapo-transpiration needs of an area over a fairly
long period as to cause damage to standing crop leading
to reduction in crop yield.
Thus prolonged drought affects crop growth and
productivity.
 Classification of drought
Based on duration
Depending up on the duration of rainless period or moisture scarcity, there
are four types of drought (Thornthwaite 1948).
i) Permanent drought: This is the characteristic of desert climate where
sparse vegetation growing is adapted to drought and agriculture is
possible only by irrigation during entire crop season.
ii) Seasonal drought: This kind of situation occurs in climates with well
defined rainy and dry seasons. Most of the arid and semi-arid regions fall
under this category. Duration of crops and their varieties should be such
that these complete their growth cycle during the rainy season.
iii) Contingent drought: It involves abnormal failure of rainfall. It may occur
any where especially in the humid and sub humid climates. This kind of
drought is generally brief, irregular and affects only a small area.
iv) Invisible drought: It is the situation when the rainfall is insufficient/
inadequate to meet the evapo-transpiration losses. As a result water
deficiency in the soil causes less than optimum yield. It may occur even
when there is frequent rain in an area. It usually occurs in the humid areas.
Based on nature of the users
On the basis of relevance of water by users, National
Commission on Agriculture (1976) classified drought in
three categories as:
i) Meteorological drought: It is defined as the condition
where annual precipitation is lower than the normal over
an area for a prolonged period (month, season, year).
ii) Atmospheric drought: It occurs due to low air humidity
frequently accompanied by hot dry winds. It may occur
even under adequate availability of soil moisture. Plants
growing under favourable soil moisture regime are usually
susceptible to atmospheric drought.
iii) Hydrological drought: Meteorological drought when
prolonged results in hydrological drought with depletion
of soil moisture and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks
etc.
iv) Agricultural drought: Agricultural drought may be defined as the
period of dryness during crop season/growth sufficiently prolonged
to adversely affect the crop yield. It is the result of soil moisture
stress due to imbalance between available soil moisture and evapo-
transpiration of a crop. It actually commences when plant roots are
not able to obtain soil moisture rapidly enough to replace evapo-
transpiration losses.
Agricultural drought is the result of imbalance between soil moisture
and evapo-transpiration needs of an area over a fairly long period to
cause damage to standing crops and to reduce yields.
Agricultural drought refers to the condition when moisture
availability is inadequate to meet the demands of potential evapo-
transpiration (PET).
It is usually the consequence of scant precipitation or its uneven
distribution both in space (spatial) and time (temporal). Such kind of
drought is also referred as ‘soil drought’.
The extent of reduction in yield depends up on the crop
growth stage and the degree of moisture stress. Usually,
it is gradual and progressive.

Agricultural drought may be caused by:

• Inadequate precipitation,
• Erratic distribution of rains,
• Long dry spell during monsoon,
• Late onset on monsoon,
• Early withdrawal of monsoon.
 Types of agricultural drought
Agricultural drought is defined as the situation when both soil moisture and rainfall
are inadequate to support a healthy crop during crop growth period.
Crop production in rainfed areas is generally affected by 5 distinct categories of
drought.
(i) Early season; (ii) Mid season; (iii) Late season; (iv) Chronic; (v) Apparent
(i) Early season drought: It is due to delayed onset of monsoon or prolonged dry
spell soon after onset of rainy season.
It leads to poor crop stand and poor seedling growth and reduction in
duration of water availability for crop growth. This situation may lead to
resowing.
(ii) Mid season drought: It occurs due prolonged dry spell between two
successive rains. It is due to inadequate availability of soil moisture between
two successive rainfall events during crop growth period.
This kind of drought mostly affects vegetative or flowering or early
reproductive stage of the crop. The effect varies with crop growth stage and
duration and intensity of drought spell.
Vegetative stage: leads to stunted growth, less biomass production
Flowering or early Reproductive stage: leads to reduction in yield due to poor seed
set.
(iii) Late season drought: It occurs due to early cessation of monsoon. This kind of
drought is also known as terminal drought. It generally occurs during years of
late commencement of monsoon rains or weak monsoon activity.
Since moisture deficiency coincides with reproductive stage of the crop, the yield is
reduced. This kind of drought/situation is often associated with an increase in
ambient temperature which leads to forced maturity of crop.
(iv) Chronic drought: This kind of drought in arid areas where rainfall and
stored soil moisture are inadequate to meet the water requirement of the crops
during most of the years. The assured growing period is only about 6-7 weeks.
This region is suitable only for desert grasses, other crops are, nevertheless grown
for subsistence in spite of inadequate rainfall.
(v) Apparent drought: In low to medium rainfall regions, the amount and
distribution of rainfall may be sufficient to support low water requiring crops.
When a crop of higher water requirement is grown in such areas for economic
reasons, rainfall patterns may not adequately meet the demand. Under such
situations, apparent drought conditions are seen in some areas due to mis-
match of cropping pattern in relation to rainfall or moisture availability patterns.
There may be drought in red soil but not in black soil.
Physiological drought: It refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb
water from soil even when water is available, due to the high osmotic pressure
of soil solution due to increased salt concentration, as in saline and alkaline
soils. It is not due to deficit of water supply.
Indices of Aridity No. Moisture Index Climate classification
Quantity
Thornthwaite and Mather (1955)
i. 100 and above Per humid
classification: ii. 20−100 Humid
Moisture Index (Im) = 100 [(P-PE)/PE] iii. 0–20 Moist sub humid
where, P = Precipitation, iv. −33.3−0 Dry sub humid
PE = Potential evapo-transpiration
v. −66.7 to −33.3 Semi arid
vi. −100 to −66.7 Arid

Zone Moisture index Moisture belt

1 < −80 Extremely dry
ICAR classification of agroclimatic zones 2 −60 to −80 Semi dry
Thornthwaite and Mathur (1955) classified 3 −40 to −60 Dry
only six categories, while the ICAR had eight 4 −20 to −40 Slightly dry
moisture indices with eight moisture belt 5 0 to −20 Slightly moist
indicating eight zones in India. The scale 6 0 to +50 Moist
adopted in defining climatic zones in 7 +50 to +100 Wet
terms of moisture indices are 8 > +100 Extremely wet
Quantification of intensity of agricultural drought
It is often difficult to quantify or measure the agricultural drought due to:
• Diversity of crops grown in a given area;
• Variability of soil;
• Spatial variability of rains
• Diversity of crop management practices
Nevertheless, various approaches have been suggested to quantify or
measure the agricultural drought
Index of moisture adequacy (IMA): Actual Evapo-transpiration (ET)
Potential evapo-transpiration (PET)
during crop season at various phenophases
Moisture availability index (MAI):
Rainfall (for a specified period may be week/month/season) at 50%
probability level
Potential evapo-transpiration of the corresponding period.
MAI = Rainfall at 50% probability/PET
Aridity index (AI): Number of rainy days x mean precipitation per day
Mean temperature + 10

Moisture Deficit Index (MDI): (Precipitation – PET) x 100

PET

Thornthwaite Moisture Index (TMI): Actual evaporation

PET
Dry spell: A period of at least 15 consecutive days during which not
even single rain has fallen.
Floods:It refers to situation of water stagnation due to receipt of
excess rainfall or entry of river/dam waters in to cropped areas.
Flooding results in anaerobic conditions which damage the crop
depending up on stage of the crop.
 Effect of drought on crop production
Water deficit in plants occurs when transpiration exceeds the absorption of water. This may
be due to excessive water loss (by means of transpiration) or reduced absorption (may
be due to dry soil) or both.
As a result of increase in the atmospheric dryness, absorption of water lags behind
transpiration which results in loss of turgor.
Turgor is the swollen condition of the cell resulting from hydrostatic pressure exerted by
the protoplasm on the cells.
Water deficit causes dehydration of protoplasm associated with loss of turgor. More the
water the plant can hold in its tissues under stress conditions, greater will be the ability
of the protoplasm to withstand permanent injury during drought.

Depending up on the degree of internal water deficit and its duration, the water deficit may
be:

Incipient wilting: Small loss in turgor. It does not produce visible wilting symptoms. It
occurs almost daily in warm, dry weather conditions even when the soil is moist.

Temporary wilting: A more severe loss of water; causes leaf drooping. It may reduce growth.
Plants regain turgidity when water supply is restored.

Permanent wilting:A longer period of dehydration from which plants are no longer able to
recover even under saturated conditions.
Moisture stress affects various processes of plant growth and development.
However , all the processes are not influenced equally.

Photosynthesis: Photosynthetic activity is related to 3 main processes, all of

which are affected by moisture stress.
• Supply of CO2 to the photosynthetic sites,
• Photochemical processes associated with utilization of light energy,
• Dark chemical processes associated with the chemical reduction of CO2.
There is progressive decline in the rate of photosynthesis with increasing
water stress. Both soil water stress and atmospheric water stress act additively
in reducing the rate of photosynthesis.
As the soil moisture stress increases, the photosynthesis drops to
compensation point.
Water stress affects photosynthesis directly by affecting various biochemical
processes involved in photosynthesis and, indirectly by reducing the intake
of CO2 through stomata as a result of their closure in response to water
stress and leaf area.
Water stress hastens leaf senescence. Leaf area is more affected by water
stress than net assimilation rate.
Moisture stress in plants thus, reduces the photosynthesis due to reduction
in photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area and increase in
assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack of translocation).
Respiration: It generally responds in the inverse direction of
photosynthesis. Mild degree of drought increases respiration but more
severe drought lowers water content and respiration. Since stomata are
closed under moisture stress conditions, photosynthesis is reduced and
leaf temperature is increased resulting in increased respiration.

Metabolic reaction: Almost all metabolic reactions within plant are

influenced by water deficits. There is overall decrease in enzymatic activity.
As the cytoplasm is dehydrated, activity of some of the enzymes involved in
the synthesis is reduced more than the other. As a result of moisture stress,
there is decline in nitrate reductase activity and increase in the hydrostatic
reactions – the starch is hydrolysed to sugar; protein is hydrolysed to amino
acids. Conversion of starch in to sugars and their accumulation increases
osmotic pressure. This causes reduction in permeability of plant cells so
that the internal resistance to water flow increases to reduce water loss
escape mechanism).
Moisture stress affects protein synthesis. There is substantial accumulation
of certain amino acids especially proline.

Water deficit impairs nucleic acid system. Degradation of RNA proceeds

more rapidly than its synthesis and this affects enzyme production.
Anatomical changes: Decrease in size of the cells and intercellular spaces,
thicker cell wall and greater development of mechanical tissue are the
anatomical changes caused by drought conditions. Stomata per unit leaf
surface tend to increase due to reduced size of the cells.
Hormone production: The activity of growth promoting hormones like
cytokinin, gibberelic acid and indole acetic acid decreases but growth
regulating hormone like abscisic acid, ethylene etc. increases.
Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of N is adversely affected.
Since dry matter production is considerably reduced, the uptake of
nutrients is reduced.
Root development: Root growth decreases with increasing water stress.
Weight of the roots is affected more without appreciable reduction in
number of roots. Length of roots may increase as the roots grow towards
water in the soil. Roots may become finer and more fibrous. Roots may
become subberised up to their tips and thereby lose part of their absorbing
capacity.
 Growth and Development
Growth is defined as the irreversible change in length, weight, size etc. of plant.
Under moisture stress, growth may be suspended. It may resume upon
elimination of moisture stress. Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves,
stems and fruits.
Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits.

The vegetative stage may be less sensitive to drought.

Flowering (initiation of flowering to fruit set): Moisture stress at flowering
determines the number of fruits which will be produced and that at grain
development determines the individual grain weight. Panicle initiation in cereals is
critical while drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen and may reduce the
number of flowers that set seeds.
Effect of moisture stress during grain filling is less detrimental than during
flowering. Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it
advances if drought occurs after flowering.
• In cotton plant, which has indeterminate growth habit,
Water stress at early flowering may cause shedding of new floral buds without
affecting the
• current flowering or boll retention.
• Water stress at peak flowering causes shedding of flower buds and reduction
in boll retention.
Late stress causes reduction in current flowering and completely prevents boll
retention.

Period of fruit enlargement: During this period, nutrient reserves are transported in
to fruit. Moisture stress at this stage influences the weight of individual fruit.
Ripening (dehydration and certain biochemical processes): Grain-filling stage may
be less sensitive to moisture stress but drought at grain development state
reduces yield. Moisture stress at this stage has little effect on yield components
but may affect length of ripening period.
Yield: The effect on yield depends on what proportion of the total dry matter is
considered as useful material to be harvested. If it is aerial and underground
parts, effect of drought is as sensitive as total growth. When the yield consists of
seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at flowering is detrimental. When the yield is
fibre or where economic product is a small fraction of total dry matter, moderate
stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yields.
 Distribution of drylands in India
Mean annual Climate zone Net dryland Geographical
rainfall (mm) area (mha) area (mha)
<500 Arid 10.9 52.1
500-750 Dry semi arid 22.2 40.3
750-1000 Wet semi arid 21.2 65.5
1000-1250 Sub humid 19.6 -
>1250 Humid 27.7 -
1000-2500 - - 137.2
>2500 - - 32.6
Total 101.6 327.7
 Agro-climatic characterization of drylands
Thorthwaite (1948) was the first to utilize the concept of PET and water balance for
a rational classification of climates.
Based on his approach, Subrahmanyan (1956) gave first rational climate
classification of India known as Moisture Regime Classification.
There are six types of climates
No. Type of climate Region/state
i. Per humid : North east, west coast and adjoining hills
ii. Humid : North east, west coast and adjoining hills
iii. Moist sub humid : Punjab (northern part), Haryana, U.P., Bihar, West
Bengal, Odisha, M.P. Vidarbha, northern A.P
iv. Dry sub humid : Coastal Tamil Nadu
v. Semi arid : Kanyakumari in south to Punjab in north, Peninsular
(rainfall 500-750 mm) east coast of western ghats
vi. Arid (rainfall <500 mm) : Western Rajasthan, Saurastra and Kutch region of
Gujarat, Bellary-Anantpur areas of Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, Tirunelveli region of Tamil Nadu
Desert: It is the place/region where the annual rainfall is less
than 250 mm with extreme temperature fluctuations. Most
of the vegetation is restricted to only during short rainy
season.

Arid region: An area where annual rainfall is less than 500

mm. Drought is almost invisible during most of the years.
Crop cultivation is not possible without irrigation.

Semi-arid region: An area where annual rainfall is between

500-750 mm.
Rainfall is sufficient for cultivation of certain crops with proper
management.

Drought occurs due to deficit seasonal rainfall or inadequate

soil moisture availability between two successive rainfall
events. The chances of drought in this region are 40%-60%.
Aridity: It means excess of evaporation over
precipitation. It is the permanent climatic feature
and is the culmination of number of long term
processes. Like drought, aridity is also due to
insufficient water.
Both aridity and drought are due to insufficient
water availability.
Aridity is a permanent climatic feature and is the
culmination of a number of long term processes
whereas, drought is a temporary condition that
occurs for a short period due to deficient
precipitation for vegetation, river flow, water
supply for irrigation and human consumption.
 DROUGHT
Drought denotes the scarcity of water in a particular
location/region.
It is a prolonged period without rainfall.
It is the situation when actual seasonal rainfall is
deficient by more than twice the mean deviation.
Water demand is more than the its supply or availability.
Drought is a period of abnormally dry weather
sufficiently prolonged for lack of water to cause severe
hydrological imbalance in the affected area (American
Meteorological Society) .
Drought is a situation in any area when annual rainfall is
less than 75% of the normal (Indian Meteorological
Department). When deficiency of rainfall exceeds 50% of
the normal, such drought is considered as ‘severe
drought’.
 Drought
Drought is due to anomaly of atmospheric circulation.
Drought is the result of imbalance between soil moisture
and evapo-transpiration needs of an area over a fairly
long period as to cause damage to standing crop leading
to reduction in crop yield.
Thus prolonged drought affects crop growth and
productivity.
 Classification of drought
Based on duration
Depending up on the duration of rainless period or moisture scarcity, there
are four types of drought (Thornthwaite 1948).
i) Permanent drought: This is the characteristic of desert climate where
sparse vegetation growing is adapted to drought and agriculture is
possible only by irrigation during entire crop season.
ii) Seasonal drought: This kind of situation occurs in climates with well
defined rainy and dry seasons. Most of the arid and semi-arid regions fall
under this category. Duration of crops and their varieties should be such
that these complete their growth cycle during the rainy season.
iii) Contingent drought: It involves abnormal failure of rainfall. It may occur
any where especially in the humid and sub humid climates. This kind of
drought is generally brief, irregular and affects only a small area.
iv) Invisible drought: It is the situation when the rainfall is insufficient/
inadequate to meet the evapo-transpiration losses. As a result water
deficiency in the soil causes less than optimum yield. It may occur even
when there is frequent rain in an area. It usually occurs in the humid areas.
Based on nature of the users
On the basis of relevance of water by users, National
Commission on Agriculture (1976) classified drought in
three categories as:
i) Meteorological drought: It is defined as the condition
where annual precipitation is lower than the normal over
an area for a prolonged period (month, season, year).
ii) Atmospheric drought: It occurs due to low air humidity
frequently accompanied by hot dry winds. It may occur
even under adequate availability of soil moisture. Plants
growing under favourable soil moisture regime are usually
susceptible to atmospheric drought.
iii) Hydrological drought: Meteorological drought when
prolonged results in hydrological drought with depletion
of soil moisture and consequent drying of reservoirs, tanks
etc.
iv) Agricultural drought: Agricultural drought may be defined as the
period of dryness during crop season/growth sufficiently prolonged
to adversely affect the crop yield. It is the result of soil moisture
stress due to imbalance between available soil moisture and evapo-
transpiration of a crop. It actually commences when plant roots are
not able to obtain soil moisture rapidly enough to replace evapo-
transpiration losses.
Agricultural drought is the result of imbalance between soil moisture
and evapo-transpiration needs of an area over a fairly long period to
cause damage to standing crops and to reduce yields.
Agricultural drought refers to the condition when moisture
availability is inadequate to meet the demands of potential evapo-
transpiration (PET).
It is usually the consequence of scant precipitation or its uneven
distribution both in space (spatial) and time (temporal). Such kind of
drought is also referred as ‘soil drought’.
The extent of reduction in yield depends up on the crop
growth stage and the degree of moisture stress. Usually,
it is gradual and progressive.

Agricultural drought may be caused by:

• Inadequate precipitation,
• Erratic distribution of rains,
• Long dry spell during monsoon,
• Late onset on monsoon,
• Early withdrawal of monsoon.
 Types of agricultural drought
Agricultural drought is defined as the situation when both soil moisture and rainfall
are inadequate to support a healthy crop during crop growth period.
Crop production in rainfed areas is generally affected by 5 distinct categories of
drought.
(i) Early season; (ii) Mid season; (iii) Late season; (iv) Chronic; (v) Apparent
(i) Early season drought: It is due to delayed onset of monsoon or prolonged dry
spell soon after onset of rainy season.
It leads to poor crop stand and poor seedling growth and reduction in
duration of water availability for crop growth. This situation may lead to
resowing.
(ii) Mid season drought: It occurs due prolonged dry spell between two
successive rains. It is to inadequate availability of soil moisture between two
successive rainfall events during crop growth period.
This kind of drought mostly affects vegetative or flowering or early
reproductive stage of the crop. The effect varies with crop growth stage and
duration and intensity of drought spell.
Vegetative stage: leads to stunted growth, less biomass production
Flowering or early Reproductive stage: leads to reduction in yield due to poor seed
set.
(iii) Late season drought: It occurs due to early cessation of monsoon. This kind of
drought is also known as terminal drought. It generally occurs during years of
late commencement of monsoon rains or weak monsoon activity.
Since moisture deficiency coincides with reproductive stage of the crop, the yield is
reduced. This kind of drought/situation is often associated with an increase in
ambient temperature which leads to forced maturity of crop.
(iv) Chronic drought: This kind of drought in arid areas where rainfall and
stored soil moisture are inadequate to meet the water requirement of the crops
during most of the years. The assured growing period is only about 6-7 weeks.
This region is suitable only for desert grasses, other crops are, nevertheless grown
for subsistence in spite of inadequate rainfall.
(v) Apparent drought: In low to medium rainfall regions, the amount and
distribution of rainfall may be sufficient to support low water requiring crops.
When a crop of higher water requirement is grown in such areas for economic
reasons, rainfall patterns may not adequately meet the demand. Under such
situations, apparent drought conditions are seen in some areas due to mid-
match of cropping pattern in relation to rainfall or moisture availability patterns.
There may be drought in red soil but not in black soil.
Physiological drought: - It refers to a condition where crops are unable to absorb
water from soil even when water is available, due to the high osmotic pressure
of soil solution due to increased soil concentration, as in saline and alkaline soils.
It is not due to deficit of water supply.
Indices of Aridity No. Moisture Index Climate classification
Quantity
Thornthwaite and Mather (1955)
i. 100 and above Per humid
classification: ii. 20−100 Humid
Moisture Index (Im) = 100 [(P-PE)/PE] iii. 0–20 Moist sub humid
where, P = Precipitation, iv. −33.3−0 Dry sub humid
PE = Potential evapo-transpiration
v. −66.7 to −33.3 Semi arid
vi. −100 to −66.7 Arid

Zone Moisture index Moisture belt

1 < −80 Extremely dry
ICAR classification of agroclimatic zones 2 −60 to −80 Semi dry
Thornthwaite and Mathur (1955) classified 3 −40 to −60 Dry
only six categories, while the ICAR had eight 4 −20 to −40 Slightly dry
moisture indices with eight moisture belt 5 0 to −20 Slightly moist
indicating eight zones in India. The scale 6 0 to +50 Moist
adopted in defining climatic zones in 7 +50 to +100 Wet
terms of moisture indices are 8 > +100 Extremely wet
Quantification of intensity of agricultural drought
It is often difficult to quantify or measure the agricultural drought due to:
• Diversity of crops grown in a given area;
• Variability of soil;
• Spatial variability of rains
• Diversity of crop management practices
Nevertheless, various approaches have been suggested to quantify or
measure the agricultural drought
Index of moisture adequacy (IMA): Actual Evapo-transpiration (ET)
Potential evapo-transpiration (PET)
during crop season at various phenophases
Moisture availability index (MAI):
Rainfall (for a specified period may be week/month/season) at 50%
probability level
Potential evapo-transpiration of the corresponding period.
MAI = Rainfall at 50% probability/PET
Aridity index (AI): Number of rainy days x mean precipitation per day
Mean temperature + 10

Moisture Deficit Index (MDI): (Precipitation – PET) x 100

PET

Thornthwaite Moisture Index (TMI): Actual evaporation

PET
Dry spell: A period of at least 15 consecutive days during which not
even single rain has fallen.
Floods:It refers to situation of water stagnation due to receipt of
excess rainfall or entry of river/dam waters in to cropped areas.
Flooding results in anaerobic conditions which damage the crop
depending up on stage of the crop.
 Effect of drought on crop production
Water deficit in plants occurs when transpiration exceeds the absorption of water. This may
be due to excessive water loss (by means of transpiration) or reduced absorption (may
be due to dry soil) or both.
As a result of increase in the atmospheric dryness, absorption of water lags behind
transpiration which results in loss of turgor.
Turgor is the swollen condition of the cell resulting from hydrostatic pressure exerted by
the protoplasm on the cells.
Water deficit causes dehydration of protoplasm associated with loss of turgor. More the
water the plant can hold in its tissues under stress conditions, greater will be the ability
of the protoplasm to withstand permanent injury during drought.

Depending up on the degree of internal water deficit and its duration, the water deficit may
be:

Incipient wilting: Small loss in turgor. It does not produce visible wilting symptoms. It
occurs almost daily in warm, dry weather conditions even when the soil is moist.

Temporary wilting: A more severe loss of water; causes lead drooping. It may reduce
growth. Plants regain turgidity when water supply is restored.

Permanent wilting:A longer period of dehydration from which plants are no longer able to
recover even under saturated conditions.
Moisture stress affects various processes of plant growth and development.
However , all the processes are not influenced equally.

Photosynthesis: Photosynthetic activity is related to 3 main processes, all of

which are affected by moisture stress.
• Supply of CO2 to the photosynthetic sites,
• Photochemical processes associated with utilization of light energy,
• Dark chemical processes associated with the chemical reduction of CO2.
There is progressive decline in the rate of photosynthesis with increasing
water stress. Both soil water stress and atmospheric water stress act additively
in reducing the rate of photosynthesis.
As the soil moisture stress increases, the photosynthesis drops to
compensation point.
Water stress affects photosynthesis directly by affecting various biochemical
processes involved in photosynthesis and, indirectly by reducing the intake
of CO2 through stomata as a result of their closure in response to water
stress and leaf area.
Water stress hastens leaf senescence. Leaf area is more affected by water
stress than net assimilation rate.
Moisture stress in plants thus, reduces the photosynthesis due to reduction
in photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area and increase in
assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack of translocation).
Respiration: It generally responds in the inverse direction of
photosynthesis. Mild degree of drought increases respiration but more
severe drought lowers water content and respiration. Since stomata are
closed under moisture stress conditions, photosynthesis is reduced and
leaf temperature is increased resulting in increased respiration.

Metabolic reaction: Almost all metabolic reactions within plant are

influenced by water deficits. There is overall decrease in enzymatic activity.
As the cytoplasm is dehydrated, activity of some of the enzymes involved in
the synthesis is reduced more than the other. As a result of moisture stress,
there is decline in nitrate reductase activity and increase in the hydrostatic
reactions – the starch is hydrolysed to sugar; protein is hydrolysed to amino
acids. Conversion of starch in to sugars and their accumulation increases
osmotic pressure. This causes reduction in permeability of plant cells so
that the internal resistance to water flow increases to reduce water loss
escape mechanism).
Moisture stress affects protein synthesis. There is substantial accumulation
of certain amino acids especially proline.

Water deficit impairs nucleic acid system. Degradation of RNA proceeds

more rapidly than its synthesis and this affects enzyme production.
Anatomical changes: Decrease in size of the cells and intercellular spaces,
thicker cell wall and greater development of mechanical tissue are the
anatomical changes caused by drought conditions. Stomata per unit leaf
surface tend to increase due to reduced size of the cells.
Hormone production: The activity of growth promoting hormones like
cytokinin, gibberelic acid and indole acetic acid decreases but growth
regulating hormone like abscisic acid, ethylene etc. increases.
Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of N is adversely affected.
Since dry matter production is considerably reduced, the uptake of
nutrients is reduced.
Root development: Root growth decreases with increasing water stress.
Weight of the roots is affected more without appreciable reduction in
number of roots. Length of roots may increase as the roots grow towards
water in the soil. Roots may become finer and more fibrous. Roots may
become subberised up to their tips and thereby lose part of their absorbing
capacity.
 Growth and Development
Growth is defined as the irreversible change in length, weight, size etc. of plant. Under
moisture stress, growth may be suspended. It may resume upon elimination of
moisture stress. Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits.
Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it advances if drought
occurs after flowering.
Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits.

The vegetative stage may be less sensitive to drought.

Flowering (initiation of flowering to fruit set): Moisture stress at flowering
determines the number of fruits which will be produced and that at grain
development determines the individual grain weight. Panicle initiation in cereals is
critical while drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen and may reduce the
number of flowers that set seeds.
Effect of moisture stress during grain filling is less detrimental than during flowering.
Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it advances if drought
occurs after flowering.
• In cotton plant, which has indeterminate growth habit,
• Water stress at early flowering may cause shedding of new floral buds without
affecting the
• current flowering or boll retention.
• Water stress at peak flowering causes shedding of flower buds and reduction in
boll retention.
Late stress causes reduction in current flowering and completely prevents boll
retention.

Period of fruit enlargement: During this period, nutrient reserves are transported in
to fruit. Moisture stress at this stage influences the weight of individual fruit.
Ripening (dehydration and certain biochemical processes): Grain-filling stage may
be less sensitive to moisture stress but drought at grain development state
reduces yield. Moisture stress at this stage has little effect on yield components
but may affect length of ripening period.
Yield: The effect on yield depends on what proportion of the total dry matter is
considered as useful material to be harvested. If it is aerial and underground
parts, effect of drought is as sensitive as total growth. When the yield consists of
seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at flowering is detrimental. When the yield is
fibre or where economic product is a small fraction of total dry matter, moderate
stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yields.
 Effect of drought on crop production
Water deficit in plants occurs when transpiration exceeds the absorption of water. This may
be due to excessive water loss (by means of transpiration) or reduced absorption (may
be due to dry soil) or both.
As a result of increase in the atmospheric dryness, absorption of water lags behind
transpiration which results in loss of turgor.
Turgor is the swollen condition of the cell resulting from hydrostatic pressure exerted by
the protoplasm on the cells.
Water deficit causes dehydration of protoplasm associated with loss of turgor. More the
water the plant can hold in its tissues under stress conditions, greater will be the ability
of the protoplasm to withstand permanent injury during drought.

Depending up on the degree of internal water deficit and its duration, the water deficit may
be:

Incipient wilting: Small loss in turgor. It does not produce visible wilting symptoms. It
occurs almost daily in warm, dry weather conditions even when the soil is moist.

Temporary wilting: A more severe loss of water; causes leaf drooping. It may reduce growth.
Plants regain turgidity when water supply is restored.

Permanent wilting:A longer period of dehydration from which plants are no longer able to
recover even under saturated conditions.
Moisture stress affects various processes of plant growth and development.
However , all the processes are not influenced equally.

Photosynthesis: Photosynthetic activity is related to 3 main processes, all of

which are affected by moisture stress.
• Supply of CO2 to the photosynthetic sites,
• Photochemical processes associated with utilization of light energy,
• Dark chemical processes associated with the chemical reduction of CO2.
There is progressive decline in the rate of photosynthesis with increasing
water stress. Both soil water stress and atmospheric water stress act additively
in reducing the rate of photosynthesis.
As the soil moisture stress increases, the photosynthesis drops to
compensation point.
Water stress affects photosynthesis directly by affecting various biochemical
processes involved in photosynthesis and, indirectly by reducing the intake
of CO2 through stomata as a result of their closure in response to water
stress and leaf area.
Water stress hastens leaf senescence. Leaf area is more affected by water
stress than net assimilation rate.
Moisture stress in plants thus, reduces the photosynthesis due to reduction
in photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll content, leaf area and increase in
assimilates saturation in leaves (due to lack of translocation).
Respiration: It generally responds in the inverse direction of
photosynthesis. Mild degree of drought increases respiration but more
severe drought lowers water content and respiration. Since stomata are
closed under moisture stress conditions, photosynthesis is reduced and
leaf temperature is increased resulting in increased respiration.

Metabolic reaction: Almost all metabolic reactions within plant are

influenced by water deficits. There is overall decrease in enzymatic activity.
As the cytoplasm is dehydrated, activity of some of the enzymes involved in
the synthesis is reduced more than the other. As a result of moisture stress,
there is decline in nitrate reductase activity and increase in the hydrostatic
reactions – the starch is hydrolysed to sugar; protein is hydrolysed to amino
acids. Conversion of starch in to sugars and their accumulation increases
osmotic pressure. This causes reduction in permeability of plant cells so
that the internal resistance to water flow increases to reduce water loss
escape mechanism).
Moisture stress affects protein synthesis. There is substantial accumulation
of certain amino acids especially proline.

Water deficit impairs nucleic acid system. Degradation of RNA proceeds

more rapidly than its synthesis and this affects enzyme production.
Anatomical changes: Decrease in size of the cells and intercellular spaces,
thicker cell wall and greater development of mechanical tissue are the
anatomical changes caused by drought conditions. Stomata per unit leaf
surface tend to increase due to reduced size of the cells.
Hormone production: The activity of growth promoting hormones like
cytokinin, gibberelic acid and indole acetic acid decreases but growth
regulating hormone like abscisic acid, ethylene etc. increases.
Nutrition: The fixation, uptake and assimilation of N is adversely affected.
Since dry matter production is considerably reduced, the uptake of
nutrients is reduced.
Root development: Root growth decreases with increasing water stress.
Weight of the roots is affected more without appreciable reduction in
number of roots. Length of roots may increase as the roots grow towards
water in the soil. Roots may become finer and more fibrous. Roots may
become subberised up to their tips and thereby lose part of their absorbing
capacity.
 Growth and Development
Growth is defined as the irreversible change in length, weight, size etc. of plant.
Under moisture stress, growth may be suspended. It may resume upon
elimination of moisture stress. Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves,
stems and fruits.
Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits.

The vegetative stage may be less sensitive to drought.

Flowering (initiation of flowering to fruit set): Moisture stress at flowering
determines the number of fruits which will be produced and that at grain
development determines the individual grain weight. Panicle initiation in cereals is
critical while drought at anthesis may lead to drying of pollen and may reduce the
number of flowers that set seeds.
Effect of moisture stress during grain filling is less detrimental than during
flowering. Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it
advances if drought occurs after flowering.
• In cotton plant, which has indeterminate growth habit,
Water stress at early flowering may cause shedding of new floral buds without
affecting the
• current flowering or boll retention.
• Water stress at peak flowering causes shedding of flower buds and reduction
in boll retention.
Late stress causes reduction in current flowering and completely prevents boll
retention.

Period of fruit enlargement: During this period, nutrient reserves are transported in
to fruit. Moisture stress at this stage influences the weight of individual fruit.
Ripening (dehydration and certain biochemical processes): Grain-filling stage may
be less sensitive to moisture stress but drought at grain development state
reduces yield. Moisture stress at this stage has little effect on yield components
but may affect length of ripening period.
Yield: The effect on yield depends on what proportion of the total dry matter is
considered as useful material to be harvested. If it is aerial and underground
parts, effect of drought is as sensitive as total growth. When the yield consists of
seeds as in cereals, moisture stress at flowering is detrimental. When the yield is
fibre or where economic product is a small fraction of total dry matter, moderate
stress on growth does not have adverse effect on yields.
MOISTURE LOSS PROCESSES: Water is lost through
(i) Runoff, (ii) Evaporation, (iii) Transpiration, (iv) Deep percolation
Soil erosion
It is the process of detachment of soil particles from the parent material/body and the
transportation of the detached soil particles by wind or water.
Agents of erosion: Water and wind.
Depending up on the agents of erosion, the soil erosion may be called as water erosion or
wind erosion.
Agents of detachment: Falling rain drops, channel flow, wind
Agents of transportation of detached particles: Flowing water, rain splash, wind.
Erodibility: It is the susceptibility of the soil to erosion.
Erosivity: It is capacity of the agents to cause erosion.
The process of the erosion can be divided in to 2 sub-processes:
Detachment and Transportation

Needs energy which is supplied Detached soil particles are carried by flowing
by falling rain drops water along the slope of the land

Influenced by type of vegetation and soil

The rate of erosion depends on the intensity of rainfall, soil characteristics, slope of the land
and type of vegetation.
Water cycle
Losses caused by erosion
About 140 million ha area in the country is influenced by soil erosion
caused by wind and water resulting in loss of about 6000 million tonnes
of fertile soil annually.
Loss of rain water: Rain water is the only source of water for crop
production in dryland areas, It goes waste/unutilized.
Loss of fertile soil: Soil erosion in India is estimated to be taking place at
an annual rate of 16.35 t/ha which is higher than the permissible limit
of 11 t/ha.
About 29% of the eroded soil is lost permanently to the sea and about
10% is deposited in the reservoirs.
Loss of nutrients: Soluble forms of nutrients are lost alongwith runoff
water. The exchangeable and fixed forms of nutrients are lost with
sediments. Loss of nutrients through sediments is much higher than
the loss in soluble forms.
Silting of nutrients: When water reaches the reservoirs, the flow velocity
is reduced and the sediments settle on the floor of the reservoir.
In India, 64 million ha catchment area yields 2900 ha metre of sediments
every year which go into to 21 major reservoirs.
Soil loss equation
Based on the mechanism and factors influencing soil
erosion
A = RKLSCP
A = predicted soil loss (t per acre per year)
R = Rainfall and runoff factor
K = Soil erodibility
L = Length of slope
S =Gradient or steepness or degree of slope
C = Soil cover and management
P =Erosion control practice
Types or forms of soil erosion
Splash erosion: It is the first and least severe stage in the soil erosion process,
which is followed by sheet erosion, then rill erosion and finally gully erosion
(the most severe of the four)
Sheet erosion: It is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow. In
the initial stages of soil erosion, rain drops churn the soil and the muddy
water moves away from the field along with runoff. If the soil is saturated, or
if the rainfall rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into
the soil, surface runoff occurs. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it
will transport loosened soil particles (sediments) down the slope. It results in
uniform removal of top soil in thin layer from the field.
Rill erosion: Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral
concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source
and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hill slopes. Where water
erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are formed.
When runoff starts, channelization begins and erosion is no longer uniform.
Incisions are formed on the ground and the erosion is more apparent than
sheet erosion.
Gully erosion: If rill erosion is not controlled, the channelization of runoff further
increases resulting in formation of gullies. On steep sloppy lands, runoff is
sufficient in volume and velocity to cut deep and wide channels. It occurs
when runoff water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during
or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow, removing soil to a
considerable depth. Gullies are the most spectacular symptoms of erosion.
Slip erosion

Ravines: These are deep and wide gullies which indicate the very
advanced stage of gully erosion. These are the manifestation of
a prolonged process of gully erosion typically found in large
expanses of deep alluvial soils.
Land slides: It refers to sliding down of a large chunk or amount of
soil due to steep slope. It occurs in areas where the slope
exceeds 20% (mountain slopes) and the width is more than 6
metres. It generally results in blocking of the traffic.
Stream bank erosion: When streams become dry, the vegetation
sprouts which obstructs the flow of water causing cutting of
banks or changing the flow course. Small streams, rivulets,
torrents (hill streams) are subjected to stream bank erosion.
• Sea shore erosion
 Tunnel erosion

Sheet-Rill erosion

Stream bank erosion

Gully erosion
 Transpiration losses of water
In dryland agriculture, soil moisture is the most limiting factor.
Though transpiration is necessary and unavoidable evil, excessive
transpiration has to be controlled especially when soil moisture
stress develops during critical stages of crop growth.
The rate of transpiration is governed by soil moisture potential,
atmospheric water demand and plant canopy characters such as leaf
area, leaf orientation, stomatal resistance, etc. Transpiration loss can
be reduced by the use of anti-transpirants and by some cultural
methods also.
 MOISTURE CONSERVATION PRACTICES

In areas of low and uncertain rainfall devoid of any assured source

of supplemental irrigation, conservation of soil and water is of
paramount importance.
Moisture conservation practices such as
Bench terracing, land levelling, drainage, land configuration which
are aimed at reducing the run off velocity and increasing the
opportunity time for the rainwater to in filter in to soil profile are
quite effective in conserving soil and water and improving crop
yields.
Appropriate land configuration viz; contour farming, formation of
ridges and furrows, broad beds, terracing, compartmental bunding,
deep tillage, dead furrows hold great promise for in-situ
conservation of moisture and nutrients.
Based on topography, soil and rainfall pattern, ridge and furrow
system not only reduces run off and soil loss but also improves crop
productivity.
Field bunding and levelling
Excessive run off during monsoon results in severe soil erosion causing loss of not only
precious top soil but also nutrients.
Farmers generally hesitate to make bund of adequate size/section with the notion
that it would result in loss of area which could otherwise be used for crop cultivation and
would require investment on construction of such structures. However stabilization of field
bunds plays rich dividends.
Proper land levelling considerably reduces run off of water and loss of soil. Where
the slope is less than 5%, earthern bunds should be made and major land levelling should be
avoided. For areas with more than 5% slope, construction of bench is required to reduce
erosion and conserve moisture. For foot hills of Shivalik, keeping in view the small land
holdings and the kind of agricultural practices being followed by the farmers, only narrow
bunds on adjusted contours should be made taking in to consideration the field boundaries
and direction of slope.
Small sections of bunds are frequently damaged which require regular repair. The
field bunds can be protected from frequent breaches by planting bhabhar grass (Eulaliopsis
binata on top and sides of the field bunds. Other grasses such as sarkanda (Erianthus manja
and khus (Vetiveria zizaniodes) which can be used as thatching materials and napier hybrid
bajra (Pennisetum purpureum) which provides fodder can also be planted on field
boundaries. Kahi (Imperata cylindrica) is very effective in checking soil erosion.
These vegetative barriers establish very fast and have strong root system. Lemon grass,
Citronella and Palma rosa are also fast growing grasses with multiple uses and these also
protect the fields from rats. Over a period of time, such barriers help in automatic leveling of
the field. To avoid shade effect of these grasses on cultivated crops and to promote tillering,
these must be pruned annually up to height of 0.5 metre.
Bench terracing
Bench terracing principally consists of transforming the relatively steep
land in to a series of level strips or platforms across the slope of the land.
On sloppy and undulating lands, crop cultivation should be carried out
with bench terracing. It helps in better retention of soil moisture and
nutrients, and facilitates application of irrigation, if available. It is desired
to develop terraces of suitable size having 1-2% slope.
Tillage
In-situ conservation of moisture is the most ideal approach to
sustain productivity in drylands. Any management practice or technique
that increases water infiltration and soil water storage and decrease
water loss caused by run off, evaporation and weeds would increase
quantity of water retained in soil for subsequent use by crops.
Pre-monsoon deep tillage improves infiltration rate and soil
moisture storage besides destruction of weeds, insects and diseases. This
practice is very important for success of kharif crops. Post-harvest tillage
conserves the profile moisture by checking upward movement of water
through breaking the continuity of capillaries towards the soil surface.
This practice assumes significance in dryland areas where germination of
rabi crops depends up on residual soil moisture.
Contour farming
The contour represents the envelop of the normals drawn at any given point
to all tie lines of the greatest slope of a given watershed. Since run off from any given
surface is along the line of greatest slope and the velocity of run off increases with
vertical distance through which it is moved, contour bund is the best means of arresting
run off.
Soil erosion is a serious problem in undulating, sloppy lands, light textured
soils and in high rainfall areas. Indiscriminate grazing and felling of trees accelerate it.
The hilly catchments are torn by rills and gullies with high drainage density (7-9
km/km2). Under these conditions, cultural operations should be carried out across
slope i.e. along the contour. Soil erosion can be checked by contour bunding, ploughing
across the slope, plugging the gullies, construction of bunds, providing grass cover and
planting trees and shrubs. Construction of ridges and furrows and cultivation of crops
across the slope on contour lines intercept rainwater and facilitate its infiltration in to
soil for use by the crop.

Run off farming

High intensity rain storms are quite common during monsoon which result in
excessive run off. Efficient rain water management acts as insurance for crops during
rainfall deficit periods. Run off farming is basically a water harvesting system especially
designed to provide supplemental or life saving irrigation to crop during critical period
of moisture stress or critical phenophases of the crops grown in the watershed area.
Run off water collection and storage in natural or artificial structures and its effective
utilization are the important aspects of rain water management. The excess water over
and above the storage structures should be directed through grassed waterways to a
natural course so that it does not cause soil erosion.
 Measures to reduce evaporation and transpiration
losses of water
In dryland agriculture, soil moisture is the most limiting factor. About 60%-75% of
the rainfall is lost through evaporation. The evapo-transpiration is the evaporation
from the soil surface and transpiration from the plant surface. Such losses can be
reduced by application of
(i) mulches (ii) anti-transpirants (iii) wind breaks and shelter belts (iv) weed
control.
(a) Measures to reduce evaporation loss
(i) Shallow surface tillage: When surface soil is stirred by tillage, the continuity
of capillary pores is broken and the rise of water through capillary movement
is obstructed. Shallow tillage after summer showers is beneficial in this
regard. This process is called dust mulching. Inter tillage between crop rows
during early dry spells has a similar effect.
(ii) Use of anti-evaporating chemicals: Chemicals like hexadecanol are used as
anti-evaporants. When sprayed and mixed with soil surface, hexadecanol is
reported to reduce evaporation. The treated surface layer dries up fast and
creates a diffusional barrier for upward movement of water vapour. It is
resistant to microbial activity and degradation. It remains in soil for more than a
year. It also increases the soil aggregate stability. Evaporation from free water
surface, farm ponds, lakes etc., can be reduced up to 80% by wax emulsions,
rubber/plastic boats or saw dust. Hydrogel (polymer)
 (ii) Mulching
Mulch refers to any material natural or synthetic which is used to cover the soil
surface to reduced moisture loss (evaporation) from soil surface. For example:
organic wastes, plastic, polythene sheets etc. The organic wastes used for
mulching include crop stubbles, straw, coir pith, groundnut shell, husk etc. These
wastes @ 5–10 t ha−1 are spread on the soil surface to a thickness of 5-10 cm.
Mulching provides the following benefits:
o Reduces direct impact of rain drops on soil particles and controls splash
erosion.
o Increases infiltration.
o Reduces velocity of runoff water.
o Controls erosion.
o Improves soil moisture storage from rainfall.
o Controls evaporation loss.
o Suppresses weed growth.
o Influences thermal regime of soil by reducing soil temperature.
o Improves microbial activity.
o Controls salinity development.
o Can be incorporated as manures later.
Types of mulches
Vertical mulching: is a technique where in trenches of 40 cm wide, 15 cm deep are dug at
2–4 m interval across slope and filled with stubbles or organic wastes to a height of 10
cm above soil surface. Runoff is checked, collected in the shallow trenches and
redistributed to adjoining soil layers. This method can be considered as precursor
method to broad bed furrow method.
Live mulching: is the term used to describe the covering soil surface through the plant
canopy in intercropping system. e.g., sorghum + forage cowpea, sorghum + sword bean.
Dust mulching: refers to the soil condition associated with tillage. When land is ploughed or
stirred, the surface soil is disturbed and this breaks the continuity of capillary pores from
subsoil to surface. As a result, evaporation is checked and soil moisture is conserved.
Guntaka (Blade harrow)/Danti/hand hoe are the implements used for dust mulching.
Stover mulch or straw mulch: refers to covering the soil surface with cumbu/sorghum straw,
sugarcane trash reduces the evaporation and increases soil moisture efficiency. Similarly
mulching with organic waste, crop residues, plastic material can be done.
Stubble mulch: is referred to the stirring of the soil with implements that leave considerable
part of the vegetative material or crop residues or vegetative litter on the surface as a
protection against erosion and for conserving moisture by favouring infiltration and
reducing evaporation. Stubble mulch is very effectively done in western countries,
where crop residue or by products like straw, stover or haulms are not given to animals
as fodder. Special farm implements are available to create minimum disturbance and
leave large surface area undisturbed. It also acts as minimum tillage and conservation
tillage.
Pebble mulch: where small pebbles like stone are placed on the soil surface. This mulching
will be successful in dry land horticulture (fruit tree culture). The pebbles placed on the
basins of trees not only reduce evaporation but also facilitate infiltration of rainwater
into the basin.
 Measures to reduce transpiration loss
Though transpiration is necessary and unavoidable evil, excessive transpiration has to be
controlled especially when soil moisture stress develops during critical stages of crop growth. The
rate of transpiration is governed by soil moisture potential, atmospheric water demand and plant
canopy characters such as leaf area, leaf orientation, stomatal resistance, etc. Transpiration loss
can be reduced by the use of anti-transpirants and by some cultural methods also.
A. Anti-transpirants are the material (substances or chemicals) applied to the transpiring plant
surface (foliage) to reduce the loss of water from the plant (transpiration).
The important points to be considered in using anti-transpirants are:
(a) They should restrict water loss from leaf surface without restricting entry of carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis, and
(b) Transpiration necessary for cooling of leaf surface should not be completely stopped by the
application of anti-transpirants leading to rise in leaf temperature.

Different kinds of anti-transpirants are:

Stomata closing type: Such type of anti-transpirants reduce water loss through transpiration by
closing the stomata. They cause partial or complete closure of stomata by inducing the guard
cells to close. But complete closure of stomata adversely affects gas exchange and
photosynthesis.
For example, Atrazine, phenyl mercuric acetate (PMA), Alkynyl succinic acid (ASA) Absicic acid
(ABA). These chemicals may also cause phyto-toxicity and are very expensive too.
Film formimg type: When applied, these anti-transpirants cover the stomata by
forming a thin layer/film over leaf surface that acts as a barrier to retard moisture
loss. These substancesare nontoxic, non-degradable and very easy to apply but
they adversely affect photosynthesis.
For example, Mobileaf, Hexadecanol, Silicon, Wax emulsions, Oils. Paraffin.

Reflecting type: When sprayed on leaf surface, the reflectant type antitranspirants
increase the leaf albedo or leaf reflectance of sunlight. As a result, heating is
reduced, leaf temperature inside is low and need for transpiration is reduced.
Such materials reflect the radiation and thus reduce leaf temperature and vapour
pressure gradient from leaf to atmosphere and ultimately reduce the
transpiration. For example, Celite (a diatomaceous earth product), Kaoline, lime.
These are less expensive, non phytotoxic and do not interfere with photosynthesis,
since stomatal closure does not take place.

Growth retardant: These chemicals when sprayed on foliage, reduce leaf area and
thereby reduce the transpiring area and [Link] chemicals reduce
shoot growth and may increase root growth and thus enable the plants to resist
drought. These chemicals also induce stomata closure. For example, Cycocel
(CCC).
Wind breaks and Shelter belts
Wind breaks and shelter breaks are erected to prevent soil erosion in
areas prone to wind erosion.
Wind breaks are the mechanical structures erected to break the wind
flow and reduce wind speed.
Shelterbelts are the rows of vegetation (trees or shrubs) planted for
protection of crop against wind. Rows of trees grown across the
direction of wind reduce air movement, reduce temperature of air and
plant canopy, increase humidity in the protected strips and thereby
reduce the atmospheric water demand and control transpiration in the
inter space between shelterbelts.
Shelterbelt modifies the micro-climate favourable for crop production
and provides shelter to birds, honey bees and pet animals. These may
reduce the wind speed up to 60%-80% in the leeward direction.
Vegetation has also several alternative uses in addition to reducing the
wind flow.
Shelterbelts reduce the wind speed and thereby reduce the evaporation
losses and make more available to the crop. The capacity of
shelterbelt depends upon the speed and direction of wind.
Height of trees and length of wind breaks determine the extent of
protection to soil.
Alley cropping: This practice refers to raising perennial shrubs or
tall crops as hedge rows up to 1-2 m height at 48 m intervals and
raising short stature annual crops in the alleys (inter space
between hedge rows). A similar effect on reduction in
atmospheric water demand and transpiration as described
under shelterbelts is caused in alley cropping. This method is
also called as
hedgerow intercropping. e.g.,
Hedge row Intercrop: Leucaena/Desmanthus Black gram/cowpea/
sunflower/groundnut
Agathi/castor/Perennial red gram/Casuarina Cotton/black gram
(trained as bush)/ glyricidia/cowpea

Weed control: Most weeds have a high transpiration coefficient

i.e., amount of water transpired to produce unit quantity of dry
matter. Early weed control prevents unwanted transpiration loss
through weeds.
Rain water harvesting
• Rain water harvesting refers to the collection and
storage of rain water for later productive use. A rain
water harvesting system has three components viz;
catchment, conveyance and storage.

Rain water harvesting offers following benefits:

• It is an ideal solution for all water requirements.
• It increases the level and quality of ground water.
• It mitigates the adverse effects of drought.
• It reduces the runoff and flooding of low lying areas.
• It reduces the soil erosion.
• It is easy to maintain and is low cost system of water harvesting.
 B. Agronomic/Cultural methods
Problems of drylands:
Poor crop stand, unchecked growth of weeds, insect-pests,
diseases, limited application of nutrients, cultivation of local low
yielding cultivars and traditional age-old implements.

Crop productivity in drylands under both scarcity and excess water

situations can be increased by adoption of improved agronomic
practices.
Crops and cultivars
From crop growth (physiology) view point, there may be three major patterns of
drought
Terminal drought: Crops with adequate soil moisture at sowing but with
declining water supply particularly after flowering.
Unpredicatble drought: Crops with adequate soil moisture at sowing and a
rainfall probability such that water deficit may occur unpredicatably at any
growth stage particularly in the late vegetative phase and around flowering.
Unpredictable terminal drought: Crops with adequate soil moisture at sowing
and a rainfall probability such that water deficit may occur unpredicatably at
any growth stage after flowering.
 Plants adaptation to dryland conditions

Drought escape
Drought resistance
(Ephemerals)

Stress avoidance
(maintaining internal water Stress tolerance
balance)

Conserving water Improving water Mitigating High

(water savers) uptake (water spenders) moisture stress tolerance
▪ Early stomata closure to moisture
▪ Increased photosynthetic ▪ Efficient root system Maintaining high water stress
efficiency ▪ High root: shoot ratio potential
▪ Low rates of cuticular ▪ Increased plant osmotic Resistance to dehydration
transpiration potential Prevention of cell collapse
▪ Lipid deposition on leaves Metabolic strain
▪ Reduced leaf area Plastic strain
▪Changes in leaf morphology
 PLANT ADAPTATION TO DROUGHT
Under water scarce conditions, plants can survive and grow by escaping drought
or developing resistance.
Crop adaptation
1. Escaping drought – (i) Ephemerals, (ii) Early maturing variety
2. Drought resistance
3. Tolerating stress
1. Escaping drought : (i) Ephemerals, (ii) Early maturing variety
Escaping drought: Many plants in the desert areas germinate with rains
and complete their growth cycle within five to six weeks. Such plants are
known as ephemerals. These plants have no mechanism to overcome soil
moisture stress and are not drought tolerant.
Early maturity before a serious soil moisture stress develops is the main
adaptation mechanism in dry regions. For example, cowpea, green gram
gram have short growing period. Pearl millet varieties HHB 60, HHB 67
mature in 60-65 days.
2. Drought resistance : Avoiding stress by maintaining favourable water
balance)
Drought resistance: Plants can adapt to drought/moisture stress
conditions in two ways – by stress avoidance or by stress tolerance.
Stress avoidance is the ability of the plant to maintain favourable water
balance and turgidity even when subjected to drought.
Favourable water balance can be achieved either by conserving water by
restricting transpiration (water savers) or by accelerating water uptake
(water spenders).

(i) Conserving water (water savers)

▪ Early closure of stomata
▪ Increased photosynthetic efficiency
▪ Low rates of cuticular transpiration
▪ Lipid deposites on leaves (soybean, sorghum)
▪ Reduced leaf area
▪ Morphology of leaf surface (thick cuticle, waxy surface, spines)
▪ Presence of awns (Awned varieties are more drought tolerant)
▪ Water storage in plants (pineapple leaves store substantial amount of water in
special non-chlorophyllus plastic strain tissues and utilize it under drought
conditions)
(ii) Improving water uptake (water spenders)
• Efficient root system(leaf with thick cuticle)
• Root-stem ratio
• Increased plant osmotic potential
• Tolerating stress
• Mitigating stress (maintaining high water potential)
• Resistance to dehydration
• Prevention of cell collapse
• Maintaining higher osmotic pressure by accumulating higher amounts of solutes

• High degree of tolerance to water potential

• Metabolic strains
• Plastic strains
Drought tolerance
• Plants can tolerate drought either by mitigating the actual stress or by showing the
high degree of tolerance to stress. Resistance to dehydration and prevention of leaf
collapse permit the plants to maintain higher internal water potential mitigate the
moisture stress under drought conditions.
• Resistance to metabolic strains (starvation acid protein loss) and plastic strains
(increased resistance to stress due to exposure to sub lethal stress for long period)
increase the ability of the plant to resist (tolerate stress) and survive under
conditions of soil moisture stress.
Crops and varieties ideal for drylands should have certain characteristics which
enable them to withstand harsh environments during the crop period.
• Shorter duration to escape terminal drought,
• Faster growth during initial period to withstand environment,
• Strong and deeper root system to withdtand moisture stress,
• Responsive to fertilizers
• Potential for higher yield
Proper matching of environment especially rainfall pattern with critical crop
growth stages/phenophases (with respect to water needs) is required for
successful cultivation of crops under conditions of water scarcity and
occasional drought. It is, therefore, important to select suitable crop, crop
cultivars or cropping system which best suit to the conditions.
The desirable traits of crops and their cultivars are rapid germination, early
and fast establishment, development of deep root system, short duration
of crops i.e rapid phonological development, developmental plasticity,
heliotropic movements and ability to transfer larger part of the assimilates
from leaves and stem to grains.
Probability of occurrence of different amounts of rainfall and corresponding
length of growing season could be taken as the criterion for the selection of
suitable crops and cropping systems in an agro-climatic region.
Crops and cultivars differ not only for total water requirements during the
life cycle but also in their soils moisture extraction pattern.
Mothbean (Vigna aconitifolia) - the most drought tolerant
crop for kharif season and safflower for rabi season.
Cluster bean (Cymopsis tetragonoloba) - utilizes soil moisture
quite effectively due to its deep tap root system.
Maize gives better performance over sorghum (Sorghum
vulgare Pers.) under adequate water availability due to its
ability to extract water from top layer (up to 45 cm) whereas
pearl millet (Pennisetum typhoides (Burm. f.) performs better
than sorghum under extremely dry conditions as pearl millet
extract little water from the entire soil profile while sorghum
extracts more moisture from sub-soil (45-135 cm).
In post rainy season, it is the available moisture in the soil
profile that dictates the choice of crops. Suitable short
duration, high yielding cultivars of cereals, pulses and oilseeds
adapted to different rainfed/dryland areas have been
identified and recommended. Purity/quality of seed assumes
greater significance during years of low rainfall.
Safflower is the most drought hardy crop.
Morden variety of sunflower is of shorter duration and highly drought tolerant.
Safflower is more efficient crop than wheat in Bellary region of Karnataka.
Sunflower is more remunerative than Foxtail millet in relatively deeper red soils of
Rayalseema (AP).
Sorghum during rabi season in more popular than sunflower and soybean in
western Maharastra, north Karnataka, Telangana, Rayalseen (AP).
Hybrid sorghum gives higher yield than varieties in the rabi season.

In adequate residual moisture after kharif crops (after the monsoon is over)
especially in the upper profile, raya has an advantage over other crops.
On clay loam soils, chickpea (Cicer arietinum Linn.) performs than raya.
Soils of medium to high water holding capacity (sandy loam, loam, clay loam, silt
loam) are suitable for double cropping.

In agro-climatic regions where length of growing season is longer than the

duration of single crop but not enough for sequential cropping, intercropping
could be a better choice.
Research conducted at ICRISAT, Hyderabad revealed that sole crop of pigeonpea
(Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Mill sp.) is likely to fail once in five years, sole sorghum
once in eight years but sorghum + pigeonpea intercropping would fail only
once in 36 years.
Suitable cropping systems based on rainfall and water availability period

Rainfall (mm) Soil / Water availability Period Potential cropping

(weeks) systems

350-600 Alfisols and shallow 20 Single kharif crop

Vertisols
350-600 Aridisols and Entisols 20 Single crop kharif /
rabi
350-600 Deep Vertisols 20 Single rabi crop
600-750 Alfisols, Vertisols and 20-30 Intercropping
Entisols
750-900 Entisols, Deep Vertisols, >30 Double cropping
Alfisols and Inceptisols
More than 900 Entisols, Deep Vertisols, >30 Double cropping
Alfisols and Inceptisols
Sowing time
During kharif season, crops should be sown as early as possible with
the onset of monsoon rains when about 25-30 mm rainfall is
received within a period of one week and one of the showers is
not less than 15 mm and atleast 30 cm soil profile is in optimum
moisture conditions (watter).
Early sowing helps in proper establishment of the plants in time to
safeguard against torrential rains or temporary water logging.
Efforts should be made to sow the entire area during kharif season
as early as possible with the onset of rains.
Early sowing also prevents the crop from the attack of certain insect-
pests and diseases such as shoot fly in hybrid maize, aphid in
rapeseed-mustard. Early/timely sowing also facilitates the timely
sowing of rabi crops. Adjustment in sowing may be required to
avoid critical period of mositure stress or to maximize the use of
environmental resources for the benefit of crop. Sowing of sesame
in July reduces the incidence of phyllody than that sown in June.
Sowing method
Sowing of rainy season crops on ridges and winter season crops at the bottom of
furrows has significant advantage over sowing on flat beds.
Sowing of rainy season crop at the edges of ridges in ridge and furrow method
ensures good crop stand due to reduced soil crusting in drylands. As far as
possible, inter row water should be properly harvested by ridge-furrow
method of sowing. In water scarcity situations, water in furrows is available
to the roots of the plants. In case of excess rains, these furrows allow the
excess water to be drained out of the field to be collected in ponds, tanks
and depressions for life saving irrigations and profile recharging for the
establishment of rabi crops.
Sowing should be done with pora method or seed drill especially of rabi crops.
Under situations of low or inadequate rainfall, row spacing should be reduced
without increasing the seed rate since the plant growth under such
conditions is likely to be adversely affected. Conversely during rabi season,
wider row to row spacing does well under water scarcity conditions. Lesser
number of plants will utilize the left over moisture more efficiently for
sustained growth and production of crops and would result in assured yield.
Strip method of sowing is simple, cheap and effective soil conservation practice
which ensures crop safety not only against drought but also against insect-
pests. Erosion permitting (maize, sorghum) and erosion resisting ( pulses)
crops should be planted in narrow strips. While sole crop of wheat fares well
in years of favourable rainfall, intercropping of wheat with chickpea or raya is
more remunerative as compared to wheat alone in low rainfall years.
Seed rate and plant population
Good germination and uniform and optimum plant stand are the important pre-
requisites for successful cultivation of crops in drylands. Depending up on the
climatic conditions, use about 25% higher seed rate than that recommended for
optimum moisture conditions. On achieving good plant stand after germination,
teh excess plants should be thinned out about 2-3 weeks after
sowing/germination. Wherever required, gap filling should be done to maintain
desired plant population. The same plants which have been thinned out can be
transplanted to fill the gap. To cope with unpredictable mid-term drought,
improved water conservation practices and reduction in plant population can
mitigate the drought effects to some extent. Less plant density extracts less soil
moisture.
Seed treatment
For proper germination and crop establishment, and as safeguard against seed
borne diseases and soil borne pests, seeds must be treated with recommended
fungicides and insecticides, respectively.
Crop seeds with hard seed coat such as castor (Ricinus communis Linn.), cotton
(Gossypium hirsutum Linn.) sunflower (Helianthus annuus Linn.) should be
soaked in water for overnight (8-12 hours). For better performance of grain
legumes, these should be inoculated with appropriate strains of Rhizobium.
Interculture
Earthing up of standing maize provides physical support to plants besides providing
aeration to roots. Ploughing of standing crops creates mulch and facilitates
earthing up, controls weeds and retains more rainwater due to formation of
gullies/furrows.
Fertilizer application
• Dryland soils are poor in nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and micro-nutrients.
Wherever possible, organic manures should be used. Water holding capacity
of coarse textured soils can be improved through addition of organic matter
and pond sediments. In drylands, the response of applied nutrients is
directly proportional to amount of water available. It is, therefore, desired to
adopt an integrated water and fertilizer management strategy to achieve
higher efficiency of both. Fertilizer application aids in root development of
crops and greater moisture extraction. To exploit the water of deeper layers,
it is imperative to apply adequate amounts of fertilizers at the right time by
using proper method of application.
Supply of nutrients in adequate amounts helps in early crop cover and reduced
evaporation from soil surface. Placement of fertilizers at 7.5 cm deep and
seed at 5.0 cm in the same furrow followed by oil compaction results in
better germination, plant vigour, root development and consequently higher
yield.
Response of rabi crops to applied nitrogen depends up on soil type, available
moisture storage at seedling stage and seasonal rains. Nitrogenous fertilizers
should be top dressed at critical growth stages depending up on rains but
top dressing should be done by side or by band placement. Foliar application
of urea, thiourea, zinc sulphate or potassium chloride are known to improve
water use efficiency and grain yield.
Weed control
Weeds compete for essential resources (space, light,
moisture and nutrients), have allelopathic effects,
harbour diseases and pests and thereby increasing their
incidence, Reduce the efficiency of farm operations.

Timely weeding is important. Generally not possible during

rainy season due to continuous rains or wet field
conditions or non availability of labour in time.
During years of low rainfall weed control assumes greater
importance due to scarcity of moisture.
Traditional methods of weeding are laborious and time
consuming. Hence improved tillage implements are
required. Where moisture at time of sowing is adequate,
herbicide based weed management along with one
hoeing may provide the most desired benefits.
Watershed Management
• A watershed is simply the geographic area
through which water flows across the land
and drains into a common body of water,
whether a stream, river, lake, or ocean. The
watershed boundary will more or less follow
the highest ridgeline around the stream
channels and meet at the bottom or lowest
point of the land where water flows out of the
watershed, the mouth of the waterway.
• Much of the water comes from rainfall
and stormwater runoff. The quality and
quantity of stormwater is affected by all the
alterations to the land--mining, agriculture,
roadways, urban development, and the
activities of people within a watershed.
Watersheds are usually separated from other
watersheds by naturally elevated areas.
•
 Why are watersheds important
• Watersheds are important because the surface
water features and stormwater runoff within a
watershed ultimately drain to other bodies of
water. It is essential to consider these
downstream impacts when developing and
implementing water quality protection and
restoration actions. Everything upstream ends up
downstream. We need to remember that we all
live downstream and that our everyday activities
can affect downstream water
 Watershed Management
• Management of the environment has been
primarily focussed on specific issues such as
air, land, and water. Most efforts have
resulted in decreasing pollutant emissions to
air and water, improved landfills, remediation
of waste sites and contaminated
groundwater, protection of rare and
endangered species, design of best
management practices to control water and
contaminant runoff, and much more.
• A watershed is an area of land and water
bounded by a drainage divide within which
the surface runoff collects and flows out of
the watershed through a single outlet into a
lager river ( or ) lake.
 TYPES OF WATERSHED
• Watersheds is classified depending upon the size,
drainage, shape and land use pattern.
• Macro watershed (> 50,000 Hect)

• Sub-watershed (10,000 to 50,000 Hect)

• Milli-watershed (1000 to10000 Hect)

• Micro watershed (100 to 1000 Hect)

• Mini watershed (1-100 Hect)

Objectives of watershed management
• The different objectives of watershed management
programmes are:
• 1. To control damaging runoff and degradation and
thereby conservation of soil and water.
2. To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful
purpose.
3. To protect, conserve and improve the land of
watershed for more efficient and
sustained production.
4. To protect and enhance the water resource
originating in the watershed.
5. To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of
sediment yield on the watershed.
• 6. To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
7. To moderate the floods peaks at down
stream areas.
8. To increase infiltration of rainwater.
9. To improve and increase the production of
timbers, fodder and wild life resource.
10. To enhance the ground water recharge,
wherever applicable.
 Factors affecting watershed
management
• a) Watershed characters
• i) Size and shape
ii) Topography
iii) Soils
iv) Relief
• b) Climatic characteristic
• i. Precipitation
ii. Amount and intensity of rainfall
• c) Watershed operation
• d) Land use pattern
• i. Vegetative cover
ii. Density
• Watershed management practices
1. Interms of purpose
1. To increase infiltration
2. To increase water holding capacity
3. To prevent soil erosion
2. Method and accomplishment
 Some of the watershed management
structures
• BROAD BEDS AND FURROWS
• a. FUNCTION
To control erosion and to conserve soil moisture
in the soil during rainy days.
• b. GENERAL INFORMATION
• The broad bed and furrow system is laid within
the field boundaries. The land levels taken and it
is laid using either animal drawn or tractor drawn
ridgers.
•
 [Link] BEDS AND FURROWS
• c. COST
Approximate cost for laying beds & furrows is
Rs.1800 / ha.
• d. SALIENT FEATURESConserves soil moisture
in dryland
• Controls soil erosion.
• Acts as a drainage channel during heavy rainy
days.
 .
2. CONTOUR BUND
• a. FUNCTION
To intercept the run off flowing down the slope by an
embankment.
• b. GENERAL INFORMATION
• It helps to control run off velocity. The embankment may
be closed or open, surplus arrangements are provided
wherever necessary.
• c. COST
• Approximate cost of laying contour bund is Rs.1400 / ha.
• d. SALIENT FEATURES
• i. It can be adopted on all soils
ii. It can be laid upto 6% slopes.
iii. It helps to retain moisture in the field.
 3. BENCH TERRACING
• a. FUNCTION
• It helps to bring sloping land into different level strips
to enable cultivation.

• b. GENERAL INFORMATION
• It consists of construction of step like fields along
contours by half cutting and half filling. Original slope is
converted into level fields. The vertical & horizontal
intervals are decided based on level slope.
• c. COST
Approximate cost for laying the terrace is Rs.5000 / ha.
• d. SALIENT FEATURES
• Suitable for hilly regions.
• The benches may be inward sloping to drain off
excess water.
• The outward sloping benches will help to reduce
the existing steep slope to mild one.
• It is adopted in soils with slopes greater than 6%
• �
4. MICROCATCHMENTS FOR SLOPING
LANDS
•
a. FUNCTION
• It is useful for insitu moisture conservation
and erosion control for tree crops.

•
• SALIENT FEATURES
• Slope ranges from 2 –8%
• Soil type – Light to moderate texture
• Insitu moisture conservation with staggered
planting
• Suitable for dry land Horticulture &
Agroforestry
• Bund height – 30 to 45 cm.
 5. Check dam

• Salient features
• A low weir normally constructed across the gullies
• Constructed on small streams and long gullies formed by
erosive activity of flood water
• It cuts the velocity and reduces erosive activity
• The stored water improves soil moisture of the adjoining
area and allows percolation to recharge the aquifers
• Spacing between the check dams water spread of one
should be beyond the water spread of the other
• Height depends on the bank height, varies from a metre to
3 metre and length varies from less than 3m to 10m
• Cost varies from Rs. 40000/- to Rs. 100000/- per unit
 6. Percolation pond:
• function
To augment the ground water recharge

• Salient features
• Shallow depression created at lower portions in a natural or
diverted stream course
• Preferable under gentle sloping stream where narrow valley exists
• Located in soils of permeable nature
• Adaptable where 20-30 ground water wells for irrigation exist with
in the zone of influence about 800 – 900m
• Minimum capacity may be around 5000 m3 for the sack of
economy
• Also act as silt detention reservoir
• Cost varies from Rs. 60000 to 150000 per unit
7. Stone Barriers
Various constrains that limit farming in drylands can be categorized as:
1. Physical
▪ Agro-climatic conditions
▪ Soil characteristics – Physical, chemical, biological

2. Technological
▪ Soil fertility
▪ Crop improvement
▪ Production practices – Agronomic, mechanical/power, fallow

3. Institutional and infrastructural

▪ Credit
▪ Inputs supply and marketing of produce
▪ Research and technology transfer
▪ Fertilizer and agrochemicals
▪ Farm level knowledge

4. Socio-economic
▪ Population growth
▪ Land tenure and fragmentation
▪ Participation of women in farming activities
▪ Bio-diversity
 1. Physical constraints
• Agro-climatic conditions
• Precipitation, temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, wind, evapo-
transpiration, cloudiness
Rainfall
Onset, amount, intensity and distribution of rainfall is very important for successful
crop production.
Dominating features of rainfall are:
Unpredictability, temporal and spatial variability (irregular distribution), limited
availability.
Average annual rainfall of India is 1196 mm which amounts to 400 Mha-m of
rainwater over the geographical area of 329 Mha.
Distribution: less than 100 mm in western Rajasthan (extreme arid zone) to more
than 3600 mm in N-E states.
1100 mm from east coast to about 3000 mm in west coast.
Cherrapunji (Meghalaya) on the southern slope of Khasi hills received the largest
amount of rainfall annually (11,420 mm) whereas the Thar desert in Rajasthan
receives the lowest amount of rainfall (less than 100 mm).
Rainfall pattern in India
Season Rainfall
M ha-m Per cent
Winter (January- 12 3
February)
Pre-monsoon (March- 52 13
May)
South-west monsoon 296 74
(June-September)
North-west monsoon 40 10
(October-December)
Total 400 100
There are at least four kinds of variations in rainfall.
i) The commencement of rains may be quite early or considerably
delayed.
ii) ii) There may be prolonged dry spell in between two rainfall
events. These breaks in monsoon rains can be of different
duration. The breaks of 5 to 7 days may not be all serious
concern but breaks of longer duration of 2 - 3 weeks create the
situation of plant water stress leading to reduction in agricultural
production.
iii) iii) The rains may terminate considerably earlier or persists
longer than usual.
iv) iv) Uneven distribution of rains.
Temperature
Temperature extremes limit crop growth and productivity.
Low altitude tropical and sub-tropical regions experience high
temperature for longer part of the year.
Higher altitude temperate (continental) regions experience
excessively lower temperatures.

During the winter season, the north-east India experiences very

low temperature which range from -9 to -14°C in the Ladakh
region (cold arid zone) to 3 – 10°C in arid regions of Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan. Frost often occurs in north-west
India.
May and June are the hottest months and the temperature as
high as 48°C. On an individual days temperature of about 50°C
are also recorded. Heat waves occur during this period.
With the onset of monsoon, the mean daily temperature falls
sharply from 42°C in June to 33°C in July and 36°C in August to
September.
Sunshine
Duration of bright sunshine hours is an important factor in dry
areas.
The daily average sunshine hours are 7 to 9 in winter over arid
zone except cold arid parts where the duration is less than 2.5
hours per day. During the summer season the arid zones record
9 to 10 hours per day and highest over Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Maharashtra regions while in cold arid zone, it is less than 8
hours.
With the onset of monsoon the hours of bright sunshine decreases
sharply to 4 to 5 hours per day in southern arid zone 4 to 7
hours in northern arid zone. In the month of October when
south west monsoon is withdrawn over major part of the
country, the highest bright sunshine hours of 10 per day are
recorded over western Rajasthan which decrease south wards
and are around 5 to 8 hours in southern arid zone on an annual
basis. The northern arid zones recorded slightly higher number
of sunshine hours (>8 hours per day) as compared to southern
arid zone (7 to 8 hours per day).
Winds
Many dryland areas are subject to strong winds that
adversely affect the water economy of plants by way of
increased evapo-transpiration and cause soil erosion.
Wind often accentuates the effect of temperature
extremes on plant growth.
In these areas wind regime is very strong in Gujarat
followed by Western Rajasthan, where mean wind
speed may be >20 km per hour during April to July.
In southern arid zone stronger wind regime (>18 km/hour)
prevails in Kurnool region of Andhra Pradesh and over
Raichur region of Karnataka during June to August.
Physical damage to the plants caused by blowing sand can
be a serious problem in some areas.
The potential evapo-transpiration (PET) is the realistic measure of the water
requirements for optimum vegetation and crop growth throughout the year. It
varies widely due to wide variation in topography, temperature, wind speed, solar
radiation, relative humidity and altitude. The average PET of India is about 1771
mm which varies from 1239 mm in the north (Jammu and Kashmir) to 2052 mm in
the south-central region (Andhra Pradesh) of the country.

• Time of onset of rainy season may help in deciding about the crop, plant
population to be maintained, investment on fertilizers and other inputs.
• Early onset of rainfall indicates increased probability of above average
rainfall. So longer duration crop, higher plant population and higher
doses of mineral fertilizers should be used.
• Of late, there is evidence of erratic behaviour of rainfall (increased
frequency of high intensity rains, reduced number of rainy days and shift
in rainfall pattern).
• In future, rainfall distribution is likely to be more erratic with high
intensity storms followed by long dry spells.
 Soil characteristics
• Major soil types in India are: black, alluvial, red (laterite
and lateritic), sierozems and sub-mountane soil.
Alluvial: 78 M ha, Black: 51.8 M ha, Red: 51 M ha,
Lateritic: 12.6 M ha and Desert: 37 M ha.

• Alluvial, sierozems and sub-mountane soil dominate in

north-west India.
• Black and red soils are mainly present in central and
south India
• Laterite and lateritic soils predominate the high rainfall
regions and coastal areas.
Vertisols
• Vertisols (Black soils) occupy 72 million ha in India and constitute
22% of the country’s geographical area. Vertisols are
predominant in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
• Nearly 84% of Maharashtra, 44% of Gujarat, and 38% of Madhya
Pradesh are occupied by these soils. The annual rainfall is 500 mm.
• These soils have high clay content (30 to 70%) and high water
holding capacity, the water intake capacity early in the monsoon
season is high due to deep cracks and larger water retention
capacity.
Alluvial soils
• These soils occupy nearly 21% of the geographical area.
• Alluvial soils are generally loamy sand or sandy loam, very deep
with low water holding capacity.
• Water intake is high and the soils tend to crust on the surface
with a beating rain which leads to runoff during subsequent rains.
Alfisols
• Alfisols (Red soils) are agriculturally important soils in drylands.
These soils occupy about 20% of the geographical area. The clay is
predominantly Kaolinitic in nature and dominated by calcium.
These clay are red or reddish brown to yellowish brown is colour.
• The plant available moisture storage in the root zone of these soils
is usually less than 10 cm.
• Alfisols generally have inherently low water retention capacity.
• Although there soils are easy to till when wet, they become hard
when dry and are difficult to plough.

Laterite soils
• These soils cover 13 M ha in India.
• These soils are well drained with a satisfactory hydraulic
• conductivity. The clay is mostly either Kaolinitic or illitic type.
• Laterite soils are generally associated with undulating topography
with a relatively high annual rainfall.
Sierozemic soils
• Sierozemic soils are extremely rich in sands, loamy sand and
sandy loam.
• Soil erosion through wind is common. These soils are light
textured and hence hold less water and nutrients.
• Calcium carbonate concretions occur at various depths,
influencing the effective soil depth. Surface crusting is a
serious problem.
• Subsoil salinity is common due to extreme aridity.
Submontane soils
• The land is generally undulating.
• These soils are spread in the hill and foothill regions of India.
• Soils are silty loam to loam. These are medium to deep.
• Land slide and soil erosion are common. The stored water in
these soils may very from 20 to 30 cm per metre profile.
• Adoption of appropriate soil and water conservation measure
is a must.
Physical
Poor physical properties of soils are the major constraints in
Drylands. Such soils are:
• Susceptible to wind and water erosion
• Shallow, stony with restricted drainage
• Many upland soils in the tropical regions are sandy,
gravelly and often shallow. Such soils have low water
holding capacity.
• Soil crusting
• Soil compaction by tillage implements
• Such conditions lead to large amount of water runoff, poor
biomass production and hence low organic matter
addition in to soil.
• Crusting and cracking lead to high rate of evaporation and
mechanical injury to plants
• Uneven topography with high erodibility.
• Shallow or very deep soil with extreme permeability.
• Waterlogging in level lands, flooding.
• Low moisture storage and release capacity particularly of Alfisols.

Vertisols
• Have high water holding capacity but are difficult to manage.
These are very soft when wet and very hard when dry.
• Difficulty in workability. These require lot of energy/ power for
tillage.

Deep black soils have capacity to store more than 300 mm of water
per meter depth whereas the desert soil can store only 100 mm
of water per meter soil depth. The impact of drought is felt
more quickly in the soil having less water holding capacity but in
sols with high storage capacity 15 days, dry break may not affect
the crop
 Chemical
• Poor and marginal soils with inherent low fertility.
• Deficiency of major and minor nutrients.
For example, poor P availability restricts root development.
• Poor soil organic matter content
• Presence of dissolved salts in ground water.
• High concentration of soluble salts in the surface
soils
• Acidity, toxicity of aluminium
 Biological
• Biological activity in dryland soils is generally much lower
than humid regions due to low organic matter levels and
lack of moisture.
• Organic matter present in dryland soils is chemically and
biologically less stable. This results in low water and
nutrient retention, increase in soil acidity and poor plant
growth which in turn reduces supply of organic residues.
In drylands, crop residues are used as dry fodder and fuel.
Tillage is often necessary for increasing infiltration but
it should be practices as minimum as possible. Any
practice that stirs the soil exposes more surface area
and thus increases organic matter decomposition,
Excessive tillage increases rate of decomposition of
organic matter.

Sub-surface tillage which ensures retention of residues

on the surface and exposes fewer soil surface
increases infiltration, reduces erosion and results in
less organic matter decomposition.
This improves the overall biological condition of the soil
and physical and chemical characteristics of the soil.
 2. Technological constraints
Soil fertility
Low native fertility is widespread particularly in sandy/light textured
soils.
Keeping land fallow/uncropped, low biomass production, loss of fertile
top soils due to erosion lead to decline in soil fertility.
• Application of desired nutrients in optimum amounts and time is
important. It must coincide with moisture availability. Maintaining
weed free conditions is equally important.
• Inclusion of legumes in cropping systems
• BNF, inoculation of legumes with proper rhizobium or cereals with
appropriate biofertilizers (Azobacter, Azospirillum, VAM etc.)
• Adequate phosphorus and starter dose of nitrogen is important for
BNF.
• Application of organic manures to supply major and micro-nutrients
and favourable physical conditions of the soil.
• Combined use of organic and inorganic fertilizers.
• Incorporation of crop residues.
Crop improvement
• Choice of crops: drought tolerant crops and cultivars
Coarse cereals, pulses, oilseeds, legume fodders
• Duration of crops: Short duration, critical growth periods matching with
soil moisture availability.
60-70 days pearl millet, 80-90 days groundnut, sesame, 70-80 days legumes

Livestock is an important component of production system in drylands.

India has world’s largest livestock population with 55% and 16% of world’s
buffalo and cattle populations. Rainfed areas account for two-third of the
total livestock population.
It has increased from 445 million in 1961 to about 500 million in 2000 AD. It
is largely responsible for continuous degradation of forests, grasslands,
village common lands and alpine pastures. The average grazing intensity
is about 42 animals per ha of land against the threshold of 5 animals per
ha.
Straw is equally important to grain.
Production practices
• Technologies must suit the local environment as well
as to the prevailing social, economic and institutional
conditions.
• Refinement of existing technologies in a particular
ecosystems is most desired. Role of Indigenous
Technological Knowledge (ITKS) is very important.
• Farmer with limited resources finds it difficult and
risky to adopt several new technologies that require
shifting of existing practices and additional resources.
• Adoption of technologies under dryland conditions is
slow.
Agronomic, mechanical/power, fallow
• Soil and moisture conservation practices
• Increased biomass production and soil cover
Contour bunding, tied ridges, water harvesting, erosion
control.
▪ Tillage – to improve infiltration, facilitate sowing, weed control
▪ Selection of crops and cultivars including intercropping
▪ Time and method sowing
▪ Plant population
▪ Weed management,
▪ Mulching,
▪ Organic manures and chemical fertilizers (Type, amount,
time of application),
▪ Disease and pest management.
3. Institutional and infrastructural constraints
Credit – Affordable to resource poor farmers.
Easy availability
Input availability and marketing of produce
• Inputs not available in time and at affordable prices.
• Difficulty in obtaining parts and maintaining equipments.
Production ranges from very low in poor rainfall years to
abundance in good rainfall years. There should be
remunerative price, assured purchase price stability.
Purchase by agencies at MSP.
Need to strengthen cooperative and trade organizations
and to promote custom hiring.
Creation of storage facilities.
Improved infrastructure and connectivity
Research and
• Innovative and improved technologies to suit the
local conditions.
• Technologies should be less risky, technically
feasible, affordable, economically viable, socially
acceptable and sustainable.
Technology transfer
Involvement of local farmers in technology
dissemination is very important.
Information about need, technical and economic
benefits, ease of adoption in comparison to
traditional practices is important.
4. Socio economic constraints
Population growth
• Population pressure affects resource base. Demand of land for habitation,
infrastructure is increasing.
• Demand of food, fiber, fodder, fuel is increasing.
• Pressure on land to produce more per unit of land and water is increasing.
Land tenure and fragmentation
• Land management practices required for soil and moisture conservation
such as terracing, contour bunding are difficult on small holdings.
• Use of modern machinery is difficult on smaller plots.
Participation of women
• Women do more than half the work involved in food production in south-
east Asia.
• Women seldom hold title to land or other items of significant worth to use
as collateral.
• Participation of women in training programmes particularly those related to
farming practices is low.
• Light weight, easy to use implements are needed.
Non availability of labour: There is increased movement of people to
cities to look for job opportunities.
• Timelines of farming operations is dry faming is very critical. Labour
is generally not available in time for crucial operations such as
sowing, thinning, weeding, harvesting, etc.
• Cost of labour is also very high. With development of new
technologies, there is also dearth of skilled labour.
• Women folk have to spend significant part of the day to collect
drinking water and fuel from far flung areas.
Biodiversity
• India is rich in biodiversity because of diverse physiographic and
climatic conditions and is one of the 12 mega biodiversity centres of
the world.
• India has immensely rich natural/agricultural biodiversity in terms
of plants, crops, wild plants, aquatic species, below groundnut
biota, microbes etc.
• India ranks seventh in the world in number of species contributing
to agriculture and animal husbandry. Our forests which are all
rainfed are rich in biodiversity.
• Forests have immense role in arresting climate change, rainfall and
providing wood, fuel and fodder.