GEM Systems, Inc.
135 Spy Court
Markham, ON CANADA L3R 5H6
Ph. 905 752-2202 Fax 905 752-2205
info@[Link] [Link]
Very Low Frequency (VLF-EM) Explained
Very low frequency (VLF) survey methods rely on 11 major stations distributed
around the world that transmit continuous VLF electromagnetic waves. The
interaction of the electromagnetic plane waves emitted from these transmitters can
be measured as the waves that impinge on different material conductors in the
earth.
This includes primarily vertical conductors which can be due to two sources
(mineralized veins or potentially, water-bearing fractures). Examples of vertical
sheet conductors include faults, dykes, and fracture or joint zones.
Applications of VLF include mineral exploration and ground water exploration. In
mineral exploration, the method is a low-cost means of detecting shallow, steeply
dipping, possibly mineralized conductors. In groundwater exploration, vertical
structures are often associated with groundwater flow.
In both cases, survey lines conducted perpendicular to the conductors show a
strong response. The method is generally inexpensive with the final data output
from the instrument providing a direct indication of linear conductive anomalies.
The method is often conducted as a reconnaissance method as large areas of
ground can be rapidly covered.
From [Link]
The VLF method is a passive electromagnetic (EM) method that utilizes powerful
military transmitters operating between 15-30 kilohertz (kHz) as the primary EM
wave source. VLF methods can be used to determine the locations of saturated,
sub-vertical conductive zones in which the primary EM wave induces current flow.
The field radiated from a VLF transmitter over a uniform or horizontally layered
earth consists of a vertical electric field component and a horizontal magnetic field
component, each perpendicular to the direction of propagation (McNeill, 1990).
Because the source of the electromagnetic field is usually greater than 50 miles
away, the long wavelength EM wave approximates a plane wave. In this study, the
VLF was used in two modes: tilt angle and resistivity.
Although the primary magnetic field is oriented horizontally and perpendicularly to
its source, induced current flowing in fracture zones produces a secondary magnetic
field that is out-of-phase with the primary magnetic field and is oriented in any
direction (McNeill and Labson, 1990). The vector sum of the two fields traces out an
ellipse over time, the tilt of which is measured in the VLF tilt angle mode (fig. 5).
GEM Systems, Inc.
135 Spy Court
Markham, ON CANADA L3R 5H6
Ph. 905 752-2202 Fax 905 752-2205
info@[Link] [Link]
The tilt angle is approximately equal to the in-phase part of the vertical component
of the magnetic field ellipse.
Figure 5. Tilt angle and ellipticity of a VLF field.
For tilt angle measurements, magnetic field coupling with the fracture zone is
important. Therefore, the VLF-transmitter should be located along the strike of the
target. The depth of investigation is dependent on the frequency used and the
resistivity of the host medium. At the study site, the local resistivity minimum is
400 ohm-m (based on the 2D dc-resistivity data), therefore, the VLF depth of
investigation is more than 65 m.
GEM Systems, Inc.
135 Spy Court
Markham, ON CANADA L3R 5H6
Ph. 905 752-2202 Fax 905 752-2205
info@[Link] [Link]
Measuring resistivity with the VLF requires measuring the electric field with two
electrodes connected to the control unit by a wire. In the resistivity-mode, the VLF
is similar to the high frequency magnetotelluric method (Kaikkonen and Sharma,
1997) and measures apparent resistivity and phase angle (time-delay) between the
electric and magnetic fields. For resistivity measurements, the electrical field
coupling with the fracture zone is important, therefore, the transmitter should be
located in a direction perpendicular to the target.
A qualitative method was used to interpret the VLF tilt-angle data to identify
fracture zones by comparing measured data to instrument response calculated for
models of conductors with similar shapes.
A conductive fracture zone produces a tilt-angle anomaly that looks like a distorted
sinusoid (fig. 6). The top of the fracture zone is centered at the inflection point of
the anomaly. In the VLF resistivity data, low resistivity zones were interpreted as
possible fracture zones.
Figure 6. VLF response to a thin vertical conductor.
From [Link]
GEM Systems, Inc.
135 Spy Court
Markham, ON CANADA L3R 5H6
Ph. 905 752-2202 Fax 905 752-2205
info@[Link] [Link]
Other References
+_ VLF for groundwater contamination. Done with WADI system:
[Link]
+ VLF geophysics: a case study on locating bedrock wells in water bearing fracture zones for
use in contaminant migration interception. C. L. Covel and D. T. Kayment, 97, in 2nd EEGS-ES
Meeeting, 2 - 5 September, 1996, Nantes, France.
[Link]
+ Mineral exploration case histories.
[Link]
+ Prospecting model for recognition of VLF-EM signatures. Geonics system.
[Link]
+ Northeastern Brazil Groundwater Project. Compiled by a variety of groups. You may be able
to contact individual organizations to find out more about methods.
[Link]