ARBAMINCH UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

3. Load And Load Effects

STRUCTURAL DESIGN

MULUKEN BOGALE
[Link]. In Structural Engineering

1
 CHAPTER CONTENT

❖ Introduction to loads
❖ Load and Load effect
❖ What creates wind?
❖ Characteristics of wind
❖ Procedure for the calculation of wind load

2
 Introduction to Loads
❑ Loads are forces or actions applied to a structure, causing stress,
strain, or deformation.
❑Purpose: Ensure structural safety, stability, and serviceability under
applied loads.

3
 Types of Loads
❑Permanent Loads (G):
❑Self-weight of the structure (e.g., walls, beams, slabs).

❑Fixed equipment and finishes.

❑Variable Loads (Q):

❑Live loads: Furniture, occupants, and equipment.

❑Environmental actions: Wind, snow, and thermal loads.

❑Accidental Loads (A):

❑Rare events: Explosions, impacts, earthquakes.

4
 Load Combinations
❑ Considering multiple loads acting together.

❑ Eurocode Equation:

𝛾𝐺𝐺+𝛾𝑄𝑄+𝛾𝐴𝐴, where 𝛾γ are safety factors.

❑ Example:

Dead load: 𝐺=10 kN/m2

Live load: 𝑄=5 kN/m2

Load Combination: 1.35G+1.5Q=20.25kN/m 2

5
 Wind Loads
1. Wind Loads (EN 1991-1-4):

❑Pressure zones: Windward, leeward, and roof.

𝑤=𝑞⋅𝑐𝑝𝑒 , where 𝑞 is dynamic pressure, 𝑐𝑝𝑒 is external pressure coefficient.

Key factor
❑Wind speed

❑Location and climate

❑Structure shape and size

❑Surrounding terrain

6
 Earthquake Loads (Seismic Actions)
❑ Earthquake loads represent forces induced by ground motion during
seismic events.

❑ EN 1998 (Eurocode 8): Design of structures for earthquake resistance.

❑ Key Factors:

Seismic Hazard Level: Depends on regional seismicity.

Importance Class: Critical structures (e.g., hospitals).

Soil Type: Soil amplifies or dampens seismic waves.

Structural Ductility: Ability to dissipate energy without failure.

7
 Load Effects
Forces, moments, or deformations caused by applied loads.

Key Types:

❑ Axial forces

❑ Shear forces.

❑ Bending moments.

❑ Torsion.

Importance:

❑ Determines member sizes and reinforcements.

8
 Design Scenarios
1. Ultimate Limit State (ULS):
❑ Safety against collapse under maximum loads.

❑ High safety factors used.

2. Serviceability Limit State (SLS):

❑ Ensures comfort and functionality.

❑ Checks for deflection, vibration, and cracking.

9
 EBCS-ES EN Design Workflow
1. Identify applied loads.

2. Determine load combinations.

3. Analyze load effects.

4. Verify structural safety under ULS.

5. Check serviceability under SLS.

6. Finalize design based on code requirements.

10
 3.1 What’s Wind?
❑ Any stresses or tensions that the wind transmits to a component or
structure are referred to as wind loads in this context.

❑ Essentially, there are three different kinds of wind loads that could
be applied to a building. Uplift, shear, and lateral wind load.

11
 What creates wind?
1. Pressure Differences (Pressure Gradient Force)

❑ Air naturally moves from regions of high pressure to regions of low

pressure to equalize the atmospheric imbalance.

❑ The greater the pressure difference (pressure gradient), the faster the
air flows, resulting in stronger winds.

12
Pressure Differences (Pressure Gradient Force)

13
 What creates wind?
2. Uneven Heating of the Earth’s Surface

The Earth's surface heats unevenly due to variations in solar radiation

across different regions, seasons, and times of day.
❑ Land vs. Water: Land heats and cools faster than water, creating local
winds like land and sea breezes.

❑ Equator vs. Poles: The equator receives more direct sunlight, causing
warm air to rise and create low-pressure zones, while cooler air sinks at the
poles, creating high-pressure zones.

14
Uneven Heating of the Earth’s Surface

15
 What creates wind?
3. Earth's Rotation (Coriolis Effect)

❑ The rotation of the Earth causes moving air to deflect:

❑ To the right in the Northern Hemisphere.

❑ To the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

❑ This effect shapes global wind patterns, such as trade winds,

westerlies, and polar easterlies.

16
Earth's Rotation (Coriolis Effect)

17
 What creates wind?
4. Convection and Air Circulation

Convection: When warm air rises (due to being less dense), cooler air flows in
to replace it, creating a convective cycle.

Example: In tropical regions, intense heating causes strong upward

motion, leading to low-pressure zones and wind inflows.

Global Circulation: Large-scale wind patterns form because warm air from the
equator rises and moves toward the poles, while cooler air from the poles sinks
and moves toward the equator.

18
 Characteristics of Wind

1. Speed:
❑Varies with altitude (wind profile).
❑Turbulence and gusts.
2. Direction:
❑Predominant wind directions are location-specific.
3. Duration:
❑Short-term (gusts) vs. long-term (steady winds).
4. Dynamic Effects:
❑Wind is a dynamic force, causing oscillations in structures.

19
 Wind Load Effect
1. Pressure Distribution:
❑ Windward side: Positive pressure.
❑ Leeward side: Suction (negative pressure).

❑ The pressure on the walls and

roof is not uniform but varies
across the surface.
❑ Winds can apply loads to
structures from unexpected
directions.
❑ Thus, a designer must be well
aware of the dangers implied by
this lateral load.

20
 Wind Load Effect
❑ Wind against a building builds up a positive pressure on the
windward side and a negative pressure (or suction) on the leeward side.
❑ Depending upon the shape of the structure it may also cause a
negative pressure on the side walls or even the roof.

21
 Wind Load Effect
2. Load Components:
❑ Horizontal forces: Shear and overturning moments.
❑ Uplift forces on roofs.

22
 Wind Load Effect
3. Dynamic Effects:
❑ Buffeting: Random vibrations.
❑ Resonance: Match between natural frequency and wind excitation.
E.g. Catastrophic failure of Tacoma bridge 1940

23
Wind Load Effect

24
Wind Load Effect

25
Wind Load Effect

26
 Method of Analysis
Two method of analysis is provided
1. The simple procedure
❑ Performance based design
❑ The action effects and the resistance of a structure are treated separately
2. Wind Tunnel Experiments
❑ The wind, the building, its surroundings, and in particular cases its behavior
are modeled on scale.
❑ It is possible to measure wind velocities, pressures, forces, moments and
accelerations.

27
Method of Analysis

28
Method of Analysis

29
 Procedure for the calculation of wind load

According to EBCS EN 1991-1- 4, 2015/ CES 145

Procedure for the calculation of wind load
1. Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
𝒒𝒃 𝒛𝒆 = 𝟏 + 𝟕 ∗ 𝑰𝒗 𝒛𝒆 ∗ 𝟏Τ𝟐 ∗ 𝝆 ∗ 𝒗𝒎 (𝒛𝒆 )𝟐

2. Calculate the wind pressures using the pressure coefficients

𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒊 = 𝒒𝒑 𝒛𝒆 ∗ 𝑪𝒑𝒆 − 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛𝒊 ) ∗ 𝑪𝒑𝒊

3. Calculate the wind force

Fw = cscd ⋅ cf ⋅ qp(ze) ⋅ Aref

30
 Step 1

DETERMINE THE PEAK VELOCITY

PRESSURE (𝑞𝑝 )

31
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
I. Reference height (𝒁𝒆 )
❑ Defined as the height above ground level where wind actions are evaluated
❑ The reference height is a maximum of 200 m.
❑ For the leeward (E zone) and side walls (A, B, and C zones), the reference
height should be taken as the height of the building.

32
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
I. Reference height (𝒁𝒆 )
❑ The wind pressure on the windward face of the building (D zone).
❑ The code distinguishes three cases depending on the ratio h/b:
A. The height of the building (h) is less than b (general case)
The reference height should be taken as the height of the building, and
the building should be considered to be one part.

33
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
I. Reference height (𝒁𝒆 )
B. The height of the building is greater than b but less than 2*b
The building should be considered to be two parts:
❑ a lower part extending upwards from the ground by a height equal to b,
❑ and an upper part which is the remainder

34
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
C. The height of the building is greater than 2*b
The building should be considered to be multiple parts:

35
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
II. Basic wind velocity 𝑉𝑏
❑ The 10-minute mean wind speed was measured at a reference height of 10
m in open terrain with no obstructions.
Vb = C dir xCseason xVb ,0
Vb,o : fundamental value of the basic wind velocity = 22.00 m/s.
Cdir is a directional factor = 1
C𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑛 is a seasonal factor = 1

36
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
III. Terrain roughness
❑Roughness Factor (cr(z)) is a factor that adjusts wind speed to account for terrain
characteristics and height.
❑ A measure of surface characteristics affecting wind flow near the ground.
❑ Adjusts wind speed to account for surface features like buildings, trees, or open land.

𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛
Z is the height above ground
Roughness Length (𝑧0) represents the height at which wind speed approaches
zero due to terrain features.
zmin is the minimum height in meters corresponding to the threshold below
which the pressure no longer reduces.

37
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
❑K r is a scaling factor used in the calculation of the roughness factor 𝑐𝑟(𝑧). It
adjusts for the terrain’s impact on the wind profile.  Zo 
0.07

K r = 0.19  
 o. II 
Z

38
Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝

39
Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝

40
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
IV. Orography factor 𝐶0 (𝑧𝑒 )
❑ The orography factor accounts for the effect of terrain topography (e.g., hills,
ridges, escarpments) on wind flow, which can lead to increased wind speeds.
𝐶0 (𝑧𝑒 ) = 1.0.

41
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
IV. Wind turbulence 𝐼𝑣 (𝑧𝑒 )
❑ Wind turbulence refers to the irregular, erratic variation in wind speed and
direction as the wind moves over and around obstacles such as buildings, trees,
and terrain.
❑ Is the standard deviation of the turbulence divided by the mean wind velocity.
𝒌𝟏
𝑰𝒗 𝒛𝒆 = 𝑪 𝒛𝒆
𝟎 𝒛𝒆 ∗𝒍𝒏𝒛
𝒎𝒊𝒏

❑ For the examined case 𝑧𝑒 ≥ 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 . K1 is turbulence factor and the

recommended value is 1.

42
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
V. Basic velocity pressure 𝑞𝑏
❑ The basic velocity pressure represents the dynamic pressure the wind exerts at
a reference height.

❑ It is directly proportional to the square of the reference wind velocity.

𝒒𝒃 = 𝟏Τ𝟐 ∗ 𝝆 ∗ 𝒗𝒃 𝟐

43
 Determine the peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑝
VI. Peak velocity pressure 𝑞𝑏 𝑧𝑒
❑ The peak velocity pressure represents the combined effect of the mean wind
speed and the fluctuating turbulence components at a specific height.

𝑞𝑏 𝑧𝑒 = 1 + 7 ∗ 𝐼𝑣 𝑧𝑒 ∗ 1Τ2 ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑚 (𝑧𝑒 )2 ∗ 𝑐𝑑

❑ 𝑐𝑑 is dynamic factor, representing turbulence effects (usually 1.0 for static

calculations)

❑where ρ is the density of the air in accordance with EN1991-1-4 sec-4.5(1)/

CES – 145, 2015.
❑ In this calculation the following value is considered: ρ = 1.25 kg⁄m3 .

44
 Step 2

WIND PRESSURES USING THE

PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS

45
 Wind pressures using the pressure coefficients
❑ Wind pressures on structures are calculated by combining peak velocity
pressure and pressure coefficients, representing the distribution of wind forces
on different surfaces.
1. External Wind Pressure (𝑐𝑝𝑒):
Force is exerted on the outer surfaces of a structure due to wind.
Influenced by building geometry, wind direction, and pressure zones
(windward, leeward).
2. Internal Wind Pressure (𝑐𝑝𝑖):
Pressure inside the structure, dependent on openings (e.g., doors,
windows).
𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒊 = 𝒒𝒑 𝒛𝒆 ∗ 𝑪𝒑𝒆 − 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛𝒊 ) ∗ 𝑪𝒑𝒊

46
External Pressure Coefficient (𝑐𝑝𝑒)

47
External Pressure Coefficient (𝑐𝑝𝑒)

48
 External Pressure Coefficient (𝑐𝑝𝑒)
❑ The external pressure coefficients are divided into overall coefficients cpe,10
and local coefficients cpe,1
❑ Local coefficients cpe,1 (loaded areas ≤ 1m2 )
oUsed for the design of small elements and fixings with an area per element
of 1m2 or less such as cladding elements and roofing elements.
❑ Overall coefficients cpe,10 (loaded areas ≥ 10m2 )
oUsed for the design of the overall load bearing structure.
❑ For intermediate loaded areas A between 1m2 and 10m2 : cpe may be
calculated with logarithmic interpolation as follows:
𝐶𝑝𝑒 = 𝐶𝑝𝑒,1 − ቀ𝐶𝑝𝑒,1 − 𝐶𝑝𝑒,10 ൯ ∗ log10 𝐴

49
 External Pressure Coefficient (𝑐𝑝𝑒)

cpe = cpe,1 A  1m2

cpe = cpe,1 + (cpe,10 - cpe,1) log10A 1m2 < A < 10m2

cpe = cpe,10 A  10m2

50
External Pressure Wall and Roof Coefficient (𝑐𝑝𝑒)

Zone E

51
 Pressure zone for external wall
❑ For the External wall

52
 Pressure zone for external wall
❑ For the External wall

53
Pressure Zone For Free-standing Walls And Parapets

54
Pressure Zone For Flat Roof

55
Pressure Zone For Flat Roof

56
Pressure Zone For Monopitch roofs

57
Pressure Zone For Monopitch roofs

58
Pressure Zone For Monopitch roofs

59
Pressure Zone For Duopitch roofs

60
Pressure Zone For Duopitch roofs

61
Pressure Zone For Duopitch roofs

62
Pressure Zone For Hipped roofs

63
Pressure Zone For Hipped roofs

64
Pressure Zone For Vaulted roofs and domes

65
 Internal Pressure Coefficient (𝑐𝑝i)
❑ The internal pressure coefficient, Cpi, depends on the size and distribution of
the openings in the building envelope.
❑ CES-145, sec. 7.2. provides standard values for 𝑐𝑝𝑖 based on building
configuration:
o Completely Closed Building:
𝑐𝑝𝑖≈0.
o Partially Open Buildings:
𝑐𝑝𝑖 ranges from -0.2 to +0.2.
o Buildings with Dominant Openings (e.g., warehouses):
𝑐𝑝𝑖=−0.5 (suction) to +0.8 (positive pressure).

66
 Dominant Opening On Internal Pressure Coefficient
❑ For buildings with a dominant opening that is twice the size of all other
openings combined:
❑The dominant opening captures most of the wind's external pressure.
❑Internal pressure closely follows the external pressure, but it is somewhat
reduced due to airflow through smaller secondary openings.
cpi=0.75cpe
❑ When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the
area of the openings in the remaining faces
cpi=0.9cpe

67
 Cpi for Uniformly Distributed Openings
❑ Openings of equal size distributed symmetrically on all sides of a building
create a near-balanced flow of air.

68
 Net wind Pressure
❑ The net wind pressure on the surfaces of the structure wnet corresponds to
the combined effects of external wind pressure and internal wind pressure.
❑ For structural surfaces consisting of only one skin, the net pressure effect is
determined as:
𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑾𝒆 − 𝑾𝒊 = 𝒒𝒑 𝒛𝒆 ∗ 𝑪𝒑𝒆 − 𝒒𝒑 (𝒛𝒊 ) ∗ 𝑪𝒑𝒊

69
Net wind Pressure

70
 Step 3

CALCULATE THE WIND FORCE

71
 WIND FORCES
❑ The overall wind effect on the total structure or a particular structural
element is expressed by the total wind force Fw that is estimated by the
application of the appropriate force coefficient.

Fw = cscd ⋅ cf ⋅ qp(ze) ⋅ Aref

❑ cscd considers the structure size effects and the dynamic effects from
turbulence.
cscd = 1.0
❑ The force coefficient cf depends on the type of structure or structural
element.
❑ The wind reference area of Aref depends on the type of structure or
structural element.

72
 Reference
1. Compulsory Ethiopian Standard 145-2015: Actions on structures-Part
1-4: General actions – Wind actions. Ethiopian Standard Agency
2. EN 1991-1-4:2005. Eurocode 1: Actions on structures-Part 1-4:
General actions – Wind actions. European Committee for
Standardization (CEN), Brussels, Belgium.

73
Thank You!

74