ASNT LEVEL – II

RADIOGRAPHIC
TESTING
COURSE MATERIAL
HISTORY
 History of Radiography

X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845 -1923) who
was a Professor at Warburg University in Germany. Working with a cathode-ray
tube in his laboratory, Roentgen observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a
table near his tube. The tube that Roentgen was working with consisted of a
glass envelope (bulb) with positive and negative electrodes encapsulated in it.
The air in the tube was evacuated, and when a high voltage was applied, the
tube produced a fluorescent glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black
paper, and discovered a green colored fluorescent light generated by a material
located a few feet away from the tube.
He concluded that a new type of ray was being emitted from the tube. This ray
was capable of passing through the heavy paper covering and exciting the
phosphorescent materials in the room. He found the new ray could pass through
most substances casting shadows of solid objects. Roentgen also discovered
that the ray could pass through the tissue of humans, but not bones and metal
objects. One of Roentgen's first experiments late in 1895 was a film of the hand
of his wife, Bertha. It is interesting that the first use of X-rays were for an
industrial (not medical) application as Roentgen produced a radiograph of a set
of weights in a box to show his colleagues.
Roentgen's discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received with
extraordinary interest by both scientist and laymen. Scientists everywhere could
duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube was very well known during
this period. Many scientists dropped other lines of research to pursue the
mysterious rays. Newspapers and magazines of the day provided the public with
numerous stories, some true others fanciful, about the properties of the newly
discovered rays.

Public fancy was caught by this invisible ray with the ability to pass through solid
matter, and, in conjunction with a photographic plate, provide a picture of bones
and interior body parts. Scientific fancy was captured by demonstration of a
wavelength shorter than light. This generated new possibilities in physics, and for
investigating the structure of matter. Much enthusiasm was generated about
potential applications of rays as an aid in medicine and surgery. Within a month
after the announcement of the discovery, several medical radiographs had been
made in Europe and the United States, which were used by surgeons to guide
them in their work. In June 1896, only 6 months after Roentgen announced his
discovery, X-rays were being used by battlefield physicians to locate bullets in
wounded soldiers.

Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the realms of medicine, and
dentistry, though some X-ray pictures of metals were produced. The reason that
X-rays were not used in industrial application before this date was because the X-
ray tubes (the source of the X-rays) broke down under the voltages required to
 produce rays of satisfactory penetrating power for industrial purpose. However,
that changed in 1913 when the high vacuum X-ray tubes designed by Coolidge
became available. The high vacuum tubes were intense and reliable X-ray
sources, operating at energies up to 100,000 volts.
In 1922, Industrial radiography took another step forward with the advent of the
200,000-volt X-ray tube that allowed radiographs of thick steel parts to be
produced in a reasonable amount of time. In 1931, General Electric Company
developed 1,000,000-volt X-ray generators, providing an effective tool for
industrial radiography. That same-year, the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) permitted X-ray approval of fusion welded pressure vessels
that further opened the door to industrial acceptance and use.

A Second Source of Radiation

Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays were
discovered. In 1896, French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered natural
radioactivity. Many scientists of the period were working with cathode rays, and
other scientists were gathering evidence on the theory that the atom could be
subdivided. Some of the new research showed that certain types of atoms
disintegrate by themselves. It was Henri Becquerel who discovered this
phenomenon while investigating the properties of fluorescent minerals.
Becquerel was researching the principles of fluorescence, certain minerals glow
(fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He utilized photographic plates to record
this fluorescence.

One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day
when it was too cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored
some of the compound in a drawer with his photographic plates. Later when he
developed these plates, he discovered that they were fogged (exhibited exposure
to light.) Becquerel questioned what would have caused this fogging? He knew
he had wrapped the plates tightly before using them, so the fogging was not due
to stray light. In addition, he noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer
with the uranium compound were fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium
compound gave off a type of radiation that could penetrate heavy paper and
expose photographic film. Becquerel continued to test samples of uranium
compounds and determined that the source of radiation was the element
uranium. Becquerel’s discovery was, unlike that of the X-rays, virtually unnoticed
by laymen and scientists alike. Only a relatively few scientists were interested 1n
Becquerel's findings. It was not until the discovery of radium by the Curies two
years later that interest in radioactivity became wide spread.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist
Marie Curie became very interested in his work. She suspected that a uranium
ore known as pitchblende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her
husband, a French scientist, Pierre Curie started looking for these other
elements. In 1898, the Curies discovered another radioactive element in
pitchblende, they named it 'polonium' in honor of Marie Curie's native homeland.
Later that year, the Curie's discovered another radioactive element, which they
named 'radium', or shining element. Both polonium and radium were more
radioactive than uranium. Since these discoveries, many other radioactive
elements have been discovered or produced.
Radium became the initial industrial gamma ray source. The material allowed
radio graphing castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick. During World War II, industrial
radiography grew tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding program. In
1946, manmade gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available. These
new sources were far stronger than radium and were much less expensive. The
manmade sources rapidly replaced radium, and use of gamma rays grew quickly
in industrial radiography.

Health Concerns
The science of radiation protection, or "health physics" as it is more properly
called, grew out of the parallel discoveries of X-rays and radioactivity in the
closing years of the 19th century. Experimenters, physicians, laymen, and
physicists alike set up X-ray generating apparatus and proceeded about their
labors with a lack of concern regarding potential dangers. Such a lack of concern
is quite understandable, for there was nothing in previous experience to suggest
that X-rays would in any way be hazardous. Indeed, the opposite was the case,
for who would suspect that a ray similar to light but unseen, unfelt, or otherwise
undetectable by the senses would be damaging to a person? More likely, or so it
seemed to some, X-rays could be beneficial for the body.
Inevitably, the widespread and unrestrained use of X-rays led to serious injuries.
Often injuries were not attributed to X-ray exposure, in part because of the slow
onset of symptoms, and because there was simply no reason to suspect X-rays
as the cause. Some early experimenters did tie X-ray exposure and skin burns
together. The first warning of possible adverse effects of X-rays came from
Thomas Edison, William J. Morton, and Nikila Tesla who each reported eye
irritations from experimentation with X-rays and fluorescent substances.
Today, it can be said that radiation ranks among the most thoroughly
investigated causes of disease. Although much still remains to be learned, more
is known about the mechanisms of radiation damage on the molecular, cellular,
and organ system than is known for most other health stressing agents. Indeed,
it is precisely this vast accumulation of quantitative dose-response data that
enables health physicists to specify radiation levels so that medical, scientific,
and industrial uses of radiation may continue at levels of risk no greater than, and
frequently less than, the levels of risk associated with any other technology.
X-rays and Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation of exactly the same
nature as light, but of much shorter wavelength. Wavelength of visible light is of
the order of 6000 angstroms while the wavelength of x-rays is in the range of one
angstrom and that of gamma rays is 0.0001 angstrom. This very short
wavelength is what gives x-rays and gamma rays their power to penetrate
materials that light cannot. These electromagnetic waves are of a high energy
level and can break chemical bonds in materials they penetrate. If the irradiated
matter is living tissue the breaking of chemical bond may result in altered
structure or a change in the function of cells. Early exposures to radiation
resulted in the loss of limbs and even lives. Men and women researchers
collected and documented information on the interaction of radiation and the
human body. This early information helped science understand how
electromagnetic radiation interacts with living tissue. Unfortunately, much of this
information was collected at great personal expense.
 Present State of Radiography
In many ways radiography has changed little from the early days of its use. We still
capture a shadow image on film using similar procedures and processes
technicians were using in the late 1800's. Today, however, we are able to
generate images of higher quality, and greater sensitivity through the use of
higher quality films with a larger variety of film grain sizes. Film processing has
evolved to an automated state producing more consistent film quality by
removing manual processing, variables. Electronics and computers allow
technicians to now capture images digitally. The use of "film less radiography" provides a
means of capturing an image, digitally enhancing, sending the image anywhere
in the world, and archiving an image that will not deteriorate with tim4e.
Technological advances have provided industry with smaller, lighter, and very
portable equipment that produce high quality X-rays. The use of linear
accelerator provide a means of generating extremely short wavelength, highly
penetrating radiation, a concept dreamed of only a few short years ago. While
the process has changed little, technology has evolved allowing radiography to
be widely used in numerous areas of inspection.
Radiography has seen expanded usage in industry to inspect not only welds and
castings, but to radiographic ally inspect items such as airbags and caned food
products. Radiography has found use in material identification and security
systems at airports and other facilities.
Gamma ray inspection has also changed considerably since the Curies'
discovery of radium. Man-made isotopes of today are far stronger and offer the
technician a wide range of energy levels and half-lives. The technician can select
Co-60, which will effectively penetrate very thick materials, or select a lower
energy isotope, such as Tm-170, which can be used to inspect plastics and very
thin or low-density materials. Today gamma rays find wide application in
industries such as petrochemical, casting, welding, and aerospace.
Addressing Health Concerns
It was the Manhattan District or us Army Corps of Engineers that the name
"health physics" was born, and great advances were made in radiation safety.
From the onset, the leaders of the Manhattan District recognized that a new and
intense source of radiation and radioactivity would be created. In the summer of
1942, the leaders asked Ernest O. Wollan, a cosmic ray physicist at the
University of Chicago, to form a group to study and control radiation hazards.
Thus, Wollan was the first to bear the title of health physicist. He was soon joined
by Carl G. Gamertsfelder, recently graduated physics baccalaureate, and Herbert
M. Parker, the noted British-American medical physicist. By mid 1943, six others
had been added. These six include Karl Z. Morgan, James C. Hart, Robert R
Cove you, [Link], LA. Pardue, and John E. Rose.
 Within the Manhattan District, the name "health physicist '’ seems to have been
derived in part from the need for secrecy (and hence a code name for radiation
protection activities) and the fact that it was a group of mostly physicists working
on. Health related problems. Activities included development of appropriate
monitoring instruments, developing physical controls, administrative procedures,
monitoring radiation areas, monitoring personnel, and radioactive waste disposal.
In short, the entire spectrum of modern day radiation protection problems. It was
in the Manhattan District that many of the modem concepts of protection were
born, including the rem unit, which took into account the biological effectiveness
of the radiation. It was in the Manhattan District that radiation protection concepts
realized maturity and enforceability.

Future Direction of Radiographic Education

Although many of the methods and techniques developed over a century ago
remain in use, computers are slowly becoming a part of radiographic inspection.
The future of radiography will likely see many changes. As noted earlier,
companies are performing many inspections without the aid of film.
Radiographers of the future will capture images in digitized form and e-mail them
to the customer when the inspection has been completed. Film evaluation will
likely be left to computers. Inspectors may capture a digitized image, feed them
into a computer and wait for a printout of the image with an accept/reject report.
Systems will be able to scan a part and present a three dimensional image to the
radiographer helping him or her to locate the defect within the part.

Inspectors in the future will be able to peal away layer after layer of a part
evaluating the material in much greater detail. Color images, much like computer
generated ultrasonic c-scans of today, will make interpretation of indications
much more reliable and less time consuming.
Educational techniques and materials will need to be revised and updated to
keep pace with technology and meet the requirements of industry. These needs
may well be met with computers. Computer programs can simulate radiographic
inspections using a computer aided design (CAD) models of a part to produce
physically accurate simulated x-ray radiographic images, Programs allow the
operator to select different parts to inspect, adjust the placement and orientation
of the part to obtain the proper equipment/part relationships, and adjust all the
usual x-ray generator settings to arrive at the desired radiographic film exposure.
Computer simulation will likely have its greatest impact in the classroom allowing
the student to see results in almost real-time. Simulators and computers may well
become the primary tool for instructors as well as students in the technical
classroom.
INTRODUCTION
 Introduction
Non-destructive testing has become a powerful tool to assess quality of components
and to ensure their reliability in service. The ever-expanding applications of
nondestructive testing methods necessitate that the tests and evaluation of components
are conducted by competent personnel ensuring uniformity of practice and soundness
not technical approach. Competence of personnel involved can only be ensured by
exposing them to a systematic training iri the science and practice of NDT technology.
Introduction:
Radiography, by X-rays was discovered by [Link] in the year November 1895,
X-rays have been applicated to the fields of Research, Medicine and industry and this
credit goes to Roentgen who has first invented and applicated the X-rays by taking a
radiograph of his own Shot gun showing the bullets, powder and other details inside the
barrel. Radiography using Gamma rays produced by radioactive materials for inspection
of higher thickness of materials became a reality during the year 1923-1930. After world
war production of artificial radioactive sources flas made radiography for heavier
thickness by Gamma rays made the process economical and effective.
Radiographic testing is a NDT process, by using radiant energy in the form of
neutrons, X-rays (or) y-Rays for Nondestructive Examination of an opaque object in
order to produce a graphical record on sensitized films which indicates the comparative
soundness of the object being tested. The process in which a material! Specimen is
exposed to radiation (X-rays or Gamma Rays) and the discontinuity is recorded on the
film and further film is developed in a darkroom to get the permanent record of the
discontinuity. The indication on a radiograph film is just an area of "with difference in
Density” Hence darker area (or) a lighter area forms the indication on the radiograph.
The appearance of the indication on the radiograph is due to “DIFFERENTIAL
ABSORPTION". Different materials are having different rate of absorption when it falls
on the material.
PRINCIPLE:
The principle of Radiographic Testing is "DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION OF
PENETRATING RADIATION".
Advantages of radiographic testing:

1. It can detect both surface and sub-surface discontinuity.

2. Provides permanent record on film.
3. Works well on thin section.
4. High sensitivity (Fluoroscopy Techniques)
5. Detects variety of Flaws and variety of materials like ferrous, nonferrous,
concrete, plastics and non-plastics.
6. Portable and Automatic Crawlers.
Disadvantages of radiographic testing:

1. High initial cost compared to ultrasonic testing

2. Power source is required for X-rays
3. Radiation is Hazardous to health and life
4. Fully trained and experienced technician are needed to operate
. 5. Source looses its strength continuously (In Gamma Rays)
6. Authorization, Safety and Site In charge certificate is mandatory for keeping
the source.
B A S I C R A D I AT I ON
PHYSICS
 BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS

All materials in the universe are made up of different elements. Some of the
elements are Hydrogen, Oxygen, gold & iron. Some of these elements are extremely rare existing only in
nuclear reactions, but most such as copper, carbon, iron, oxygen and nitrogen are very
common. The smallest unit in an element can be divided into and still remain identifiable
in the element is called the atom. Individual atoms can combine to form what are known
as molecules, which can be made up from atoms same elements or from atoms of two or
more elements, thus producing the wide range of materials that exist.
For example:
Hydrogen gas exists in nature as in the form of hydrogen molecules, two hydrogen
atoms join together as a single molecule (H2). A molecule of water on the hand, consists
of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (H2 0).
Atomic Structure:
Atoms themselves are extremely small but they in turn are built from yet smaller
particles, which are common to all elements. As shown in figure -1 all atoms have in
common a central mass called the nucleus, which is made up of particles called protons
and neutrons. A third kind of particle, called the electron, revolves in specific orbits
around the nucleus of the atom much like planets round the sun. The proton is a
positively charged particle the electron is a negatively charged (e) and the neutron has no
charge (n). The standard values of these particles are shown in the table below.

Figure: 1
 PARTICLE MASS CHARGE

Electron 9.100 x10-28gm Negative 1.60 x 10-19Coulomb

Proton 1.672 x 10-24gm Positive 1.60 x 10-19Coulomb

Neutron 1.675 x10- 24gm No Charge

Table: 1

The protons and neutrons are held together in then nucleus by a mutua l force
of attraction which is very strong at short range; easily over coming the repulsive
force that. The protons, exert on one other by virtue of their similar electrical
charges of the proton and electron are the smallest found in nature and therefore,
from the fundamental unit of electrical charge.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is the same as the number of
electrons in the extra nuclear structure. Thus, the atom as a whole is electrically
neutral, under normal conditions. Atoms of different elements differ from each other
by having a different number of protons and electrons in their makeup. The
simplest atom is that of hydrogen which has a single proton in the nucleus in the
single electron around it (fig) the second simplest atom of a different element,
helium has two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus, with two orbital electrons
(*fig) . The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus increases with
increasing atomic weight of the elements. Uranium is the largest naturally existing
atom and is composed of 146 neutrons, 92protons and 92 orbital electrons.

The mass of an atom is almost wholly concentrated on the nucleus. The

contribution of the satellite electrons being relatively small. On the other hand, the
nucleus takes up only very small fraction of the space occupied by the whole atom
including the electron orbit is of the order of 10-8 CMS. The diameter of an electron is
believed to be about 4x10-13 cm. It will, therefore be seen that an atom mainly consists
of empty space.
ELECTRON ORBIT:

A useful model is one where the electrons are visualized as circling the central
nucleus in orbits at different levels or shells. The atom is most empty space since, for example, the
diameter of the electron orbit of its nucleus. Similarly, all the weight of an atom can
be regarded as only electron the weight of its nucleus since one electron weighs almost
2000 times less than either a portion or a neutron.

The electron shells or levels around the nucleus have traditionally been labeled as
the “K" shell for the inner most level, the "L" next, have and continuing as "M' & "N" and so
on. The total number of electrons that can occupy a given shell is limited.
For Example: The "K" shell can contain only 2 electrons while "L" and "M" can contain 8 and 18
respectively. If an electron is for the some reason knocked of an inner shell, the
space is spontaneously filled by an electron from a higher level. The jumping process of an
electron from a higher level to a lower one is accompanied by the release of energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation called X-rays as illustrated in figure 2.

Energy in the form of

X- ray of specific
frequency given off

ergy in form of ray

of Specific*
Frequency given off

L- electron jump
To K- shell to fill gap

K- Electron Knocked out by Electron Bombardment

Figure -2: X-ray production in an atom ,

Atomic and Mass Numbers
The number proton in the nucleus of an atom determines the overall structure and
characteristics of the element. Uniquely defining it, for example: as an atom of carbon (6
protons) or nitrogen (7protons) etc. This important quantity is called the Atomic number
and is represented by the symbol "z". Another useful quantity is the mass number of an
atom, which is sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is
commonly designed by the symbol "A" and is referred to as the mass number since, as
was stated previously, the contribution of the electrons to the total weight of the atom is
negligible.
If we denote the number of neutrons in nucleus by the letter "N", then the mass
number and atomic number are simply related by the formula.

A (Mass Numbed of an atom) = Z (Atomic Number or No. of Protons) +N (No of

Neutrons)
For example:
Uranium has an atomic number of 92 (i.e. its nucleus contains 92 protons). If it's
mass number is 238. Then ifs nucleus must contain 146 neutrons (N= A -Z = 238 - 92 =
196)
 A common way of symbolically writing elements to show their atomic and mass
number is to use "Z "as subscript and as "A" as superscript with the chemical notation for
the element.
For example:
2 He4 (Helium) 1 H1 (Hydrogen) 80
16 (Oxygen) 92U
238 (Uranium)

Chemical representation of any element is given as following

A
zX

Where X= the chemical symbol of an element

Z= the atomic number of an element or the no. of protons.
A= the mass no. of an element or total no. of Protons and Neutrons

Isotope:

An atom of an element is identified by the no. of protons (Z) in its nucleus. Any
change in the no. of protons means that a new element has been created. However, the
no. of neutrons in the nucleus (n) may vary, so that the same element have atoms of
more than one mass no (A= Z- N) which are called isotopes.

An isotope may therefore defined as one of the protons and electrons in its atom
identical in chemical behavior but distinguishable by the no. of neutrons in its nucleus.

Every element has isotopes, many of which are naturally occurring. They are not given
special names but are identified by their mass numbers (fig).

Example: uranium- 235 and 238.

Some isotopes are stable, others are unstable. The stability of an isotope depends upon
the relative number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus. An unstable nucleus becomes
stable by emitting radiations such as alpha particle, beta particle. This process is known
as Radioactivity. Therefore unstable isotopes are known as radioactive isotopes.

Natural Radioisotopes -- Potassium 40

Carbon 14
Uranium 238
Radium 226

Artificial Radioisotopes -- Cobalt 60

Iridium 192
Cesium 137
 RADIOACTIVITY:

An element or isotope is said to be radioactive if its atoms are considered, and

conversely, "NON RADIOACTIVE" if its atoms are stable. Stable atoms are simply those
atoms consisting of a number of protons, neutrons and electrons, which are arranged
such that the atom does not change, it does not naturally loose any of the particle it was
originally made from. An unstable or radioactive atom (often called a Radio-nuclide or
Radio Isotope) is one which can be considered to be energetically unhappy if the number
and/or arrangement of protons, electrons and, neutrons. It attempts to became a stable
atom by either spontaneously rearranging the particle or by emitting particles from its
nucleus with an accompanying loss of energy. In doing so, it will change to another type
of atom which could be a stable or non-radioactive atom. The transformation of an
individual unstable atom is commonly referred to as atomic disintegration. Any radioactive
isotopes exists naturally (Carbon-14, Thorium -232, Uranium -238), but majority are
artificially made by nuclear reactions.

As the process of atomic disintegration continues the number of unstable atoms

left in the sample gradually decreases and thus the rate at which the radiation is entered
will also decrease. This decrease of the amount of unstable material with time is known
as "radioactive decay" and the new substance formed are called as decay products.

The rate of decay is different for each different unstable nuclei. The radioactive
isotopes of the elements are known as Radioisotopes or Radio nuclides. There are about
1200 known as Radioisotopes of which about 30 occur naturally. The others are produced
by various artificial means.

The decay product formed by the decay of a radioactive nuclide may itself be
unstable in which case it is often referred to as daughter product. The daughter product in
turn decays to another form, which may also be unstable. This process may continue
through several stages until a stable form is finally reached. Such a series is known as
decay chain. The best known natural radioisotope Ra226 is an intermediate member of
such decay chain. Three decay chains occur in nature starting with 92U 238, 90Th 232, 92U 235,
and ending with 85Pb 208 and 82Pb 207. A fourth chain, Neptunium series is known to have
existed naturally.

Radioactive Particles and gamma Rays:

The particles that a radioactive atom may give off in trying to become stable are as
follows:

Alpha particle consists of a relatively slow and heavy particles, each carrying a
double positive charge. Each alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons and
thus is identical with the nucleus of a helium atom. Alpha particle is not very penetrating
and almost all the alphas could be stopped by 0.O5-mm thick Aluminum foil.
 The nucleon that emits alpha particles loses two protons and two neutrons.
Therefore, the atomic number is reduced by 2 and mass number by [Link] 88 Ra226
expels an alpha and charges to 222 Rn 86 . Alpha emission is commonly among the
elements of high atomic number (83 or higher). It is accompanied by one or more of the
other types of radiation,

The various regions in the electromagnetic spectrum differ in their frequency which
is defined as the number of waves (i.e. complete cycle as in figure 4) that go past given
point per second, and is given the unit Hertz (Hz). All electromagnetic radiation travel at
the same velocity through vacuum, i.e. the speed of light = 3 x 10 8 . Thus ; using the
formula in figure A, each frequency in the electromagnetic spectrum can be assigned a
specific wavelength as shown. The energy of electron-magnetic spectrum can be
assigned a specific wavelength as shown. The energy of electromagnetic radiation is quantized into what are
called photons and is directly related to the frequency by the formulae E= hv, where 'h' is
a constant for all electromagnetic radiation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIATION':

Radiation of any type may be defined by two characteristics;

➢ In the case of particle radiation, the energy is the kinetic energy of motion (1/2 mv 2).

➢ In the case of gamma radiation, it is the photon energy (hv)

Energy of nuclear radiation is expressed in electron volts. More common units are million
electron volts (MeV) and Kilo electron volts (KeV).

Visible Spectrum

Wavelength (m)

Broad Cast Infrared Ultraviolet

 One cycle
(λ) Wavelength

f =V/ λ
λ = Wave Length
f = Frequency of Wave
V = Velocity of Wave
Figure: 3 & 4

Rate of Decay:

Different unstable nucl ides decay at different rates. It is not possible to forecast the
behavior of an individual unstable item. However, if we consider a sample containing a
very large number of identical unstable atoms, the problem becomes one of statistics and
a be treated with precision.

In a sample containing a large number of identical radioactive atoms, the number of

disintegrations per second (called the activity of the sample), at any given time is a
constant fraction of the number of radioactive atoms present in that sample at that time.
Thus, in mathematical notation

dN
= λN --------------- (i)
dt

N = number of radioactive atoms in the sample at the time “t”

The number λ is a constant for any particular isotope and defines the rate of decay. It is
called the decay constant of the radioisotope. The rate of decay may also be
characterized by the Half-life, Which is the time taken for the number of radioactive atoms
to be reduced to half of the original number.

From equation (i), it may be deduced that ,

A t = A o e - λt
Where

A t = Activity at time “t”

A o =Activity Initially present
e = Constant = 2.718

From equation (ii) and definition of half-life, it can be shown that

T 1/2= 0.693 / λ
Where T 1/2 = is half-life.

The general decay law (equation ii) is applicable to all radioisotopes. The half -life of
known radioisotopes varies from a fraction of second to many years. Radioactive decay as
per half-life is illustrated in figure5.

Average life or mean life:

The actual life of any particular atom can have any value between zero and infinity. If
there are A 0 atoms present initially, then the number of remaining undecayed atoms at
subsequent time " t " is A t = A 0 e -λt Each of these atoms has a life longer than “t”.
Those that decay between” t and “t + dt “each has a life span of period " t ". The
absolute number of atoms having a life “t "is therefore

A λ dt = A 0 e -λt dt

The total lifetime L T for all the atoms is therefore,

L T = o ∫∞ A dt = o ∫∞ A 0 e -λt dt = Ao / λ

The average life time LT = 1/ λ

 In 7 Half Iifes
the activity was
reduced to less
than 1%

Figure : 5

SOURCE STRENGTH

The source strength or the activity of a radioactive source is related to the average
number of disintegrations occurring in it in a given period of time. It is commonly
expressed in curies (Ci)

1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 disintegration per second (dps)

In SI units, the activity is given by Becquerel (Bq) which is defined as one disintegration per
second. Thus, Bq is related to Ci as follows:

. 1Ci = 3.7 x 1010 = 37 G Bq (Gega becqueral)

Specific activity of a source is the activity of a source is the activity per unit mass and can be
expressed as Ci/gm or GBq/ng.
 ARTIFICIAL RADIOACTIVITY

Curie and Juliot discovered artificial radioactivity while they were studying the
effects of alpha particles on the nuclide of light elements . After the discovery that the
bombardment of light nuclei with alpha particles can lead to radioactive product, it was
found that the nuclear reactions induced by protons, deuterons, neutrons and photons
can also result in radioactive products. Among these, neutron induced reactions are of
special interest to isotope production as a copious supply of neutrons is available in a
nuclear reactor.

Nuclear fission

The nuclear reaction up on which the operation of an atomic pile or nuclear

reactor is based is that of nuclear fission. The word 'fission' means to split and this
is exactly what takes place. The nuclei of certain heavy radio nuclides, such as
Uranium - 235, when hit by a neutron can split in to two new, .and lighter atoms
which are called fission products. In addition to the fission products, two or three
neutrons, gamma radiation heat is released. The fission products themselves are
almost radioactive and thus the fission process is one means of obtaining radio
isotopes, if they can be separated from the uranium and each other.
The nuclear reactor depends on the fission process to process on the
basis of chain reaction. That is, at least one of the neutrons released when
uranium atom fission, must carry on and hit another uranium nucleus to produce
another fission so on, giving a self-sustaining fission process the nuclear fission
process. A nuclear reactor is designed in such away that the chain reaction can be
initiated and. stopped in a controlled manner. The million - million fission's that
takes place every second in a large power reactor can thus be used as the source
of a large amount of heat, released during the process, to produce steam and
drive generators to provide electricity.
Fission process in nuclear reactor is an excellent source of neutron, which
can be used to produce radioisotope by the process of neutron activation. This is
the process where by a non-radioactive material, when bombarded by neutrons is
converted in to radioactive material and is therefore, said to activate.
When target element is bombarded with thermal neutrons in a reactor, one
or more of the following processes may occur.-

1. The (n - үα*) process e.g. 27CO (n - ү) 27 C0

59 6o

2. The (n, p) reaction e.g. 16 16

8 0 (no p) 7N
3. The (n, ү) process following β decay e.g.
13 0 (n. ү) 131 + β
5 2 Te 53 I
4. The (n, α) reaction e.g. 13Al 27 (n, α) 11 Na 24

In the case of (ii), (iii) and (iv), the radioactive product is a different element from
the original target and may therefore be separated chemically from the residual
target material. The separated isotope being partially pure is of very high specific
activity (carrier free).
 The (n, ү) process yields product of the same element as the target and in the
product cannot be separated from the target. Thus , a Cobalt - 60 source
1OOKci/gm contains only 10% of Cobalt — 60atoms.

PRODUCTION OF RADIOISOTOPES:

Although many radioactive isotopes exit in nature, most of the ones currently us in
industry (e.g. ү-radiography) and -medicine (e.g. Cobalt treatments, for cancer) are
produced artificially in nuclear reactors by bombarding nuclei of stable atoms with
particles. To date, approximately radioactive nuclides have been produced in a atomic
pile or what's more commonly now called as a reactor.

Nuclear rectors provide a large continuous supply of neutrons. The rate of flow of
neutron or neutron flux is of the order of 10-13 n/cm2/sec in research reactor. Many
radioisotopes can be produced by exposing suitable target materials to those high
neutron fluxes.

For Example:

If cobalt metal (59 Co27) is exposed to a high flux of thermal neutrons many of the cobalt59
atoms capture neutrons and are converted to atoms of cobalt 60 , a very useful
radioisotope.
 TYPES OF RADIATION

RADIATION:
Radiation may be defined as emission of energy from a source. Source of energy
may be from the sun, and all are radiation

➢ Radio & television signals

➢ Visible light
➢ Infrared rays
➢ Ultra violet rays

➢ Radio & television signals are of very low energy and human body
cannot sense their presence.
➢ Infrared rays can be sensed by our body as radiation heat.
➢ Visible light rays can be sensed by our eyes.
➢ Ultra violet rays cannot be sensed but this radiation can produce
biological
changes i.e. causes damage to skin, retina and loss of eye.

NUCLEAR OR IONIZING RADIATION:

Radiation emitted by the nucleus of radioactive atoms is termed as nuclear (or)

ionizing radiation.
The three types of radiations emitted by a radioactive atom are Alpha (α), Beta
(β) and Gamma (ү) rays.

Alpha Particle:
➢ Alpha particles consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons. As the nucleus
which gives out alpha particle losses two neutrons and two protons,
the mass number decreases by four and the atomic number decreases by
two.
226 α 222

R a R n
88 86

➢ Alpha has a charge of 3.202x10 -19

➢ Alpha particles produce ionization in air. In fact, they are the most
strongly ionization of the three radiations. Alpha particles are about
1000 times as powerful in the property of ionization as compared with
beta particles.
➢ They affect a photographic plate and produce scintillation's on zinc
sulphide or other fluorescent screens.
➢ Alpha particles have a definite range in air depending upon the source
from which they are emitted. The range in air at NTP of alpha particle is
the order of 5 cm; It depends, however, on the radioactive element
concerned.
➢ Alpha particles carry a positive charge; they can be deflected by means
of electric and magnetic field. They will deflect to the left-hand side.
 ➢ Alpha particles are absorbed by matter, as sheet of mica or aluminum
about 0.006 cm in thickness or an ordinary writing paper will absorb all
the Alpha particles from radioactive materials.
➢ Velocity of Alpha particle are the order of C/16,
Where C-velocity of light in free space.
➢ Emitted from nucleus of heavy of atoms like Ra 226, Th 232, U 235 and U 238
➢ Alpha particles have heaviest mass.

Beta particle:

➢ Beta particles are fast moving electrons

➢ After emission of beta particle, the atomic number increases by one, but
the mass number does not change.
As an Example:
32 32
β
P S
15 16

➢ Beta particles, emitted by nucleus, have velocities, which cover a wide

range and are about 10 times that of alpha particles. Their velocities
approach closely to that of light and are approximately equal to 0.9c,
where c is the velocity of visible light in free space.
➢ Beta particles produce ionization in air, their ionizing power is less than
alpha particles because they are having very small mass.
➢ Penetrating power of beta particle is more than alpha particles
through matter.
➢ Beta particles have a range in materials of the order of 20 times of
alpha particle, but the range depends on the velocity. A beta particle with
energy of 0.5 Mev has a range in air at NTP of 1 metre approximately.
➢ Beta particles carry a negative charge.
➢ Since beta particles are negatively charged, they can be deflected by
means of electric and magnetic fields and they deflect to the right side.
➢ They effect photographic plates and produce fluorescence on
certain chemical compounds
Gamma particle (ү):
➢ Electromagnetic radiation of photon energy (photon originating from
nucleus are ү -rays).
➢ They travel with the speed of light.
➢ They produce ionization in gases, but they have low ionization power
as compared with the ionizing power of beta particles (~1 %)
➢ They have high penetrating power, high than alpha or beta
➢ They blacken photographic plates
➢ They produce fluorescence in certain crystals
➢ They produce heating effect when absorbed in matter.
➢ They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
➢ They do not possess any charge
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIATION

Radiation of any type may be defined, by its two characteristics

Energy and Intensity,

Energy will not change but intensity will change "

1. Energy of radiation's:

All radiation have energy. Energies of various radiations’ (alpha, Beta & gamma)
are usually specified in electron volts.

➢ I f particulate radiation, energy is kinetic energy of motion (1/2mv2).

➢ If Gamma radiation, energy is radiant energy (or) photon energy (hv).

Electron Volt:

➢ It is the amount of energy gained by an electron by passing through a

potential difference of 1 Volt.
1 electron Volt (eV) = 1.6 x 10 -12 e rgs
1 Kilo electron volt (KeV) = 1, OOO eV
1 Million electron volt (MeV) = 1,000,000 eV

(One electron volt is the energy given to a single electron as it moves

across a potential difference of one volt)
Radio-Isotope Half Life Main Gamma Energy
(MeV)
Cobalt-60 5.3 Years 1.17&1.33
Iridium- 192 74.3 days 0.24-0.67
Cesium -137 37 Years 0.05-0.1

ACTIVITY:
The unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq)
Activity is measured in curie (Ci) or unit of activity was curie (Ci)
(Use for measuring the activity of radioactive substance)

Specific-activity;
How many number of rays will come or released from a particle source. i.e.
Activity/gm or Curie/gm
CURIE
The quantity of a radioactive nuclide which is disintegrating at the rate of 3.7x10 10
atoms per second or disintegration per second is known as curie.

1Ci = 3.7x10 1°dps or tps

= 3.7x10 10Bq
=37x10 9Bq
= 37GBq

Radioactivity of a source is measure in terms of number of transformations it

undergoes per second.
1 mIIi curie (1 m Ci) = 3.7x10 10x10 -3Bq
1 micro curie (1 µ Ci) = 3.7x10 4Bq or dps
1000 micro curie = 1 milli curie
1000 milli curie = 1 curie
1 Curie = 1 dps

INTENSITY:

Unit of intensity is Roentgen

Intensity is measured in roentgen

Roentgen:

The energy required to ionize 1 cm3 (cubic cm) of air or energy required to ionize
2803 million pairs of atoms of air or 1 Electro--static unit of charge of either sign in
1ccof air at STP (standard temperature and pressure) or 0.00293 gm of dry air
is known as roentgen.

1R = 2.58 x 10 -4 Coulomb/Kg (C/Kg)

1 Roentgen = 1000 milli Roentgen

INTERACTION WITH
MATTER
 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER

When Х, β or ү rays radiation's fall on a material, interaction takes place between the
radiation and the electrons in the material. This leads to absorption and scattering (moving in
a different direction) of radiation. A part of the incident radiation may also get transmitted
(pass through)

The amount of radiation transmitted through the material depends on.

a) Type of radiation (X, β or y)

b) Energy of radiation (eV, keV, MeV)
c) Type of material and its thickness (air, iron, lead)

Beta Radiation's can be completely absorbed in any medium. For Example: Beta (β) -
radiations with E max (Maximum Energy) 1.7 MeV can be absorbed completely in 3 mm of
Aluminum. But in the case of X and Gamma radiation's complete absorption is not
possible. For Ex: 1% of C06o Gamma radiation's still get transmitted through 8 cm of
lead.

There three main types of interactions for x and gamma radiation's in any medium. i.e.
they are
a) Photo-electric effect
b) Compton scattering effect
c) Pair production

In industrial radiography, only the first two interactions are important.

a) The photoelectric absorption effect, When radiation of suitable wavelength falls

on certain metals, the electrons are ejected out from metals this is known as
photoelectric effect. Short wavelength radiation (sufficiently high frequency) such as
ultraviolet light when falls on certain metals surfaces such as cesium the emission
of electron occur. It is an interaction between a gamma ray (photons) and an orbital
electron. The gamma radiation looses its complete energy to the electron and the
electron is removal from its orbit. This electron is called photoelectron. This
electron being a charged particle easily gets absorbed in the medium. This
photoelectric effect of interaction takes place at lower energies (0.05 MeV) and (i) it
decreases with increase in energy. (ii) It increases with increase in atomic number
of the obje.9t. Hence, heavy atomic-number materials like lead, uranium, thorium,
tungsten etc. absorb gamma radiation's better than lower atomic number materials,
like plastic , aluminum, iron etc.

b) In Compton effect: gamma radiation interacts with a free electron. The free
radiation gives part of its energy to the electron and travels in a different direction
(gets scattered) with decreased energy. The electron moves in another direction.
This Compton effect of interaction takes place at medium energies (0.15 MeV) and
is not dependent on the atomic number of the material.
 C) Pair production: Is an absorption process that creates two 0.5 MeV photons of
Scattered radiation for each photon of high-energy incident radiation consumed;
small amount of scattered radiation of lower energy also accompanies pair
production. Pair production is more important for heavier elements the effect varies
with atomic number, Z, approximately as Z (Z+1). The effect also varies
approximately logarithmically with photon energy
In pair production, a photon of incident electromagnetic radiation is consumed in
creating an electron-positron pair that then ejected from an atom. This effect is
possible only at photon energies exceeding 1.02 MeV, because, according to the
theory of relatively, 0.51Mev is consumed in the creation of the mass of each
particle, electron or positron. Any energy of the incident photon exceeding 1.02
MeV imparts kinetic energy to the pair of particles.
The positron created by pair production is destroyed by interaction with an other
electron after a very short lie. This destruction produces electromagnetic radiation,
mainly in the form of two photons that travel in opposite directions, each photon
having an energy of about 0.5 MeV .Most of the electrons created by pair production
are absorbed by the material, producing bremsstrahlung of energy below 0.5MeV.

Photoelectric effect Compton e f f e c t

Photo-electron.
Incident photon Compton electron
Incident photon

Scattered photon
Figure: Photoelectric and Compton interaction

High energy electromagnetic Radiation

Absorbers of high
Atomic weight Ejected electron

Ejected positron
C) Pair production
 IONIZATION:

➢ When an electron is removed from its orbit, the atom looses one negative charge.
In other words, the also gets positively charged or ionized. Hence, the process is
known as ionization.

EXCITATION:

➢ When an electron is raised from an inner orbit to an outer orbit, the electron gets
extra energy, in, other words, the atom gets excited and this process is called as
excitation.

Intensity of radiation reduces on passing through any material. In case of X-ray or

Gamma radiations, the attenuation follows an Exponential Law:

I = I 0 e -µx

I 0 = Intensity of the incident radiation beam

I = intensity of the beam emerging after passing through a thickness x
of the material and is known as linear attenuation coefficient.

Definition:

➢ It is defined as the fractional decrease in intensity per unit thickness of the material.
If the energy of 100 KeV to 1.5 MeV is considered, the attenuation coefficient
decreases with increase in energy and it increases with increase in the atomic
number of the absorber material. Hence, lower energy radiations are better
absorbed and higher atomic number materials are good absorbers.

Interaction of Alpha Particles:

When alpha particles and other heavy ions pass through matter their interaction is
mainly by Ionization and excitation of the atoms of the absorber. These are called
collision processes. These processes lead to gradual energy loss until the particle
comes to rest after traveling a certain thickness of material called the range. The range
of alpha particle is about 2 inches in air. They are having ionization ranging from
20,000 to 80,000 ion pairs per cm.

Material Photoelectric Compton Pair Production

effect
Aluminum 0.05 MeV 0,05-15MeV 5 MeV
Lead 0.05MeV 0.5 MeV 5 MeV
 GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT

Introduction:
Gamma radiography equipment are the exposure devices known as "camera"
"defecto-scope" or "gamma projectors" or "Exposure apparatus" for the purpose of
industrial radiography to detect flaws in metals and nonmetals and essentially consist of;
➢ A source housing (main body) which serves as shielded container for the gamma
source during its storage and having an arrangement to give a controlled radiation
beam at the command of the user.
➢ An "Exposure Mechanism" either built in the source housing or separately.
➢ Accessories such as manipulators, teleflex cable gear drive system, flexible guide
conduits for the cable and source travel, source position indicators radiation beam
collimators, source transport containers, etc. Design and development of these
radiography, etc. Design and development of these radiography equipment has
special importance in the programme of NDT inspection technique.
Classification:
Radiography Cameras are classified as per ANSI ISO 3999 - 1977 (E) Standard.
Category - I Integral Exposure Device:
An exposure container from which the sealed source is not removed for exposure, The
radiation beam by opening a shutter or rotating the sealed source within the container or
by other means.
Category-II Remote Control Exposure Device:
An exposure container from which the sealed source is projected out of the container
through a projection sheath / guide tube to exposure head for exposure either
mechanically, electrically, pneumatically or by other means by a operator at a distance
from the exposure head.

The above categories are further classified according to the mobility of the exposure
devices.
Class P (Portable):
The weight of the equipment shall not exceed 30 Kgs, it can be operated by one man
only.
Class M (Mobile):
A mobile but not portable exposure container designed to be moved easily by a suitable
means provided for the purpose.
Class F (Fixed):
A fixed installed exposure container or one with mobility restricted to the confines of a
particular working area.
 Identification of Device:
Each exposure device shall be permanently and conspicuously marked by durable label,
affixed on the outer surface of the exposure device with the following;
➢ Radiation Symbol as per Prescribed in Radiation Protection Rules - 1971
➢ The warning symbol as Radioactive in letters not less than 10 mm in height.
➢ The maximum, capacity of the device in Becquerel’s or curies.
➢ The chemical symbol of the radioisotope and mass number.
➢ Manufacturers name, model designation and serial number of device should be
mentioned on the device.
➢ Type approval number granted by the competent authority.
➢ Component authority identification mark for transport package design.
➢ Gross weight of the exposure device without removal accessories,
➢ The mass of the Lead or uranium, if lead or uranium is used as shielding
material.
➢ Source size or focal spot size.
Design:
The important points to be considered, while designing a radiography camera are;
➢ Type of assembly
➢ Shielding material
➢ Source exposure device
➢ Incorporation of safety devices
➢ Feasibility of fabrication
➢ Easy maintenance and source replenishment
➢ Installation
➢ Transportation
Source Assembly:
The radiation source in a radiography camera is housed in a secondary container called
"Source Assembly". The source assembly can be of two types, rigid or flexible. Rigid
source holder is preferred for source housings shown in figure below. Flexible source.
assembly is used, when the source is required to travel distance to and from the source
housing, through bends and different planes. Figure 2,

Figure 1: ROLI- I Source assembly

Figure 2: Techops - 660 Source Assembly

Figure 3: Teletron Source Assembly

Figures 1,2,3: Source Assemblies
 Shielding material:

As stated earlier, size and weight of source housing is decided by the shielding
material and it s thickness. Properties of different shielding materials are given in
table below
PROPERTIES OF RADIOGRAPHIC SHIELDING MATERIALS
Material Lead Heavy alloy Depleted Uranium
Atomic number 82 88%. Tungsten 92
(Z=74) 9% Copper
3% Nickel
Density in gram/cc 11.3 18.9 19.07
Melting point(°C) 327 3420 1132
Half value layer or
thickness
Cobalt - 60 (mm) 12.45 7.65 6.88
Iridium -192(mm) 4.8 3.20 2.71

Lead is a commonly used shielding material, as it is cheaper, easily available and

can be made in any desired shape. But it needs metal lining to hold, as it is a
soft material. Heavy alloy and uranium are best suited for shielding to
produce compact and lightweight cameras. However, fabrication of source
housings with these materials requires special techniques.

Radiographic source size:

Board of Radiation and isotope technology (BRIT) Mumbai - 400 094, fabricates
and supplies cobalt-60 and iridium-192 radiography sources for use in a variety of
equipment and in a range of activity values. Although there are differences in
shapes and sizes of source assemblies the inner source capsule, loaded in these,
are similar in shape and dimensions. It is a stainless steel capsule with
dimensions 8mm length, inshape4.5-mm diameter. Each iridium -192 pellet is of dimensions
2.5 mm diameter and 0.3 mm thickness. The number of pellets in a capsule depends
on the activity required. A 1000 GBq capsule may have four or five such capsules.
Source size may be as small as 1mm diameter x 1 mm or 1.5 mm height or cobalt
60 or Iridium 192 respectively, whereas one single sintered and sealed Cesium-137 source
may be larger as compared to Ir-t92- and Co-60 sources and size may be 5
mm diameter x 7 mm length or more number of radioactive pellets and are added
and sealed in the inner capsule of a source holder / pig tail assembly - PTA for approved and wanted
activity of a radiography camera. Pellets in inner capsule are shown in figure
below.

Source Pellet Source Pellet

Figure 4: Inner Capsules

 Source capsule Stopper Ball Socket Drive Teleflex Cable

Figure 5: Source Holder (Pig Tail Assembly)

Type of Approval of Radiography Equipment:

At present, only those equipment which confirm to all the tests of ISO 3999 with Type A
and Type B are type approved and permitted to be used for industrial radiography work.
The various mechanical and operational tests to be carried out for type of approval of
gamma radiography equipment are given below

ISO/ANSI Class of E q u i p m e n t
P M F Type - A Type - B
➢ Shielding Efficiency X X X Heat Free Drop
➢ Vibration X X - Cold Puncture
➢ Horizontal Shock X - Pressure Thermal
➢ Vertical Shock X X - Vibration Water Immersion
➢ Endurance X X X Water Supply
➢ Kinking X X X Free drop
➢ Crushing X X X Penetration
➢ Tensile X X _
➢ Accidental drop 1&2 X X —

Vibrations:
The device must withstand vibration at its main inherent frequency for 8 Hours with
maximum acceleration of 9.8 m/s2.
Horizontal Shock:
Device must withstand the horizontal impact onto a 50-mm diameter target by swinging in a
pendulum fashion from a height of 100 mm. This test must be performed 20 times.
Vertical Shock:
The device must withstand a free fall from a height of 150 mm onto a flat rigid target. This
test must be performed 100 times.
Kinking:
The control housing must be pulled straight from a one-meter diameter loop, without
allowing the housing to rotate. This test must be performed 100 times.
Crushing:
The control housing must withstand the impact of steel punch, with a mass of 15 kg,
dropped from at the height of 300 mm. This test must be performed 10 times.
 Tensile:
Fittings with flexible guide tubes attached to the control housing must withstand a tensile
load of 500 N (50Kg) repeated 10 times. The drive cable connector joints of couplings, stopper ball
and source holder capsule must withstand a tensile load of 1000 n (100Kg) repeated for
10 times.
Endurance:
The source assembly must be subjected to 50,000 complete operational cycles.
Free Drop:
The device must withstand a free fall from a height of nine meters into a flat, essentially,
unyielding surface having dimensions at least 500 mm larger, on all slides, than the
specimen to be dropped on it.
The devices must also withstand a free fall from a height of one meter onto a flat solid
mild steel bar of circular cross section of 150-mm diameter.
Thermal:
The device must withstand a thermal environment of 800 degrees centigrade for thirty.
Water Immersion:
The device must withstand immersion 1IInder at least 15 meters of water for eight hours.
Table 1: Gamma Radiography Equipment’s:
Unit Description Isotope Capacity Shielding Material Weight in Kgs.
in Curies
Ammeters 550 Ir-192 100 Depleted Uranium 20
SPEC-2T Ir-192 200 Depleted Uranium 18.8
Gamniamat
Model T1 Ir-192 40 Metallic Uranium 12
Model T1-F Ir-192 100 Metallic Uranium 15
Gamma Industries
Century SA Ir-192 100 Depleted Uranium 18
Model 35 Ir-192 35 Depleted Uranium 11.36
Pipe Linear Model 1 Ir-192 100 Depleted Uranium 14.5
Gamma rid 192 Ir-192 100 Depleted Uranium 16
Techops
Model 684 Co-60 10 Depleted Uranium 102.3
Model 741 Co-60 30 Depleted Uranium 136
Model 680 Co-60 100 Depleted Uranium 184
Gamma mat
Model TK 10 Co-60 10 Depleted Uranium 95
Model TK 30 Co-60 30 Depleted Uranium 120
Model TK 100 Co-60 100 Depleted Uranium 140

Gamma Industries
Model 20 A Co-60 20 Depleted Uranium 135-36
Model 50 A Co-60 50 Depleted Uranium 152.7
Model 100 A Co-60 100 Depleted Uranium 204.54
Gamma mat
Crawler Ir-192 100 Depleted Uranium 204.54
 STANDARDS FOR RADIOGRAPHY EQUIPMENT:

Standards for industrial gamma radiography exposure devices and sources have
been issued or proposed by a number of national and international groups.

Table 2: Applicable standards for Gamma Radiography Exposure Devices

ISO 3999 (g 1977 Apparatus for Gamma Radiography Specification

ANSI N 432 Design - and Construction of Apparatus for Gamma
Radiography
UNSRCANPR10CFR34 Design of Radiographic Exposure Devices
IAEA Safety Series no.6 Regulations for the safe Transport of Radioactive Material
UNSRC 10CFR71 Packing of Radioactive Material for Transport
AERB SCITR 1 Code on Transport of Radioactive Materials

Table 3: Applicable standards for Gamma Radiography Sources

ISO 2919 Classification Sealed Radioactive Sources

ANSI N 543 Sealed Radioactive Sources
IAEA Safety Series no.6 Regulations for the safe Transport of radioactive material
UNSRC 10 CFR 71 Packing of Radioactive Material for Transport
UNSRC ANPR10CFR 34 Design of Radiographic Exposure Devices

Structure of Gamma Ray Equipment:

Figure 6 : Roli-1 Camera

 X-RAY
PRODUCTIION
&
PROPERTIES
 X- Rays

X-rays are invisible electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength, which will
travel in straight lines Prof. W. C. Roentgen invented X-rays on Friday the
November 8th in the year 1895 in Germany. He found that the operation of
Cathode ray tube produced fluorescence in a barium platinum cyanide screen
placed at some distance from the tube. Thus roentgen felt due to the emission of
some very penetrating rays from the cathode ray tube they called them X-rays,
the X-indicating that they were unknown; these rays are also called as roentgen
rays.

Principle:
Cautious II principle, which states that whenever accelerated charged
particles are de-accelerated X-rays are produced.

Accelerated = Fast Moving

Charged = Electrons
De-accelerated = Suddenly stopped

Properties of X-rays:

➢ X-rays are invisible (Cannot see through eyes) Electro-magnetic radiation

of very shorter wavelength.
➢ X-rays always travel in straight lines and equal to the speed of the
light I.e. 3 x 1 0 8 m/sec.
➢ X-rays cannot be deflected by means of lens or prism although their path
can be bent by a crystalline grid.
➢ X-rays are ionizing radiations that is to say they liberate electrons in matter.
➢ Wavelength of X-rays is 10-12 or 0.001 nanometer.
➢ X-rays can impair and destroy living cells.
➢ X-rays produce burning sensation on the skin when they fall. They may
cause reddening on the skin and become a serious or even fatal burn.
➢ X-rays when incident on matter, give rise to a new type of radiation,
Called secondary radiation.

Basic needs of production of X-rays:

1. Electrons 2. Accelerating media [Link]

Production of X-rays:

X-rays are produced when a beam of high-energy electrons collides with

any material or target or when fast moving electrons are suddenly stopped by a
target suddenly part of the energy is converted into X-rays and part of the energy
is converted into heat. X-ray production increases with the increase in atomic
Focusing Cup

Focal Spot
X-rays Cooling System

Control Unit
Figure: X-ray Tube (Production of X-rays)

number of the target atom and with the increase in the incident electron energy.
In X-ray machine, less than 1% of electrical power supplied is converted to X-
rays. And the remaining power is converted into heat energy by the target. If the
heat is not removed efficiently the target material may melt. In an X-ray machine
if the potential difference between the filament and the target are the applied Ki1o
Voltage is 200 kV then the energy of the electrons striking the target is 200 ke V
and the maximum energy of X-rays would be 200 ke V. The target is usually of
small dimension, say 1.5 - 3 mm. And the electrons hit the target much of the
energy appears in the form of heat and it has to be rapidly removed. Copper is
used for the purpose of heat remover. The penetration of X-ray beam depends
on the applied kilo-Voltage, whereas intensity is decided by the current flowing
through the filament (milli Amperage).

Electrons move from cathode to anode. The potential difference between anode
and cathode will be 120 kV. When fast-moving electrons will hit the target, this
energy is transferred into X-rays. Filter will absorb the higher wavelength rays and
lower penetrating capability. For controlling Quality (Intensity) and quantity
 We need to control the controls or control unit.
Classification of X-rays:

X-rays are classified as

1) Characteristic (or) Monochromatic X-rays: All X-rays produced have same

Wavelength (1st Orbit electrons)
2) Continuous X-rays: X-rays produced are having different wavelength.
Energy distribution depends on Potential Difference across the X-ray tube.

More energy appears in the spectrum as the potential difference is increased. As

potential difference increases, the lower wavelength limit falls. The wavelength
limit appears to be independent of the metal used as the target.

Intensity: Quantity of radiation.

Quality: Kind of radiation or penetrating

Target Material:

The target is usually 2-3 mm. When the electrons hit the target & much of the
energy is converted to heat and it has to be removed. Copper is removed for
heat removal. Certain anodes are hollow in construction, so that primary coolants
can be circulated through the same to remove the generated heat. Target
material for selection for production of X-rays should have the following
properties

• High Melting Point (3400°c)

• High Atomic Number (74)

• High thermal Conductivity (to dissipate heat quickly).

X-ray tube:

X-ray tube consists of a glass bulb under Vacuum, enclosing a positive electrode
or anode and a negative electrode or cathode. The cathode comprises a filament
when brought to incandescence by a current of a, few amperes emits electrons.
Under the effect of electrical tension set up between the anode and cathode,
these electrons from the cathode are attracted to the anode. His stream of
electrons is concentrated in a beam by a cylinder or a focusing cup. X-ray tube
is contained in a suitably shaped steel shell for ruggedness. The power ratings
Viz., Kilo Voltage (Kvp), Tube current (mA), besides the cooling pattern decide the
structure of an X-ray unit.
Requirements of an X-ray tube:

♦ An industrial X-ray tube must be capable of operating continuously for

indefinite periods at maximum loads.
♦ It should be able to pass appreciable current over the lowest range of
operating voltages. This is to permit such radiographs to be taken, which
necessities low voltage techniques, with in responsible exposure periods.
♦ It should possess the smallest possible focal area. For maximum radiographic
definition, a point if radiation is one of the requirements. Modern X-ray tubes
have a very small focal area.
♦ The design safety should include sufficient shielding material (Lead or Steel)
so that the leakage radiation level at a rating combination (Kv, mA) does not
exceed 1R/h at 1 meter distance.
♦ Most frequently used voltage is between 150 Kv and 400 Kv.
♦ Portable X-ray units in the voltage range 150 Kv to 250 Kv are used for field
Radiography. X-ray units of higher Voltage are generally stationary ones for
use in enclosed installations.

Fluoroscopy:

Fluoroscopy is used for continuous production line. Scanning of Die-castings in

food processing industries etc. A fluoroscopy unit consists of X-ray source,
fluorescent screen (Zinc Cadmium Sulphide) and leaded glass barrier. A shadow
image is produced on the screen and it is viewed through television monitor
system or by the use of image intensifiers.

CRAWLER X-RAY UNITS:

These units are useful for cross-country pipeline inspection, with automatic
movement from joint and are becoming increasingly popular. The power input is
obtained by diesel generators.

X-ray Generator Circuits:

The power supplies required for the operation of an X-ray tube are

a) A low voltage , to heat the filament

b) A high Voltage to accelerate the electrons

The filament of an X-ray tube is normally operated at 6-12 Volts with 5-6 amps of
current. This is derived from the mains line using a step-down transformer. The
high voltage is usually obtained from a step-up-transformer.
X-ray Penetration Range:

Maximum Penetration range,

accelerating inch of steel
potential
X- ray tubes
150 kV Up to 5/ 8
250 kV Up to -11/2
400 kV Up to2 1 / 2

1000 kV 1/ to 31/
4 2

High energy sources

2.0 Mev 1/
4to 10
4.5 Mev 1 to 12
7.5 Mev 21/ 4 to 18
20.0Mev 3 to 24
 FLUOROSCOPY

Fluoroscopy differs from radiography in that the x-ray image is observed

virtually on a fluorescent screen rather than recorded on a film. A
diagrammatic sketch of an industrial fluoroscopic unit is shown in the figure
below.

Schematic diagram of an industrial fluoroscope. Commercial

models may differ from the illustration. For more rapid
examinations, industrial fluoroscopes may be provided with
material conveyors.

FLUORESCENT SCREEN
LEAD GLASS

lead glass
viewing
window

LEAD CABINET

Fluoroscopy has the advantages of high speed and low cost.

However, fluoroscopy has three limitations: (1) Examination of thick, dense, or

high-atomic-number specimens is impractical, because the x-ray intensities
passing through them are too low to give a sufficiently bright image on the
fluorescent screen. (2) The sensitivity of the fluoroscopic process is not as
great as that of radiography. This is caused in part by the lower contrast and
coarser grain of the fluoroscopic screen as compared to the film record, and in
part by the relatively short source-screen distances that must be used to obtain
high screen bright nesses. This latter factor also increases the distortion of the
fluoroscopic image. (3) The lack of a permanent record of the examination may
be a further disadvantage.

The main application for fluoroscopy is in the rapid examination of light,

easily penetrated articles, the unit value of which does not warrant the
expense of radiography, or of items for which a highly sensitive test is
unnecessary. Fluoroscopy has been used, for example, in the inspection of
packaged foods for foreign objects and of molded plastic parts for the correct
placement of metallic inserts. In some cases, it is advantageous to sort parts
fluoroscopically before they are radiographed to save the expense of
radiographing specimens that contain gross flaws.
Schematic diagram of a fluoroscopic image intensifier.

An extension of fluoroscopy involves the use of image intensifiers (see the

figure above). In these, the x-rays, after traversing the specimen, strike a
fluorescent screen (the "input phosphor"). The fluorescence of the screen
causes the photoelectric surface with which it is ; coated to emit electrons in
proportion to the intensity of the fluorescence. These electrons are
accelerated and focused by electrostatic lenses onto a second fluoroscopic
screen (the "output phosphor") much smaller than the first. The second
phosphor has a brightness several hundreds of times that pf the first, partly
because of its smaller size and partly because of the additional energy
imparted to the electrons by the accelerating voltage in the image intensifier.
The second phosphor can be viewed directly by means of a suitable optical
system. Alternatively, the image on the output phosphor may be picked up by
a television camera and displayed on a television monitor at any convenient
location. The use of a television link permits the brightness and the contrast of
the final image to be adjusted independently of any radiographic variables.
The use of image intensifiers where they are applicable avoids many of
the visual difficulties attributable to low screen brightness.

In a third method which may be classified as fluoroscopy, the functions of

image intensifier and television camera are combined. The sensing element is
an x-ray-sensitive television pickup tube, the output from which is fed
through a video amplifier to one or more television monitors at remote
locations. The sensitive areas of the pickup tubes are often rather small,
making the system applicable only to the examination of small items such as
electronic components or spot welds, or of narrow subjects such as
longitudinal welds in thin materials. On the other hand, the small size of the
x-ray-sensitive area, coupled with the fairly large size of the television
display, results in a direct magnification of the image that may be as great as
30 diameters. With this equipment as well, brightness and contrast of the final
image can be adjusted electronically.
 COMPARISON
OF
X-RAYS & GAMMA RAYS
 COMPARISON OF X- RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS

X- Rays Gamma rays

Power supply Electrical power required either No power supply required
from mains, generator or except for fixed type units.
battery which are electrically
operated.
Supervision and safety Required during operation Only safety supervision
Weight and dimensions Large bulky and heavy Relatively light except units
with cobalt – 60
Manipulation for source Setting up time consuming and Ease of manipulation
positioning difficult
Radiation Hazardous Hazardous during only Continuous hazard
operation
Radiation penetration Can be adjusted according to No adjustment possible
thickness and type of material once the isotope is selected.
Radiation intensity High Low
Focal spot Very fine focal spot possible Depends upon the
limitation of specific activity.
Shape of beam Unidirectional and panoramic Multidirectional and
panoramic
Exposure time Short Generally long
Radiographic Contrast High contrast Lower contrast
Initial cost High Low
Maintenance High low
FILMS
 Radiographic Film
X-ray films for general radiography consist of an emulsion-gelatin containing a
radiation sensitive silver halide and a flexible, transparent, blue-tinted base. The
emulsion is different from those used in other types of photography films to
account for the distinct characteristics of gamma rays and x-rays, but X-ray films
are sensitive to light. Usually, the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base in
layers about 0.0005 inches thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the base
doubles the amount of radiation-sensitive silver halide, and thus increases the
film speed. The emulsion layers are thin enough so developing, fixing, and drying
can be accomplished in a reasonable time. A few of the films used for
radiography only have emulsion on one side which produces the greatest detail in
the image.
When x-rays, gamma rays, or light strike the grains of the sensitive silver halide
in the emulsion, a change takes place in the physical structure of the grains. This
change is of such a nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical
methods. However, when the exposed film is treated with a chemical solution
(developer), a reaction takes place, causing formation of black, metallic silver. It
is this silver, suspended in the gelatin on both sides of the base that creates an
image.

Film Selection
The selection of a film when radiographing any particular component depends on
a number of different factors. Listed below are some of the factors that must be
considered when selected a film and developing a radiographic technique.
1. the composition, shape, and size of the part being examined and, in some
cases, its weight and location

2. the type of radiation used, whether x-rays from an x-ray generator or

gamma rays from a radioactive source the kilo voltages available with the
x-ray equipment or the intensity of the
gamma radiation

3. the relative importance of high radiographic detail or quick and economical

results..

Selecting the proper film and developing the optimal radiographic technique
usually involves arriving at a balance between a number of opposing factors. For
example, if high resolution and contrast sensitivity is of overall importance, a
slower and hence finer grained film should be used in place of a faster film.
Film Packaging

Radiographic film can be purchased ill a number of different packaging options.

The option is between the interleaved and non-interleaved films. Interleaved
packages have a layer of paper that separates each piece of film. The
interleaving paper should be removed before the film is loaded into film holder. Many users
find the interleaving folders useful in separating the finished radiographs, protecting
them against scratches and dirt during handling, and providing a convenient place for notes and
comments about the radiograph.
Industrial x-ray films are also available in a form in which each sheet is enclosed in
a light-tight envelope. The film can be exposed from either side without
removing it from the envelope. A rip strip makes it easy to remove film in the darkroom for
processing. This form of packaging has the advantage of eliminating the
process of loading of cassettes ad film holders in the darkroom. The film is
completely protected from finger marks and dirt until the time the film is removed
from the envelope for processing.
Roll packaging of prewrapped film is available allowing the radiographer to cut the
film to length and seal the ends in with electricians tape in the darkroom. In the
radiography of circumferential welds in specimens, the examination of the joints
of a complete frame of an aircraft fuselage, and the like, long lengths of film, permit
great economies. The film is wrapped around the outside of a structure and the
radiation source is positioned on axis inside allowing for examination of the entire
circumference with a single exposure.
Envelope packaging may contain integral lead oxide screens. The main feature
of this type of packaging is that the sheet of film in an envelope enclosed
between two lead oxides screens are in direct contact with the film. The screens
function as filters for long wavelength radiation and as intensification screens
above 150 kV.
Film Handling
X-ray film should always be handled carefully to avoid physical strains, such as
pressure, creasing, buckling, friction, etc. Whenever films are loaded in semi
flexible holders and external clamping devices are used, care should be taken
to be sure pressure is uniform. If a film holder bears against a few high spots,
such as on an un-ground weld, the pressure may be great enough to produce
desensitized areas in the radiograph. This precaution is particularly important
when using envelope-packed films.
Marks resulting from contact with fingers that are moist or contaminated with
processing chemicals, as well as crimp marks, are avoided if large films are
always grasped by the edges and allowed to hang free. A supply of clean towels
should be kept close at hand as an incentive to dry the hands often and well. Use
of envelope-packed films avoids many of these problems until the envelope is
opened for processing.

Another important precaution is to avoid drawing film rapidly from cartons,

exposure holders, or cassettes. Such care will help to eliminate circular or
treelike black markings in the radiograph that sometimes result due to static
electric discharges.
 FILM

Introduction:

Mostly in industrial radiography (or) organizations performing radiography testing use

radiographic films as it plays an important role in the detection of variety of flaws or
discontinuities or defects, film is a recording rnedia on which we are capturing the image of the
object or material by giving exposure to radiation and after radio graphed it is known as Radiograph.

Whenever X-rays (or) ү-rays falls on material or specimen to be examined (or) under
examination they undergo Loss of energy (Attenuation) by absorption of these rays and scattering in
the specimen. As a result the rays after passing through the specimen falls on the
recording film surface areas of different intensities which make up the radiation image. And
upon further chemical processing (or) developing of film those variations can be seen on
film with density difference i.e. Higher radiation producing more density and vice versa. And
as the film records the image in the image in the material then if any defects present in
the object can be differentiated by density difference. And it is therefore, important to
have detailed knowledge about structure and properties of films. Films are sensitive to red
or yellow light of low intensity

STRUCTURE OF FILM:

The structure of a film consists of four layers and cross-sectional view of a typical film is
shown in figure

1) PROTECTIVE LAYER (1µ size)

2) EMULSION LAYER (10-15µ size)
3) BASE LAYER (175 µ size)
4) BINDING LAYER or SUBSTRATUM LAYER

PROTECTIVE LAYER
EMULSION LAYER

BASE LAYER
EMULSION LAYER

PROTECTIVE LAYER

Figure: STRUCTURE OF FILM

 PROTECTIVE LAYER (or) ANTlABRASIONM LAYER:

The protective layer consists hardened gelatin, is coated on the sensitive emulsion layers
for, protection. It serves to protect the emulsion layer and base layer from Physical
damages, abrasion, static and stress marks. This layer is of 1 µ (micron) thick.
As the film are given two coatings of emulsion and protective layers for the result of
achieving greater speed and more contrast images.

EMULSION LAYER:

The sensitive emulsion layer consists of minute crystals (approximately grain size 0.20 to
1.0 µm) of silver bromide (Ag Br) suspended in gelatin is used as film emulsion and coated
on both sides of the Substratum or Binding layer. This layer is of 10-15 µ (micron) thick or
emulsion thickness on each side of the order of 0.025mm. As the emulsion layer consists
of Silver Halide crystals suspended in Gelatin is then applied, with appropriate volatile
solvents. This volatile solvent evaporates leaving only the emulsion behind. The emulsions
are sensitive to light, X-rays and Gamma rays.

FILM BASE LAYER:

Polyester is the most commonly used material used for film base. Polyester bases with the
advantages of being tough and having very low water absorption. The film base layer
selected should be firm, stable, transparent, inert and light. Many materials like glass,
cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetate, cellulose triacetate and polyester have been tried but

➢ Cellulose nitrate is flexible but it as readily inflammable, presenting fire hazards.

➢ Cellulose acetate proved to be fire safe but was found to undergo

dimensional changes during processing and does not have require strength.

Cellulose triacetate is used most widely. This cellulose triacetate in the market will be
found in the brand name of Melinex, Croner & Easter. The base layer is of 175 u (micron)
thick. The weight of the base is approximately of the order of 25 mg/[Link]. The film base layer acts
as a support for holding the layers.

SUBSTRATUM or BINDING LAYER:

This layer acts as binder between film base and the emulsion layer, A substratum or
binding layer contains a mixture of gelatin and cellulose-ester solvents, This layer is
coated on both sides of the base.
 HALF VALUE LAYER THICKNESS & TENTH VALUE LAYER THICKNESS

The thickness of the material, usually called absorber (Example: Steel, Depleted
Uranium etc), needed to reduce to intensity of radiation to half its initial value is known as
the Half value layer thickness.
HVT depends on

1. Energy of Radiation
2. Nature of absorber
As higher atomic number materials provide better shielding than lower atomic number
material. HVT value is Iower for higher atomic number material (or) The thickness at
which intensity will be reduced or decreased to half is known as Half Value layer
Thickness.
Example:
One HVT of any material reduces the intensity to half of the original intensity Two
HVT reduces the intensity to 1/2x1/2= (1/2)2 i.e1/4th of the original intensity.

1 2 3

Number of HVT’s

HVT and TVT Values for X-rays and ү Radiations

Material (Values are all in Centimeters)

Radioisotope Concrete Steel lead Uranium

HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT
IRIDIUM-192 4.6 1.4 1.25 4.0 0.48 1.60 0.31 1.0
COBAlT-60 6.6 21.8 2.0 6.6 1.20 4.00 0.70 2.2
 X- RAYS Concrete Steel Lead
HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT
100 Kv 1.6 5.5 0.12 0.38 0.025 0.084
150 Kv 2.2 7.0 0.23 0.76 0.029 0.096
200 Kv 2.6 8.0 0.38 1.27 0.042 0.14
250 Kv 2.8 9.0 0.54 1.77 0.086 0.29
300 Kv 3.0 10.0 0.65 2.15 0.17 0.57

Tenth value thickness is the thickness i.e. the thickness of the material, usually called
absorber, of any material needed to reduce the radiation intensity to one tenth of its initial
value.
1TVT = 3.3HVT
Example:
Two TVT reduces the intensity to 1/10 x 1/10 = (1/10) 2 i.e. 1/100 of the original.
Generally 3.3 TVT reduces the intensity by a factor of 10, Hence 1TVT = 3.3 HVT
(Thickness at which intensity will be decreased to its one-tenth value of original intensity
is TVT).
Examples:
1. The radiation level at a place, due to any Iridium -192 concrete i.e. 10mR/h. What is the-
thickness of steel required to reduce the level to 2.5 mR/h?
Solution:
1 HVT =10/2 = 5.0 mR/h
2nd HVT= 5/2 = 2.5 mR/h
Two HVT of steel for Iridium -192 = 2x1.25 cm
= 2.5 cm
2. What is .The thickness of lead required to reduce the radiation intensity at a place due to
Cobalt-60 source from 1000 mRlh to 5mR/h? Solution:
1 TVT= 1000/10 =100 mRlh
2nd TVT = 100/10 =10 mR/h
1HVT= 1'0/2 = 5mR/h
2TVT's+ 1 HVT=2(4) + 1(1.2) = 9.2 cm.
3. The radiation intensity at a place from a 200 K v - X-ray beam is 5000 mR/h. This
has to be reduced to 2.5 mR/h. How much thickness of concrete IS required to
achieve this?
Solution:
3 TVT reduces 5000 mR/h to 5000/10=500/10=50/10=5 mR/h
1HVT is added to this reduction = 5/2 =2.5 mR/h
3TVT's + 1 HVT of concrete for 200 Kv X-rays = 3(8.6)+ 1(2.6) = 28.4 cm.
SHADOW CREATION
 PRNCIPLES OF SHADOW FORMATION

Reference to standard guide for radiography testing SE-94 for method of

determining geometric un-sharpness, ASME Sec-V, T-274 Geometric
unsharpness.

A radiograph is a shadow image or replica of the material or object, which has

been radiographed by using a X or Gamma radiation for a specific time period
of exposure. The appearance of image on a radiograph recorded is
influenced by the relative positions of the source, Material or object and the film
and the technique. So for this reasons a radiographer should be in thorough
knowledge or idea that where to place a film, how to select a technique for the
object to be radiographed and what should be done to get a perfect image on
the radiograph for the given exposure and this will help to interpret the
radiograph.

The image formed on a radiograph is similar to the shadow cast on a screen by

an opaque object placed in a beam of light. Although radiation used in
radiography penetrates on opaque objects whereas light does not, the
geometric laws of shadow formation are basically the same for light, X-rays and
Gamma rays. X-rays, Gamma rays & light always travel in straight lines.
Propagation of Radiation in straight lines is the chief characteristic of shadow
formation. The geometric relationship of Source to material object, screens
and film determines the three main characteristics of degree of Un-sharpness or
distortion of image on a radiograph.

Enlargement:

The shadow of the object (test object) is always farther from the source to the
object itself. Thus as illustrated for a point source in figure a dimensions of the
shadow are always greater than corresponding dimensions of the object. The
size of the image and the degree of enlargement can be calculated from the
relation
SI LI
M = =
So Lo

M = Degree of Enlargement
S I= Size of the image
So = Size of the object
L I = Source to image distance
L 0 = Source to object distance

The effect of enlargement is normally of little consequence in radiography mainly

because of recording medium is placed closely behind the test piece to minimize
geometric unsharpness. Even with this arrangement images of the portions the
test piece farthest from the recording plane will be larger than the corresponding
portion of the test piece itself this effect is greatest for source to image
 distance. By positioning a test piece closer to the source details that are
otherwise invisible in a radiograph to become visible.

SFD = SOURCE TO FILM DISTANCE

SOD = SOURCE TO OBJECT DISTANCE
OFD = OBJECT TO FILM DISTANCE
SFD = SOD+ OFD

Principles of shadow formation to be considered while taking a Radiograph

SFD should be as large as possible to get a clear image

OFD should be as minimum as possible to get a clear image and avoid
Geometric Un-sharpness
Focal spot size should be as minimum as possible
Center ray size should always be perpendicular to film or object
The plane of the object and recording media should be parallel.
 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS

The radiographic image on the film is governed mainly by the basic principles of
the shadow formation. A sharp and undistorted image is obtained by controlling
various geometrical factors such as source size, source to film distance, film to
object distance, alignment of radiation beam/source with respect to the plane of
the object and film.

Both X-rays and Gamma rays produce certain unsharpness on the radiograph
due to finite size of the focal spot (or) the source. This unsharpness (or) the extra
image than that of our actual size of the object / material is called as geometrical
unsharpness (µg) which is calculated as

Fxt
(or) SOD =
µg

µg = Geometric unsharpness
SOD = Source to object Distance
F = Effective diameter of the focal spot size in mm
(X-rays 3.0 mm & Gamma rays 3.2 mm
t = Thickness of material (mm)
Source

Exact Image (Numbra)

OverSize (Penumbra) µg
From this expression it is clear that ug can be never be zero.
Increasing the thickness of material then unsharpness is favorable.

Number - Actual size

Penumbra - Extra Image (unsharpness)

Standard µg table given as per thickness.

Table: Recommended µg values as per ASME SEC-V

MATERIAL THICKNESS Maximum ug value

(inches) permissible (inches)
0-2"(0-50.8mm) 0,02" (0.508 mm)
2"-3"(50.8-76.2mm) 0.03" (0.762 mm)
3"-4" (76.2-101.6 mm) 0.04" (1.016 mm)
4" & Above (101.6mm) 0.07'(1.778 mm)

To calculate SFD (source to film distance) directly we can use formulae

SFD = t (1 + d /µg)

d = dia. of focal spot size in mm

t = thickness of material

µg = thickness of material

Example:

If a material with thickness of 0.5" has to be radiographed calculate the SFD?

t= 0.5 "(12.7 mm)

SFD = t (1 + d/µg)

=12.7(1+3.2/0.508)
= 92.7 mm or 3.6 inch
SFD = 3.6 inch
 5. Thinner Object Small µg 6. Thicker Object large µg

Film close to object small µg

Film away from object large µg
GAMMA RAY SOURCES
 GAMMA RAY SOURCES
A radioactive isotope (Any atom or nuclide having same number of protons (Z) number
of neutrons (N) is called an isotope of an element), to be useful in radiography have
1. A suitable radioactive energy.
2. Reasonable long half-life period value.
3. possibility of economic production at high specific activity
4. A suitable radioactive spectrum.
5. Penetrating ability.
Isotopes are classified into two types namely,
➢ Natural radioisotope
➢ Artificial radioisotope

Natural radioisotope: Potassium-40, Carbon -14, Uranium-238

Artificial radioisotope: Cobalt-6O, Iridium-192, Cesium-137
Of the numerous isotopes that can be produced by neutron activation, only a few have those
desired characteristics. The most important of those are Iridium — 192, Cobalt - 60 and
Thorium -170, another Cesium 132 separate from fission products, also find applications in
radiography. Table1 gives radiation data and optimum steel thickness penetration or that can
be radiographed using these isotopes.
Table: 1
Isotope Half life Production Activation Gamma Radiation Optimum
process cross energy out put working steel
section Mev Rhm/Ci thickness (mm)
192 74.4 192
77Ir 77Ir (n,r) 370bams 0.296 - 0.55 10 to 60
days 0.613
60 60 1.17-
27Co 5.27 yrs. 27Co (n,r) 37bams 1.3 50 to 200
1.33
170 170 0.052 -
69Tm 127days 69Tm (n,r) 130bams 0.0025 2 to 10
0.084
55Cs
137 33 yrs. Fission — 0.66 0.34 50 to 125

Cobalt 60 Properties:
➢ Hard Grey Magnetic Material.
➢ Melting Point of 1480° C.
➢ Density is 8.9 gm/cm3.
➢ It occurs as single isotope Co-59, which is transformed into (Co-60 by neutron capture.
➢ Half -life period is 5.3 years.
➢ Energy value is 1.17 — 1.33 MeV.
➢ Rhm Value is 1.33.
➢ Size 1.5-2 mm
Iridium 192 Properties:
➢ Hard and very brittle Material.
➢ Density is 22.4 gm/cm3.
➢ On activation it produces two radioisotopes one which is having a half-life of 74.3 days and
another with only 19 Hrs.:
➢ Half -life period is 74.3 days.
➢ Energy value is 0.5 MeV.
➢ Rhm Value is 0.5.
➢ 30Ci. Size is of 2cm x2cm.

Cesium 137 Properties:

➢ Hard Grey Magnetic Material.
➢ Melting Point of 1480° C.
➢ Density is 3.5 gm/cm3.
➢ Half -life period is 32.0 years.
➢ Energy value is 0.3MeV.
➢ Rhm Value is 0.3.

PRODUCTION OF RADIO ISOTOPES BY NEUTRON ACTIVATION:

Theoretically almost any nuclide can be converted in to another nuclide by neutron activation.
Whether it is feasible or not, or worth while depends on a number of factors. While selecting a
target for isotope production the following points should be considered

• Chemical stability - It should be chemically stable under irradiation, non- volatile,

non-explosive, non-pyrophoric.
• Purity - As pure as possible, no impurities should be present if they are present they
also get activated.
• Physical form: Chemical processing or for encapsulation.
• Target sealing: The target should be sealed off from direct contact with reactor
surfaces. Irradiation of an unsealed target could cause.
Contamination of entire reactor by the radioactive product and in many cases would cause
radioactive dust to be released. Thin welded Capsules of pure aluminum are generally used for
sealing the target. For the production of Iridium-192 and Cobalt-60, thin metal discs of purity
better than 99.9% used as targets.
Neutron sources:
Nuclear reactors provide a large and continuous supply of neutrons. The rate of flow of
neutrons i.e., the number of neutrons crossing unit area per unit time in direction normal to it is
called the neutron flux and is of the order of 1013 n/cm2/sec.
In a research reactor, many isotopes can be produced by exposing suitable materials to these
high neutron fluxes.
FABRICATION OF RADIATION SOURCES:
Fabrication of sealed radiation source involves sealing of the active material in an
inactive capsule, resistant enough to withstand under normal conditions of use, of all dispersion
of active materials. While designing the capsule factors such as mechanical strength, suitability
for use in given equipment, possibility of obtaining an adequate seal using remote techniques
etc. are to be carefully evaluated. The safe performance of a source under normal
working conditions can be evaluated by subjecting a prototype source, fabricated under
identical conditions as an active source but without radioactivity, to a series of tests as
established by the International Standards Organization and published in its publication
IS02919 (1980). The tests fall in to several groups including, for example exposure to
abnormally high and low temperatures and a variety of mechanical tests such as external
pressure, impact, puncture etc.
A typical industrial radiography source is expected to pass the following tests:
1. Temperature: -40°C (20min) and a thermal shock
+400°C (1 Hr) 400°C to 20°C (class 4)
2. External pressure: 25 Kpa absolute (Class 3)
3. Impact: 5kg weight from 1 meter height (class 5)
4. Puncture: 1 kg weight from 1 meter height (Class 5)
ANSI/ISO (Classification 43515)
Temperature:
The source capsule must be subjected to a thermal environment to 400°C for one hour and a
thermal environment of -40°c for 20 minutes. Additionally the source capsule must be
subjected to a thermal shock from 400 to 20 degrees Celsius.
External Pressure:
The source capsule must be subjected to a reduce pressure of 25 KN/m2.
The source capsule must be subjected to an external pressure of 2 MN/m2.
Impact:
The source capsule must be supplied anvil with a mass of at least 10 times the mass of the
capsule. The capsule must be subjected to the impact of flat end of a 25mm diameter steel
hammer with a mass of five kilograms freely falling from a height of 1 meter.
Puncture test:
The source capsule must be supported on a steel anvil as used for the impact test.. The capsule
must then be -subjected to the impact of a 3mm diameter steel pin attached to a mass 300gms
falling freely from a height of 1 meter.
As per IAEA / USNRC test for source capsules and source assemblies are:
1. Free drop [Link]
3. Heating [Link]

In general the material used for capsule construction is 304 or 316 stainless steel because of
easy weld-ability and high corrosion resistance. An actual source is fabricated by dispensing
the required amount of activity into an appropriate source capsule and sealing by remote argon
arc fusion welding. Such fabricated source is then checked for leakage and surface
contamination and if found O.K., is measured for activity using a well type, precalibrated ion
chamber and then loaded into the equipment.
 Radio Isotope (Gamma) Sources
Emitted gamma radiation is one of the three types of natural radioactivity. It is the
most energetic form of electromagnetic radiation, with a very short wavelength of less
than one-tenth of a nano-meter. Gamma radiation, rays are essentially very energetic x-rays emitted by
excited nuclei. They often accompany alpha or beta particles, because a
nucleus emitting those particles may be left in an excited (higher-energy) state.

In medicine gamma ray sources are used to treat cancer, for diagnostic
purposes, and to sterilize equipment and supplies. In industry they are used in
the inspection of castings and welds and in food processing to kill
microorganisms and retard spoilage

Men made sources are produced by introducing extra neutron atoms of the
source material. As the material rids itself of the neutron, energy is released in
the form of gamma rays. Two of the more common industrial Gamma -ray
sources are iridium-192 and cobalt-60. These isotopes emit radiation in two or
three discreet wavelengths. Cobalt-60 will emit a 1.33 and a 1.17 MeV gamma
ray, and iridium-192 will emit 0.31, 0.47, and 0.60 MeV gamma rays. Physical
size of isotope materials will very from manufacturer, but generally an isotope is a
pellet 1.5 mm x 1.5 mm. Depending on the activity (curies) desired a pellet or
pellets are loaded into a stainless steel capsule and sealed by welding. New
sources of cobalt will have an activity of 20 curies, and new sources of iridium
will have an activity of 100 curies.

Advantages of gamma ray sources include portability and the abil ity to penetrate
thick materials in a relativity short time. As can be noted above cobalt will produce
energies 'comparable to a 1.25 MeV x-ray system. Iridium will produce energies
comparable to a 460 kV x-ray system. Not requiring electrical sources the gamma
radiography is well adapted for use in remote locations.

Disadvantages include shielding requirements and safety considerations.

Depleted uranium is used as a shielding material for sources. The storage
container (camera) for iridium sources will contain 45 pounds of shielding
materials. Cobalt will require 500 pounds of shielding. Cobalt cameras are often
fixed to a trailer and transported to and from inspection sites. Iridium is used
whenever possible and not all companies using source material will have a cobalt
source. Source materials are constantly generating very penetrating radiation
and in a short time considerable barrage can be done to living tissue.
Technicians must be trained in potential hazards to themselves and the public
associated with use of gamma radiography.

Because of safety issues source materials are regulated by Federal or

State jurisdictions. The Nuclear Regulation Commission (NRC) has developed
and enforces regulations for source material. The commission allows states to
regulate materials if they follow guidelines of the commission. These states are
identified as "Agreement States". In case, obtaining and maintaining a license is a
costly and well regulated process that protects workers and the public from the
hazards of gamma radiation.
Typically gamma radiography is used for inspection of castings and weldments.
However, other techniques and applications are being developed. Profile radiography one
example. Profile radiography is used for corrosion under insulation. Exposures are
made of a small section of the pipe wall. A cooperator block such as a Ricki T is used to
calculate the blowout factor for the exposure in order to calculate the remaining wall
thickness of the pipe. The exposure source is usually iridium-192, with cobalt-60 used
for the pipes of heavier wall.

Radio Isotope -Th232 Half-life: 1.405E10 Years

Radio Isotope - Ir192 Half life: 73.830 Days

Radiolsotope-Tm170Halflife:128.6Days
Radio Isotope - Yb169 Half life; 32.026 Days

Radio Isotope - Cs137 Half life: 30.07 Years

Radio Isotope - Co60 Half life: 1925.1 Days

GAMMA RAY
EQUIPMENT
 CHARACTERISTIC OF FILMS:

Film Density:

Films on exposure to radiation and processing produces black deposits of silver. This
blackening of the film is optical density (D) and is given by the expression

Degree of darkness or film blackening is called as density.

L0
D= log10 -------
L1
Where L0 Intensity of incident light
L1 'intensity of transmitted light

Optical density is measured with an instrument called "Densitometer"

The factors that control the optical density are
Type of film
Energy of Radiation
Amount of Exposure
Processing Conditions

CHARACTERISTIC CURVE:

If a number of different exposures are given to various areas of a film and densities
obtained at these areas after processing are plotted as a function of log (exposure), the
resulting curve is called " CHARACTERISTIC CURVE",

Log relative exposure

Figure: Characteristic curve of film

A Characteristic Curve gives the

(a) Speed of film

(b) Film Contrast
 SPEED OF A FILM:

Speed of a film is known as the density recorded on a film due to a given radiation
exposure. It is measured in terms of inverse of exposure required to produce a radiograph of
a particular density, under given conditions. Keeping other factors constant, a film which
requires less exposure is faster and a film which requires more exposure time is slow film. Figure shows
characteristics of two films in which film A is faster than film B.

The amount of exposure of a given radiation energy required on a film to produce a given
film density value 2.0 under specified conditions of processing is called Film Factor. A film
with lower film factor value is faster than the one with a higher film factor value. Film factor
depends on energy of radiation.

SOURCE TYPE OF FILM FILM FACTOR

(WITH DOUBBLE LEAD
SCREENS)

Agfa D2 9.5 Roentgens

D4 or D5 4.0 Roentgens
D7 1.2 Roentgens
Iridium-192
Dupoint NDT-55 3.8 Roentgens
NDT-65 1.4 Roentgens
NDT-70 1.0 Roentgens
NDT-70
Agfa- D2 19.6 Roentgens
D4 or D5 8.0 Roentgens
D7 2.5 Roentgens
Cobalt-60
Dupoint NDT-55 7.5 Roentgens
NDT-65 3.0 Roentgens
NDT-70 2.0 Roentgens

* Available both side as single coated and double coated emulsion

Table: Film Factor values of some common films

FILM FACTOR:

It is the intensity required to achieve the density value 2.0 (or) the amount of exposure of a
given radiation required on a film to produce a given film density value 2.0 under specified
conditions of processing is called Film Factor. A film with lower film factor value is faster
than the one with a higher film factor value. Film factor depends on energy of radiation or
intensity received by the film during exposure to get the shadow image and after
developing process to form the image with density or contrast. Film factor values of some
common films are given in the table.
FILM CONT RAST:

Film contrast is defined as the change in density recorded on a film for a given exposure or
change in radiation intensity (or) Density difference between two areas on radiograph after
exposure and developing process. The slope of characteristic curve at a given density is
the measure of the gradient of the film Gd at that density.
D2 - D1
Gd= ---------------------
Log E2 - log E1

Gradient of industrial films goes on increasing with optical density as in figure. It is

practically independent of the radiation energy. In general, compared to coarse grain film
fine grain films will have lower speeds but higher gradient at a given density.

Slower film - Higher Contrast, Higher Resolution

Film Speed X > y > Z
8

DENSITY
Figure: Gradient Vs Density

TYPE OF FILMS:

The classification of radiographic film is complicated; however a simple classification has

been adopted by ASTM. According to the classification ASTM E 94, radiographic films are
grouped in to four types. The general characteristics of these four types are summarized in
table.

Films are classified with respect to there

 ➢ SPEED
➢ GRADIENT
➢ GRAININESS

FILM CHARCRESTICS
Film Type Seed Gradient Graininess
1 Low Very high Very Fine
2 Medium High Fine
3 high Medium Coarse
4(a) Very Very C
High (b) a)High (b) Medium (d)
(b)Medium (d) b)medium (d)
* (a) Normally used with fluorescent screen
(b) When used with fluorescent screens
(c) Graininess is mainly a characteristic of the fluorescent screens
(d) When used for direct exposure or with lead screens

(i) Films classified with respect to speed are discussed in detail in this chapter earlier in Para
Speed of film.

(II) Films classified as per graininess are of four types namely,

➢ ULTRA FINE GRAIN

➢ FINE GRAIN
➢ MEDIUM GRAIN
➢ COARSE FINE GRAIN

Graininess:

The silver halide grains that are contained in the emulsion of a film are minute and can be
seen only with a high power microscope, such as an electron microscope. Even though
the emulsion on each side is 0.0005, inch thick, such the grains are piled on top of each other in countless
numbers. When the exposed and processed radiograph is viewed, these small individual
silver grains appear grouped together in relatively large masses. This "clumping" which is visible to the
unaided eye or at low magnification, produces the visual impression called graininess.
All films exhibit some degree of graininess. In general slower films have less graininess
than faster films. Thus, type 1 films have the least graininess, type 2 films exhibit the most
graininess, and type 2 films are intermediate.

➢ Ultra fine grain films are slowest in speed requiring relatively long exposure times but
provide high contrast.
➢ Coarse grain films are fastest requiring relatively short exposure times.
Trade Name Equivalent types

Ultra fine V e r y f i n e Fine Medium Coarse

grain very grain slow grain grarn grain
slow slow medium high
speed speed
AGFA -GEVAERT STRUCTURIX D2* D4 D5 D7 D10

KODAK INDUSTREX R* M T AA -
OUPOINT Cronex NDT45 NDT55 NDT65 NDT70 NDT 91
3M - Gamma _- Delta Lamda
* Available both in single coated and double coated emulsion

(III) Films are further divided into

1) Direct (non-screen)
2) Salt screen films
3) Single emulsion films
4) Other type films

➢ Fluoroscopy films
➢ X-ray films

➢ Direct films are (non -screens) which can be exposed directly or by sandwiching them
with metal foil screen. In this group different range of f ilms speeds are available,
➢ Salt screen type films which are used along with fluorescent salt screens, these types
of films are very fast and give high contrast when used along with salt screens.
These films when used directly or with lead foil screens s how low contrast.
➢ Films for use in special purpose are Single emulsion films. These type of films find less
frequent use in radiography and are discussed below

Fluoroscopy film:
These films are used when higher sensitivity is required, a fluorescent screen on which
material image will be projected by means of an X -ray beam. The films are usually
sensitive to blue or blue green glow emitted by the screen in use. They are coated on o ne
side only.
X-ray Paper:
X-ray papers are latest type of films i n the family of X-ray films. These films are very
fast and develop in seconds and good for fast radiographic examination when very
high quality radiographs are required. This paper is also very cheap compared to
ordinary X-ray films and processing cost is also very low. The maximum density
obtained on these radiographs is 1.8.
 FILM TYPES AND THEIR SELECTION:

The selection of radiographic film for a particular film for a particular application
generally is a compromise between the desired quality of the quality of the radiograph and
the cost of the exposure time. The quality of radiograph depends mainly on film density,
gradient, graininess and fog, which are functions of film type and development procedure.
Exposure time of film depends mainly on film speed and on radiation intensity at the film surface;
Radiation intensity depends on (a) intensity of radiation at source (b) absorption
characteristics of test piece being inspected (c) geometrical arrangement of source, test
piece and film; and (d) Characteristics of any screens used.

Table: Guide to selection of radiographic film for steel, Aluminum, Bronze and

Magnesium

1. STEEL:
Thickne 50 to 80 80 to 120 150 Ir 250
ss in Kv 120 to to to 1 Co 2 6
192 Ra to
MM Kv 150 250 400 MeV 60 MeV
Kv Kv Kv 31 MeV
0-1/4" 3 3 2 1 ---- ------ ---- — — ------ —
¼-1/ 2" 4 3 2 2 1 -— ------ — — —
½-1” --- 4 3 2 2 2 1 ------ 1 2 ---
1 -2" --- --- ---- 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 1
2-4" — ------ ---- 4 3 4 2 2 2 3 1
4-8" — ------ ---- ------ ------ 4 3 3 2 2 2
Over 8* --- ------ ---- ------ ----- ---- --- ------ 3 ---- 2
[Link]

Thick ne 50 to 80 80 to 120 150 Ir 250

6
ss in Kv 120 to to 192 to 1 Co 2
MM Kv 150 250 400 Ra to
MeV 60 MeV
Kv Kv Kv 31 MeV
0-1/4’’ 1 1 ------ ------ -— ------ — __ — — —
¼-1/ 2" 2 1 1 1 ------ — — --- —-
1
/2- 1" 2 1 1 1 -— 1 -— — — -— —
1 -2" 3 2 2 1 1 1 .—. — — —
2 -4 " 4 3 2 2 1 2 — ------- — —- —
4 -8 " - 4 3 3 2 3 -- __ --- —
Over 8* ------ - ------ — 4 ------ — ------ — — —
[Link]

Thick ne 50 to 80 80 120 150 Ir 250

ss in Kv 1 Co 2 6
to to to 192 to to
MM 120 150 250 400 MeV 60 Ra
MeV 31 MeV
Kv Kv Kv Kv
0-1/4’’ 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 ------ — -— —.
¼-1/ 2" ------ 3 2 2 2 1 1 ---- 1 ---- ---
1
/2- 1" ------ 4 4 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 ---
1 -2" ------ ----- 4 4 3 3. 1 2 1 2 1
2-4" ------ ----- ------ -- 3 4 2 3 2 3 1
4-8" — ----- ------ ----- --- —- 3 3 2 ------ 2
Over 8* ------ ----- ----- ----- — ----- ----- ------ 3 — 2
 4. MAGNESIUM

Thickne 50 to 80 80 to 120 150 Ir 2S0

ss In Kv 120 to to 192 to 6
1. Co 2
MM Kv 150 250 400 Ra to
MeV 60 MeV
Kv Kv Kv 31 MeV
0-1/4’’ 1 1 --- ------ -— ------ ---- --- ------ --- —
¼-1/ 2" 1 1 1 ------ ------ ---- — — ------ ------
1
/2- 1" 2 1 1 1 ------ ------ ------ ------
1 -2" 2 1 1 1 1 ------ ------ ------ ------ —- —
2-4" 3 2 2 1 2 ------ ----- — ------ ------ ------
4-8" --- 3 2 2 3 ------ ----- ------ --- — ------
Over 8* — ----- — 4 ------ --- ---- ------ ---- ------ —

*These recommendations represent usually acceptable level of radiographic Quality

Optimum radiographic quality will be promoted by use of lowest number film type that
economic and technical considerations will allow. The recommendations for type 4 film are
based on the use fluorescent screens.

TABLE: For film selection with respect to thickness Gamma Rays

Thickness of Iridium 192

material (MM) Cobalt-60
Magnesium Aluminum Steel Steel
0-06 ------ ----- D2, D4 ---
06-12 ------ ---- D2,D4 ---
12-25 D2,D4 D2,D4 D4, D5, D7 D4
25-50 D4 D4, D5 D4, , D5, D7 D4 , D 5, D7
50-100 D4 , D 5, D7 D7 D7 D 5, D7
100 & above D7 D7 D7 D7

TABLE: For film selection with respect to thickness x-rays

Energy Range & Suggested Film types for X-rays
Thickness (MM) 50-80 Kv 80-120Kv 120-150Kv 150-250Kv 250-400Kv
[Link]
0-06 D2, D4 D2 D2 D2 ----
06-12 D2,D4 D 2 ,D 4 D2,D4 D2 ----
12-25 D4, D5, D7 D4,D5 D4 D2 ---
25 -50 D7 D4,D5 D4, D4 D2 D4
50-100 ----- D7 D4,D5 , D7 D4 ---
100 -200 ---- ----- D7 D4 ---
Thickness (MM) 50-80 Kv 80-120Kv 120-150Kv 150-250Kv. 250-40OKv
2. Aluminum
0-06 D2, D4 D2, D4 D4 D2 ------
06-12 D5 , D7 D4 D2, D4 D2 -----
12-25 D7 D4,D5 D2 ---- ----
25-50 D7 D5 , D7 D4,D5 , D7 D4 D5
50-100 ---- D7 D7 D4,D5 ,NDT55 ----
100-200 ---- ----- D7 D7, NDT-65 ----

Thickness (MM) 50-80 Kv 80-120Kv 120-150Kv 150-250Kv 250-400Kv

Steel
0-06 ---- D7 D4,D5 , D7 D2 , D4 ----
06-12 ---- ---- D4,D5 , D7 D2 ,D4,D5 , D7 D2 ,D4,D5 , D7
12-25 ---- ---- D7 D4,D5 , D7 D4,D5 , D7
25-50 ---- ---- D7 D4,D5 , D7 D4,D5 , D7
50-100 ---- ---- D7 ---- D7

HANDLING OF FILMS:

As films come in a variety of sizes and should be handled carefully to avoid physical
strains such as pressure cracking, buckling and friction on it. The normal pressure applied
on a cassette to provide good contact with the object does not change the films.

Whenever the films are loaded in flexible in flexible cassettes and external clamping
devices are used, it should be seen that pressure is applied uniformly. Localized pressures
on films can produce sensitized areas.

LOADING & UNLOADING OF FILMS:

When loading and unloading cassettes and cardboard holders, large films should be held
by edges in order to prevent finger marks (or) pressure marks and also to avoid friction,
which helps in reducing black marks on radiograph after exposure.

EXPIRY DATES:

The film should be used before the given date prescribed by the manufactures on the film
box. The expiry dates quoted are obtained from measurements under normal conditions of
temperature, storage and humidity.
FILM STORAGE:

Films should be protected from X-ray and Gamma rays to avoid fogging. It depends on
various factors like intensity, penetrating power of radiation and total exposure time.

A visible fog density is produced on faster radiographic film by the incidence of about 10
beta (or) alpha particles per square centimeters (or) about 5 to 10 mm of hard gamma
radiation. It is advisable to provide lead lining for storing of films.

Films should not be kept in a chemical stored room (or) in any location, where there is
leakage of gas (or) where there is probability of contact with formation vapors, chemical
vapors; high humidity and elevated temperature also contribute film fogging. Films should be stored
in a cool Pk1oe (or) for longer periods in a refrigerator.

STANDARD FILM SIZE:

Films are commercially available in the form of sheets of different standard sizes
interleaved; ready packed for direct use (both in sheet and roll form); and films packed
with lead oxide coated papers.
1) 15 inch X 12 inch
1) 16 inch X 12 inch

16” 15”

12"
12
”

12”

GRANULARITY:

This is another term associated with graininess. Measurement of graininess is called the
granularity.
SCREENS
 SCREENS

INTRODUCTION:

Screens are used in pairs pressed together in good contact with the front and back sides of
the film, generally used to increase density and radiographic contrast by intensifying the
effect of transmitted radiation on the film emulsion.

When a material or object is being radio graphed without using screens, there are two
disturbing factors.

➢ The absorption of primary radiation (transmitted through the object), in film is low
which results in longer exposure time.
➢ The absorption of low energy scattered radiation (scattered by the object), in film
is relatively more. This reduces the image quality.

Hence, to reduce exposure time and improve image quality of radiographs, radiography
screens are used. It is essential that there should be an interment contact between film and
the screens for sharp and clear objects. Screens are generally used to increase density
and radiographic contrast by intensifying the effect of transmitted radiation on the film
emulsion.

TYPES OF RADIOGRAPHIC SCREENS:

There are two types of radiographic screens, commonly used in industrial radiography
practice for intimate contact with the film during exposure, Sometimes, combination of both,
called fluorometallic screens, are used.

1. Metal foil screens.

2. Fluorescent screens.

This two types of screen differ in their basic characteristic like speed, contrast and
elimination of scattered radiation.

1. METAL FOIL SCREENS:

It is the combination of filtration and intensification that makes lead screens most widely
used in industrial radiography. Lead absorbs most radiation in a greater extent than most
other materials, the amount of absorption depends largely on the penetrating quality of the
radiation (photon energy or wavelength) High energy radiation passes through lead much
more readily than low energy radiation or otherwise low energy radiation is more readily
absorbed by a lead screen than high energy radiation. Because scattered radiation from a
test piece is always of low energy than the incident beam passing through a test piece, a
lead screen will absorb a relatively high percentage of unwanted scattered radiation, but
will absorb some what a lower percentage of the image forming radiation. This effect is
known as filtration and sometimes lead screens are referred to as lead filter screens. Metal
foil screen help in reduction of scattered radiation from the object. The film is sandwiched
between a pair of lead screens as in the figure. The fronts screen sometimes the thinner of
the two because image forming radiation always must pass through this screen.

➢ Front screen has a thickness in the range of 0.15mm to 0.2mm.(0.0005 or 0.010

inch).

➢ Back screen is normally thicker (0.25mm) than the front screen but its thickness is not
a critical.

➢ Lead screens emit beta particles (electrons) to which the film is sensitive.

➢ Pure lead is soft and may rub off on the film to produce "lead sludge" on the
radiograph lead screens made from 94Pb-6Sb alloy are most commonly used
because they are harder and more resistant to scratching.

➢ Prolonged contact of film with lead screens can produce an effect called "lead
screen fog" and for this reason film should not be kept in contact between lead
screens longer than reasonably necessary. ,

➢ Metal screens other than lead are Gold screens, Tantalum Screens, Depleted
uranium, Copper screens and composite screens.

Radiation transmitted
from object
Cardboard I plastic

Lead screen (front)

FILM

Lead screen (back)

Cardboard / plastic

Backscattered radiation

Backscattered radiation
Figure: Gradient Vs Density
Figure: film sandwiched between pair of lead metal foil screen
2. FLUORESCENT SCREEN:

These are also called as "salt screens". These screens consist of a card board (or) plastic
material on which certain inorganic crystalline substances are coated on one side. They
glow giving light when radiation of x or gamma rays is incident on them. Since a
photographic film is more sensitive to light than to x or gamma rays it enhances the
sensitivity of the film material, which has, its light emission is used for this purpose. Since
the film is highly sensitive to blue light. The most commonly used material for this purpose
is calcium tungstate. These screens are used in pairs; so that a double coated x-ray film
can be sandwiched between these.
Every crystal in salt screen emits light. This light diverges in all directions and gives
unsharpness.

In gamma radiography the intensification factors with salt screens, are not very much
greater than that obtained with lead screens. These screens give prior quality image. And
hence they are not and much.

X- rays or gamma rays

Cardboard / plastic
Lead screen (fr
Calcium Tungstate
FILM
FILM

Calcium tungstate
Cardboard / plastic

Figure: film sandwiched between pair of Salt intensifying screen

REDUCTION OF SCATTERED RADIATION:

Attenuation of incident radiation in the object results in production of low energy scattered
radiation and this fads on the film, along with the transmitted primary radiation, As high
atomic number elements have more absorption capacity for low energy radiations, if a
metal foil of high atomic number is placed between object and film, it will absorb most of the
low energy radiation, before it falls on the film. Hence effect of low energy
scattered radiation will be reduced. The metal foil screen will serve additional
purpose of intensification action also. Similarly reducing low energy back scattered
radiation obtained due to primary radiation from object placed behind the specimen to be
radiographed, a metal sheet of high atomic number is placed behind the film. Hence a
double coated film is sandwiched between a pair of metallic foil screens to reduce the
effect of scattered radiation on the film, thus resulting in an improved definition of
radiograph.
INTENSIFYING ACTION:

Intensification factor of radiography screen is expressed in term of intensifying factor and

defined as

Exposure time required to produced a certain Film

density without screen
Intensification factor =
Exposure time required producing same density
With the screen

IF due to double lead screens exposure to Iridium-192 source is about 4.5.

Intensification factor due to metallic screens depends on

1. Foil element
2; Thickness of foil
3. Energy of radiation.
4. Specimen thickness.

Intensification factor due to salt screen depends on

1. Energy of radiation
2. Coating material
3. Thickness of screen
4. Density of a radiograph.

Table: SCREEN THICKNESS - BS 2600 Part-l

Energy Screen Thickness in mm

Front Back

Below 120 KV Lead 0.1

120KV-250KV Lead 0.025-0.125 0.1
250 KV - 400 KV Lead 0.05 -0.16 0.1
Iridium -192 Lead 0.05 -0.16 0.16
Cobalt - 60
Cobalt - 60 Steel or Copper 0.5 -2.0 0.25-1.0

ISO RII06
Class A- No screen type films, with or without lead screens
Class B&C - Fine grain high contrast films in combination with lead screens
According to ISO 2405, only direct types of films with medium speed films grain size and
very fine
grain films can be used. Recommended for screens, as per BS 2600, are given is table.
RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
 RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
Some applications of radiography require the radiographs to cover a range of specimen
thickness. The technique required for a particular application should be agreed in advance between
the purchaser and the supplier taking account of the flaw-sensitivity required thickness
latitude necessary the equipment available, cost, accessibility, etc.
Radiographic process involves use of penetrating radiations, either Gamma or X-rays
detect discontinuity in materials, and to record the image on an X -ray film. Proper image
formation on the radiograph is controlled by many factors, such as radiat ion source, type of
film, effect of intensifying screens, geometrical factors, exposure time, film processing, etc.
The selection of a particular technique is based upon sensitivity requirements. The visibility of
the image of a small discontinuity, in a test object, is possible only when a proper radiographic
technique is used.

Radiography technique can be affected by the following parameters

• Radiation Source
• Films
• Source to film distance
• Radiation beam alignment
A technique is selected on the basis of the knowledge about of the following factors:
➢ Test Object - Material, thickness and welding process
➢ Fabrication Process
Welding: Edge preparation and welding process
Castings: Foundry technique, including molding preparation
Location of vents, gases etc.
Assembly: Fabrication and assembly process of components.
➢ Anticipated location and nature of discontinuity
➢ Critical and vulnerable locations
➢ Area of inspection coverage
➢ Sensitivity level required.
➢ Density level required.
Technique Selection:
Radiation Source:
Radiation Source Energy Maximum Steel Thickness (mm)
High sensitivity Low sensitivity
Technique Technique
X-Rays 100 KeV 10 25
150 KeV 15 50
200 KeV 25 75
400 KeV 75 115
1 MeV 125 165
2MeV 200 250
5 MeV 30-0 350
30 MeV 325 375
Iridium- 192 12-62 6-100
Cesium -137 25-100 12-112
Cobalt - 60 40-150 12-190
GEOMETRICAL FACTORS:
Dimensions of focus and source are important for determining value of geometric
unsharpness (µg).
Source to film distance has to be selected upon the maximum value of permissible geometric
unsharpnes (µg). As per ASME Sec-V. It is given by the expression
SFD = t (1+d/µg)
SFD also controls the area of the specimen, covered in a single exposure.
SENSITIVITY:
Sensitivity of a radiography technique can be high or low. High sensitivity technique is
employed in all applications where radiographic examination is mandatory. Latitude
technique, in which a single radiograph c overs a wide range of thickness, is a low sensitivity
technique, generally used for examination of assembled parts, or an object of non uniform
thickness.
WELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES:
Fusion welds can be on flat plates or cylindrical objects such as pipes. The weld can also be
of butt or fillet type. Radiographic inspection of these welds with sensitive techniques reveals
flaws, such as cracks, Lack of root penetration, lack of fusion, porosity, inclusions, etc.
Occurrence of such defects in weld can generally be identified with joint preparations, welding
procedure, heat treatment, etc. Information on all these basic factors guides in anticipating the
occurrence of flaw at a location and thus, helps in selecting a particular technique.
Source Source Source Source

(C) (D)
Figure 1: Radiographic Techniques for Inspection of Butt Welds on flat plates.
TECHNIQUE FOR FUSION WELDS ON FLAT PLATES:

Butt welds: Butt joints on flat plates are usually made with edge preparation of single V, or
Double V or square. Welds with single and Double V edge preparation are examined, with the
possible exposure geometries as shown in figure 1. Technique (a) & (c) with source located
perpendicular to the weld is ideal for detection of root flaws such as cracks, lack of root
penetration. Angular exposure 9b) or (d) is best for detection of lack of fusion between weld
and parent metal.

Inspections of butt welds (with ASTM IQI, S) by radiographic technique are shown in figure 2.
Source Source Source

Fig. (A) Fig. (C)

Fig. (B)

Source

Film
(D)

Figure 2: Radiography of Butt-welds with use of ASTM Pentameters

F )
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( a
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e

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a
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i
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r
a
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h
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e
c
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 Source Source Source
Source

Fig.(b) 100 % Joint Penetration

Fig.(a) 100 % Corner Penetration

Source
Source

Fig.{c) Square Joint Fig. (d) Lap Joint

Figure 3. Radiography Techniques for fillet joints
Source
Source Source Source

Fig. (a) 100%

corner Penetration fig. corner joint with Double V Fig. (c) Plane corner joint
With 100% penetration

Figure 4: Radiography Techniques for corner joints

Square joints with four fillets and lap joints are examined for root penetration with exposure
set up as shown in. figure [Link] joints may have configuration as shown in figure 4.
Square joint with 100% corner penetration is radio graphed as shown in fig.4a. for revealment
of side fusion if any, Corner joints with any double bevel are examined with exposure set up
as shown in fig.4 a. A plane corner, having 100 % joint penetration is examined for root
cracks with film and joint in a parallel position fig. 4 c.

Radiographic techniques for welded joints on pipes or Cylindrical Objects:

Depending upon the size and accessibility of both sides of the pipe, the following techniques
are adopted
INSPECTION OF TUBULAR TECHNIQUES:
There are three major inspection techniques for tubular sections;
1. SINGLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE.
2. DOUBBLE WALL DOUBBLE IMAGE
3. DOUBBLE WALL SINGLE IMAGE

SINGLEWALL PENETRATION OR TECHNIQUE:

In this technique several methods of exposure are possible. See in figure 6. The Source can
be either inside or out side. The film can be placed depending upon the placement of source if
the source is placed inside then film is placed outside and if the source is placed outside then
the film is placed inside." However if the center is not accessible or if the pipe diameter is small
the source can be off the center and the exposure can be taken as keeping the source in
eccentric position. Depending upon the film availability and pipe circumferential area the weld
for circumfrencial seams can be divided into several segments and the exposures are carried
out. The film is laced inside the pipe and the source is placed externally. This technique is
more sensitive for detecting root defects. However the area, accessible for interpretation will
be small and the entire weld is covered by taking several exposures. Exposure time
calculation is based on single wall thickness as radiation passes through only one wall
thickness and image is recorded of only one portion of the weld/section, so penetrameter
sensitivity calculation is based on Single wall thickness.

SOURCE IN SOURcE IN
CENTER ECCENTRIC

Fig. (a) Source in Centre, film outside Fig. (B) Source eccentric, film outside
 Double wall double Image: This technique is applicable mainly to sections of not more than
31/2” OD or 89 mm OD. This technique produces a radiograph in which the images of both
walls of a tubular section are recorded. Sources can be kept on the pipe or away from the
pipe, depending on the diameter of the pipe, SFD required and accessibility. In this double
wall double image technique there are two types (I) superimposed and (2) Elliptical Shot. In this
technique care should be exercised to ensure that the required geometric unsharpness is not
exceeded.

Figure 3.2: Double wall double

Image Elliptical shot view in radiograph
Source

Figure 2: Double wall double image - Superimposed technique

Superimposed: This technique produces a radiograph in which the images of both walls of a
tubular section are superimposed on one another. The beam of radiation is directed toward
one side of the section and the recording surface is placed on the opposite, usually tangent to
the section. In this technique two shots (two exposures) shall be taken at 90° to each other by
rotating the pipe through
Fig. (a) Source Outside film inside Fig.(d).Source inserted In centre
through adjacent hole.

[Link] examination of pipes with Single Wall Single Image

Figure: Single wall Single image

90°. The penetrameter is placed on the source side and it is placed adjacent to the weld i.e.
3 mm away from the weld bead center on either sides of the weld, and right side maximum.
The source should be always 90° to Weld. S6urce and film are kept outside. In this technique
superimposing if images results and interpretation is difficult. This technique is adopted for
smaller dia. size pipes of diameter upto 89 mm (or 3 1/2” below). As an alternative, the weld
may be radiographed with the radiation beam positioned so that the images of both walls
are superimposed. When complete coverage is required, a minimum of three exposures
taken at either 60 ° or 120 °. To each other shall be made for each joint. Exposure time is
calculated on two-wall thickness as radiation passes through two walls and image is of two
walls penetrameter sensitivity is calculated on two-wall thickness-
Elliptical shot: This technique produces a radiograph in which the images of both walls of a
tubular section are slided one by one as an ellipse form. For welds, the radiation beam may be
offset from the plane of the weld at an angle, sufficient to separate the images of the source
side and film side portions of the weld so that there is no overlap of the area to be
interpreted. When complete coverage is required, a minimum of two exposures taken at 90° to
each other shall be made for each joint. This technique is adopted for smaller dia. size pipes
of diameter upto 89 mm (or 3 1/2” below). The source kept at a maximum angle of 10 - 15 ° to
the weld. I f the angle is less then again superimposing of images will result and if angle is
more images will separate with each other which is not identical in this technique. So the
appropriate angle must be selected with the outer diameter of the pipe. If the OD/ID ratio is
less than 1.4 then multiply with n 1.7 factor and divide the value with 180°, 180/1.4x 1.8 =
75.30. Covert in degrees it will come 75°. Then 90° - 75° = 15°is the angle the source has to
be kept. IN this technique the root defects in the weld area cannot be found : Exposure time is
calculated on two-wall thickness as radiation passes through two walls and image is of two
walls penetrameter sensitivity is calculated on two-wall thickness.
Source Source

Film film
Figure 4: Double wall double image - Elliptical Shot
 Double wall single image:
In this technique the source of radiation shall be placed so as to achieve the minimum focus
to film distance compatible with the source size and wall thickness to be examined. If possible
source should be in contact, with the pipe, with the radiation passing through the parent metal
adjacent to the weld but this may not be possible with small diameter pipes. The film should
be placed on the side of the pipe further from the source of radiation, in close contact with the
weld, the axis of the cone of radiation passing through the center of the position of weld under
examination. This technique the exposure is taken by a touch shot. The Source tom film to
distance is the Outer diameter of the pipe. This technique is ad9ptffd for pipes above 3 1/2”
OD. In this the penetrameter is kept on the film side or the source side depending on the
accessibility for placing of penetrameters. Exposure time is calculated based on double wall
thickness as radiation passes through two wall thickness even though image is recorded of
only one wall. As the beam of radiation origination from the first wall the images or
discontinuities in the first wall are not recorded in the film. And the second wall image is only
recorded. Penetrameter or sensitivity calculation is based on single wall thickness or single ".
T”

Source Source

Film Film

Figure 5: Double wall Single image - Touch Shot

 1998 SECTION V
Figure 1 - Single Wall Radiographic Techniques
Pipe Exposure Radiographic IQI Location
OD Technique Viewing End View Side View Placement Marker
Side Placement
 12" Single Wall Single Wall Source side Either Side
if accessible,
film side if
not

 12" Single Wall Single Wall Source Side Source Side

Any Single Wall Single Wall Source Side Source Side

Figure 2 - Double Wall Radiographic Techniques
Pipe Exposure Radio-graphic IQI Location
OD Technique Viewing End View Side View Placement Marker
Side Placement
Any Double Single Wall Either Side Film Side
Wall, at
least 4
exposures
90° to each
other for
complete
coverage

Any Double Single Wall Either Side Film Side

Wall, at
least 4
exposures
90° to each
other for
complete
coverage

3- Double Double Wall: Source Side Either Side

1/2" Wall, at (Ellipse) Read
or least 2 offset source
less exposures side and film
at 90° to side images
each other
for
complete
coverage
Figure 2 (Con't) - Double Wall Radiographic Techniques

Pipe Exposure Radio-graphic IQI Location

OD Technique Viewing End View Side View Placement Marker
Side Placement
3- Double Double Wall: Source Side Either Side
1/2" Wall, at Read Super-
or least 3 imposed
less exposures source and
at 60° or film side
120° to images
each other
for
complete
coverage
EXPOSURE TIME CALCULATION

FOR

X-RAY & -RAY

 EXPOSURE TIME CALCULATION
(X-RAY & GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY)

When X-rays or Gamma rays pass through a material, object or part of the radiation
energy gets absorbed, scattered and the balance is transmitted. The absorption depends~
upon density, atomic number and thickness of the object in the path of the X/Gamma rays.
Different section thicknesses lead to differential absorption of radiation passing through
them. The transmitted energy brings out useful information which is recorded on the film
as a radiograph for a specific exposure or time period. Radiation after passing through an
object is allowed to fall on the film where a latent image of the object is formed. When the
exposed film is developed using necessary processing chemicals, the latent image
transforms into the visible image. For proper radiographic assessment of an object, it is
essential to achieve a faithful projection of its interiors on the film. Further, the projection of
image on the film should be such that the details can be studied conveniently. An ideal
radiograph should have minimum distortion, sharp definition, High contrast, and adequate
density. The quality of the radiograph depends upon accuracy of the exposure and further
by proper processing of the films.

The amount of radiation that penetrates a test piece and produces a satisfactory
image is governed by the intensity of radiation and spectral quality of the incident
radiation, the source to film distance, and the exposure time. In practice, the quality of the
incident radiation which depends mainly on tube voltage of an X-ray machine or on the
radio-active isotope in a gamma ray source is chosen to be sufficiently penetrating for the
type of material and thickness to be inspected. The recording medium is selected
according to its sensitivity to expected variations in the intensity of transmitted radiation
and its ability to record these variations in a form that will enable satisfactory interpretation.
With these two factors fixed, the remaining interrelated factors-radiation intensity
(determined by tube current in milli-amperes for X-ray sources or by source strength in
curies for gamma ray sources), source to film distance and exposure time - determine the
amount of radiation impinging on the film , which is called the radiographic exposure or
simply exposure.

Exposure time is calculated by using standard exposure charts or by the exposure

calculation formulae. Generally equipment manufacturers or film manufacturers usually
publish and supply exposure charts for each type of X-ray generator or gamma ray source
that they manufacture. These charts, are however only approximations. Charts prepared
as above will be strictly accurate only for test pieces of uniform thickness. Some
adjustments in exposure or source to film distance (SFD) will have to be made for the
more usual circumstances involving test pieces of non-uniform thickness. The exposure
chart is a useful guide for selecting exposure conditions and times. The charts included in
this leaflet can only be used as a general guide since actual exposures will depend on the
type of equipment used and the processing conditions.
The quality of radiographs and consequently and consequently the detection of flaws in
material depends on a considerable extent on the density of i mage. Thus, the selection of
exposure required to produce the radiography density for best relievement of defect is
necessary. The radiographic exposure time for a particular set up can be calculated
directly or read off from exposure charts. Commercially x-ray machines are generally
supplied with exposure charts. ,

For gamma source, exposure charts can be prepared by the user or exposure can be
calculated by using the expression:
Exposure time calculation for Gamma radiography

(SFD)2x Film Factor x2n

x 60 = minutes
2
100 X Source Strength x RHM Value

Where,

SFD Source to film distance

Source Strength In Curies of the Gamma ray source.
RHM value Roentgen per hour at one meter distance of the
Particular radioisotope
Film Factor value for the type of film used (Slow, Medium or fast)

n Thickness of material / HVT value of the material or

job thickness expressed in number of HVT.

The exposure time is not sufficient or improper then the image formed on the film is not
visible properly and cannot be interpreted but rejected and should take another exposure
with correct exposure conditions.
The exposure charts are prepared by exposing a step wedge having different
thickness, as shown in figure below. To different exposure doses. Five or six different
exposure doses. Five or six different densities corresponding to each thickness are
obtained. The exposure for obtaining a given density (2.0 Say), for each thickness are
then found out. A graph is then plotted between thickness and exposure in roentgens (in
log Scale) for gamma rays or mA-minutes for X-rays. This graph is called exposure charts.

Figure: A Step Wedge

Sometimes, the exposure chart for gamma rays is plotted between curie x Hrs (Exposure
Factor) Vs thickness. In this chart, following factors are kept constant.
➢ Radiation Source
➢ Film Screen Combination
➢ Density of radiograph
➢ Source to film Distance (SFD)
➢ Processing conditions
Exposure calculation can be done by
1. Exposure charts
2. Exposure Calculation formulae
Then for given object thickness, the exposure factor can be read off from the chart and
exposure time is calculated by the formulae
Exposure time in hrs. = E.F x D22 /c x D 21
E.F is the exposure factor (in Curies x Hrs.) for SFD = D1
D 2 is the actual source to film distance.
C is the source strength in curies.
After knowing exposure time for one metal, say steel, the exposure time under the same
conditions for another metal or equivalent thickness can be calculated using the
radiography equivalence factors as given in table. Exposure charts for steel with Ir-192
and Co-60 are shown in figure.
Gamma Ray exposure charts

Steel thickness in cm Steel thickness in cm

Figure: Exposure Charts

 Exposure chart for Gamma -radiography in Curie/Minutes for Iridium -192
D7 Crvstallex film with lead screens and standard development to give density of 2.25.
In the exposure chart in the left-hand side as a series of row wise there the thickness of
material is given and the right side are the corresponding SFD distances given with
respect to the SFD selected and thickness of material the, exposure is found out and to
calculate the exposure time, divide the exposure by the curie strength of the source.
Material SFD in inches (Source in Film Distance)
Thickness in
4" 6" 8" 10" 12" 14" 16" 18" 20" 24" 30" 36"
mm
6.35 3.0 6.75 12 18 27 38 40 60 76 100 170 240
9.40 3.25 7.5 13 20.5 30 41 52 67.5 82 120 190 270
12.7 3.6 8.25 14.5 23 33 45 58 75 90 132 210 300
15.8 4.0 9.0 16 25 36 50 64 82 100 144 230 330
18.8 4.5 10 18 28 40 55 72 90 112 160 255 360
22.2 5.0 11.5 20 32 46 62.5 80 102 128 184 285 408
25.4 5.75 13 23 37 52 75 92 120 148 208 330 480
28.6 6.75 16 27 44 64 85 108 140 176 256 390 560
31.8 8.0 18.25 32 51 73 100 120 165 204 292 460 660
34.8 9.5 21.5 38 60 86 115 152 190 240 324 540 760
38.1 11.0 25 44 70 100 135 176 225 200 400 630 900
41.2 13.0 30 52 82 120 160 208 265 328 480 730 1060,
44.2 15.0 34 60 97 136 185 240 305 308 540 870 1220
47.6 17.5 40 70 110 160 215 280 360 440 640 1000 1440
50.8 20.5 47 82 130 180 255 328 420 520 750 1200 1680
Example:
If have a steel plate of material thickness of 1 " and I have to take an exposure of gamma
radiography by using a source of Iridium -192 0f 10 Curie, using an SFD of 8 " then with
respect to the exposure chart thickness of material is 25.4 mm (1 ") and SFD of 8 " is seen
and the exposure is found out and the exposure is 23. Now the curie strength is 18.
To calculate the exposure time divide the exposure 23 Ci-Minutes by 10 Ci = 2.3 minutes
(ii) Exposure time calculation for X-rays,
(SED)2X Film Factor x2n
x 60 = minutes
1002 X Current in milli Amperes X Energy of X-rays
Where,
SFD Source to film distance
Source Strength Current Applied in Milli amperes.
R/h/m value Roentgen per hour at one meter distance of the
particular x-ray energy in terms of Roentgens.
Film Factor Value for the type of film used (slow, Medium or fast)
n Thickness of material I HVT value of the material
 X-Ray Exposure charts

Thickness of material (mm) Thickness of material (mm)

As per thickness of the material, the known kV value of the X-rays is selected and the milli
amperes minutes with respect to the exposure chart is known by matching the
Horizontal and vertical lines in the chart with thickness of material and selected kV the
Milli ampere-minutes is known and the machine is set to a standard milli amperes then
dividing the Milli ampere - minutes with milliamperes you will get the exposure time in minutes.

(1) Calculate the exposure time, with the following data:

Source-lridium-192, 10Curies, Steel Plate -25 mm thick.
Film- NDT-65, SFD =?, Calculate the SFD and exposure time in minutes?
(2) Calculate the exposure time in minutes
for 1.5-inch thick steel using NDT-65 film 12 inch
SFD to produce optical density 2.0, using Ir-192 source of 8-curies.
(3) Calculate the exposure time in minutes
for 0.75 inch thick steel using 180 kV x-rays and
.the machine is operated at 5 milliamperes?
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS
 IMAGE QUALITY INDICATORS

The quality of radiograph or sensitivity of process is expressed in terms of Image

quality indicator or penetrameter sensitivity. These are small devices placed on the
surface of the specimen during exposure and visibility of their image on the
radiograph forms the criteria of sensitivity. Image quality indicators are of simple
geometric form and made up of same or Radiographically similar materials as the
specimen being examined, The image of the IQI on the film/Radiograph is permanent
evidence that the radiographic examination was conducted with proper procedure or
condition.

The desirable properties of IQI's or penetrameters are

➢ Material should be preferable be the same as that of the inspected.

➢ It must be sensitive in its readings to changes in radiographic technique.
➢ Method of recording should be simple-unambiguous.
➢ It should have means for identification

A variety of penetrameters / IQl's are designed and used by different authorities

throughout the world. There are American, British, French, German both International
and Indian Standards. Some of the most commonly used IQl's are mentioned below.

Plaque Hole type Penetrameter:

The widely used American penetrameters are those that follow the ASTM and AS ME
recommended designs. This consists of a plate of uniform thickness in which three
drilled holes of diameters equal to 1T, 2T & 4T are made (T is equal to the thickness
of the penetrameter.

Identification of numbers and letters which specify the material and specimen
thickness for which it is intended are foxed to each plate. The details of the design
and the useful range of this class of penetrameter are given in figure-:1. The ASTM
penetrameters have drilled holes of 1T, 2T and 4T. The thickness of each
penetrameter is fashioned on the levels of sensitivity desired. A one percent
penetrameter is one in which the thickness of penetrameter correspond to 1 % of the
specimen thickness, a two percent penetrameter is the one which has 2 % of the
specimen thickness.
 Figure: ASTM IASME - Plaque Hole type penetrameter

1 mm = 40 thou, 1 thou = 0.025 mm

Level of Inspection Penetrameter Minimum Perceptible Equivalent

thickness (% of hole diameter penetrameter
specimen sensitivity
thickness) percent
1-1T 1 1T 0.7
1-2T 1 2T 1.0
1-4T 1 4T 1.4
2-1T 2 1T 1.4
2-2T 2 2T 2.0
2-4T 2 4T 2.8
4--1T 4 1T 2.8
4-2T 4 2T 4.0
4-4T 4 4T 5.6

WIRE TYPE PENETRAMETER:

Wire type penetrameter col1sists of a series of wires minimum length of 25mm
mounted side by side parallel with a distance between the axis of wires if not less
than three times the wire diameter and not less than 5 mm. The wires are made of -AI
or steel of material radiographically. Similar to that of object under inspection. Wire
type having different wires of different thickness. Wire type IQI's are adopted
internationally. The below mentioned are the types
1. DIN Type:
The German and the international institute have proposed a series of wired in place
of plates of varying thickness of plates with different steps in them, for image quality
indicators. The wires are made of aluminum or steel or of material similar to that of
object under inspection. The DIN (German design - The Doutscho Industries Normal}
are graded in geometrical progression with designation from 1-16, the first Normal)
wire having diameter 3.2 mm and the sixteenth wire having 0.10 mm. the Each wire is
about 5 cms long. A set of 7 wires 5-mm apart, is sealed rigidly in a flexible plastic or
rubber envelope. The ratio between the thickness of adjacent wires is 1.25. See in
figure below.
Wire Diameter (mm)
Set 1 ISO 7 6 ISO 12 10 ISO 16
3.20 1.00 0.40
2.50 0.80 0.32
2.00 0.63 0.25
1.60 0.50 0.20
1.25 0.40 0.16
1.00 0.32 0.13
0.80 0.25 0.10
ASTM Type:
The design as shown in figure consists of 4 sets of wires having diameters
from 0.0032 mm to 0.32 mm. Each set has 6 wires of the previous set repeated as
the 1st wire of the next set. The penetrameter design is characterized by its
simplicity, ease of application and independence to beam orientation. The design
accounts for to some extent, definition or unsharpness and contrast factors,
particularly related to linear volume elements. Here again, as in other designs of
penetrameters. unsharpness factors are not independently evaluated. Besides there
is no defined relationship that exists between the sensitivity levels obtained by wire
types and plaque hole type penetrameters.
Wire Diameter (Inch)
Set A Set B Set C Set D
0.0032 0.010 0.032 0.100
0.0040 0.013 0.040 0.126
0.Od50 0.016 0.050 0.160
0.0063 0.020 0.063 0.200
0.0080 0.025 0.080 0.250
0.0100 0.032 0.100 0.320
IQI Placement:

The IQI should be placed as far as possible on the source side of the radiation.
When it is not possible to do so, as in the case of double wall single image
radiography, it can be kept on the film side in which case, a lead letter" F” should be
placed near the IQI. The location of the IQI should be such that it must be in the most
unfavorable location with respect to radiation beam. The general recommendations
are

➢ In the case of welds, wire type IQI shall be kept across the weld and step wedge
and hole type parallel to the weld 1/8 “ away from the weld edge.

➢ Minimum of one IQI per radiograph is necessary. However, if a circumferential

weld is covered by panoramic technique, 4 IQl's = 90 Deg. apart are sufficient.

➢ When there is a difference in thickness and if this difference exceeds the range of
one IQI, more than one IQI is required.

➢ In the case of welds with backing ring or with excessive reinforcement /

excess penetration, while using step wedge / hole type of IQI, a shim has to be
used.

➢ When the density of the radiograph varies from the location of IQI by more
-15 % to + 30 %, then another IQI is required for the second density.

➢ When it is not possible to place the penetrameter on the specimen. It can

be placed on a separate block of the radiographically similar material and of
the same thickness.

Figure: Placement of penetrameters

Sensitivity Calculations:

Wire type IQI

Diameter of the thinnest visible wire

Sensitivity % = X 100
Thickness of the object
Plaque Hole type IQI

In this type, the penetrameter image and the specified hole are the essential
indications of sensitivity. The thickness of the penetrameter and the hole diameter to be seen
generally specified in the code. Normally, the image of 2T hole for 2 % thickness of IQI (2-
2T) should be visible in the radiograph. Critical components required a level of 1-2T or 1-
1T. Less critical components may be need only quality level of 2-4T or 4 - 4T. The more
critical the radiographic examination is, the higher the level of radiographic sensitivity and
the lower the numerical designation for the quality level. The following are the different
sensitivity levels of inspection with hole type IQI.
1-1T 2-2T 4-2T
2-2T 2-2T 4-4T
1-1T 2-2T 4-4T

Sensitivity % = Smallest Diameter of the hole visible

x100
Thickness of the object

Equivalent Sensitivity:

Is defined as thickness of IQI, expressed in % in which 2T hole would be visible

under the same conditions, in which the radiograph was made. It is expressed as

S E = n v Minimum diameter of the visible hole in terms of IQI thickness

2T

n = IQI thickness expressed as % of specimen thickness

T= IQI thickness

For Example:
1. 1-1T level means n = 1
and SE = 1 x (1T12 T) % = 0.7 %

2. 1-2T
SE = 1 x (2T 1 2T) % = 1 %

3. 4-2T
SE = 4 x ( 1T/ 2T ) 1/2= 2.8 % and so on
VISIBILITY INDEX

Sensitivity sometimes is expressed in terms of visibility on radiograph

N=a-b
Where N - index of visibility t

a- Number of holes or wires visible on radiograph

b- Number of holes or wires whose diameter is equal to or larger than 5% of
the thickness in the case of step type indicator and 2 % of the thickness in
the case of wire type indicator. The image quality is
considered to be better with higher values of "N".
Recommended use of penetrameters:
Hole type penetrameters:
➢ For pores, voids, gas holes, inclusions etc. in castings, welds. For defects of large
area and small thickness, for root penetration in welds and similar inspections.
Wire type penetrameters:
➢ For linear defects, narrow volume defects, cracks, piping etc.
Selection of ASTM IQI, As per ASME Sec V, 1998
Table T-276, Article -2 Material
Thickness, IQI Designation and Essential Holes
Penetrameter
Nominal Single wall Source side Hole
thickness range in Number Hole Wire Dia. Number Hole Wire Dia.
Inches.
Upto 0.250 12 2T 0.008 10 2T 0.006
0.250 -0.375 15 2T 0.010 12 2T 0.008
0.375-0.500 17 2T 0.013 15 2T 0.010
0.500 - 0.750 20 2T 0.016 17 2T 0.013
0.750-1.000 25 2T 0.020 20 2T 0.016
1.000-1.500 30 2T 0.025 25 2T 0.020
1.250-2.000 35 2T 0.032 30 2T 0.025
2.000-2.500 40 2T 0.040 35 2T 0.032
2.500-4.000 50 2T 0..050 40 2T 0.040
4.000 - 6.000 60 2T 0.063 50 2T 0.050
6.000 - 8.000 80 2T 0.100 60 2T 0.063
8.000-10.00 100 2T 0.126 80 2T 0.100
10.00-12.00 120 2T Q.160 100 2T 0.126
12.00-16.00 160 2T 0.250 120 2T 0.160
16.00-20.00 200 2T 0.320 160 2T 0.250
Reference Standards for selecting Image Quality Indicators:

ASME Sec-V, Subsection, Article -2 Mandatory Appendix for Radiographic

examination.
T-276 - IQI Selection as per SE-1025
T-277 - Use of IQI to monitor Radiographic Examination i.e placement of IQI,
Number of IQI's and shims under Hole type IQl's.
T-280 Evaluation of Penetrameters
T-281 Quality of Radiographs
T-282 Radiographic density- Density limitations and Density variation
T-283 IQI Sensitivity
FILM PROCESSING
 FILM PROCESSING

The film on exposure to the X or Gamma radiation a latent image is formed in the
x-ray film. The main purpose of film, processing is it converts this invisible latent
image formed by X or Gamma radiation on the film to a visible and permanent
image.

Film during processing undergoes five stages.

➢ Development of image
➢ Stop bath.
➢ Fixation.
➢ Washing.
➢ Drying.

1. DEVELOPMENT:
Creation of the visible image by using a developer.

2. STOP BATH:
Removal of excess developer solution and stopping of developing
action.

3. FIXATION:
Removal of unwanted, unexposed silver halide and making image
permanent.

4. WASHING:
Removal of unwanted fixation products.

5. DRYING:
Removal of excess or unwanted water.

Latent image formation:

On exposure of film to X and Gamma radiation, Silver bromide in film is

converted to metallic silver. A series of changes occur on exposure of film to
gamma or visible radiation. The series of changes is

➢ Energy absorption.
➢ Energy release.
➢ Electron trapping.
➢ Silver ion absorption.
➢ Metallic silver formation

The energy absorbed during exposure serves to release electrons from

bromide ion layer in the crystal through the following reaction

Br + Photon energy =Br + e-

 The Bromine thus formed is absorbed by screening gelatin, otherwise
wandering electrons in the crystal could approach these free bromine atoms, to
produce bromide ions again, by reverse of the equation. The electrons then liberated wander
through crystal lattice and are trapped by the sensitivity centers this is the main
function of these sensitivity centers and hence they are also referred to as
electron trap as in the figure. The free silver ion is attracted to the negatively
charged sensitivity centre and there is a formation of metallic silver at the center.
This modified sensitivity center with metallic silver Ag is now called
"Development center", as it is capable of initiating development when
processing commences. The above processes get completed in 10 -12 seconds.
Interstitial silver atoms Bromine Atoms Absorbed
by Gelatin

Sensitivity centers

The above discussion was consideration of single crystal only, but an ordinary
film contains about 10 12 grains of AgBr per square foot. The above process
occurs repeatedly, during the period of exposure and initially sensitivity site
becomes associated with an accumulation of metallic silver. During the period of
exposure, the individual latent images reach a variety of physical sizes. Some
may contain only a few atoms of silver, some a dozen and some even hundred.
Moreover, the images will differ in their locations in crystal and the ease with
which they promote development. More severe developing conditions like
increasing developing time, temperature or pH, a greater proportion of the
available Centers become involved and more metallic silver is formed.
STRUCTURE OF SILVER BROMIDE CRYSTAL

The basic structure of silver bromide consists of lattice of silver and bromide ions,
arranged as in figure1 shown below. Each ion is surrounded by 6 ions of the
other type and there are cavities in structure through which the ions and
electrons can wander.

O
Indicates Silver Ion Indicates Bromide Ion
Figure 1: Basic Structure of AgBr Figure 2: Bromide lon-layer

Bromide ion Barrier:

Silver bromide crystal is produced by the following reaction.

AgNo3 + KBr AgBr + Kno3

This reaction is allowed to take place in presence of potassium bromide.

Each crystal absorbs the excess of potassium bromide and thus surrounded by a
layer of negative bromide ions as in figure 2. This plays and important role of
mechanism of development, without the layer, the unexposed silver bromide
crystals will also be reduced to silver on development, resulting in nothing but
fog.

Sensitivity Centers:

The bromide ion barrier tends to prevent development, but there is a factor which
helps it, that is, there is in each crystal, before exposure at least one 'sensitivity
centre", around which photographic activity is concentrated.

Ion Migration:

Most of the silver ions are held in structure by attractive forces of surrounding
bromide ions, but few silver ions escape this attraction and are free to wander
around the crystal.
1. Effect of development:
The function of developer selection is to reduce only exposed grains of
silver and leave unexposed, unaffected grains. The rate of development of
exposed crystals is much greater than corresponding rate of unexP9sed crystals.
Mechanism of the reaction is:
Ag + + e- Ag
The electron for the reaction is denoted by the developer solution. Figure
[Link] how the developer distinguishes between exposed and unexposed
crystals.

a) Electron can penetrate ion b) Negatively charged

barriers through weakness electron is repelled by ion
caused by development centre barriers

Figure: 5

As has been pointed out earlier, there is a negative bromide ion barrier around
unexposed silver bromide crystal, so that electron donated by developer is not
able to penetrate the crystal, due to electrostatic repulsion of bromide ion.
In the exposed crystal, there are development Canters, produced by the
mechanism already explained. These development Centers produce weakness
in the bromide ion barrier and hence electron given by developer can penetrate
the barrier.
Nature of developer:
Radiographic developers are aqueous solutions containing four major
components, which react with silver bromide, when exposed films are immersed
in them.

➢ The developing agent, which supplies the electrons for chemical reaction.

➢ The accelerator, which increases the ability of the developing agent to provide the
necessary electrons.

➢ The restrainer, its purpose is to diminish any tendency, the activated

developing agent may have to reduce the unexposed silver bromide.

➢ The preservative, its chief role is prevention of rapid aerial oxidation of

developing solution, in addition, it often takes a significant part in the basic
development reaction.
The developing Agent:
A large number of substances are known which can reduce silver bromide to
metallic silver. Three commonly used developing agents are:
➢ Metol
➢ Hydroquinone
➢ Phenidone
These substances when dissolved in alkaline solution can distinguish between
the exposed and unexposed crystals of silver bromide. However, each
possesses its own characteristic properties.
Metol: It finds limited use as a sole developing agent in low contrast developers.
Its major importance is found in conjugation with Hydroquinone. It’s rapid working
and gives high emulsion speeds, but is generally affected by accumulation of
bromide ions in solution. Its activity in solution is such that a substantial
proportion of restrainer is required to suppress its tendency to promote fog.
Hydroquinone: It is rather slow in action and does not extract speed from
emulsion, gives high contrast and maximum density and is relatively little affected
by bromide ion concentration. Its tendency to cause fog is much less than of
metol and is easily overcome by inclusion of a relatively low concentration of
restrainer. It follows from comparison of metol and Hydroquinone that a wide
range of properties can be obtained by an appropriate mixture of the two.
Phenidone:
It is less active hence it is practically useless as developing agent by itself. The
use of Phenidone provides much longer working life of the developer as
Phenidone metol developer is much less affected by bromide ion concentration
as compared to Metol-Quinine developer. The final advantage of V is that the
time lag between production of visible density and film immersion developer, for it
is much less than metol. This property is important in rapid working developers
e.g. in operating theaters where the production of image is required to be
completed in 30 - 40 seconds.
Water:
Water comprises over 80 % of the processing solutions. There is no need for
demanding distilled water for processing solutions and water fit for drinking can
be used. The presence of metals such as copper and iron in water can
accelerate developer oxidation and cause high fog, but their concentrations in
domestic waters are negligible. For this reason, copper and brass utensils should
be kept away from processing solutions.
Developers in use:
There are two distinct developers available
1. The Solid pack containing two separate bags of chemicals which have
dissolved in correct quantity of water before use.
2. The liquid concentrate, which require appropriate dilution with water to give
working solution.
 There are three kinds of radiographic developers with respect to performance
and strength of working solutions
Normal Contrast:
These give radiographs of normal contrast after four to five minutes of
development.
High Contrast:
These give radiographs of higher contrast than the previous type, after four to
five minutes of development.
Rapid contrast:
These developers can produce acceptable image in 40 seconds and if
radiographs are required in minimum possible time, adequate fixation and image
performance are relatively unimportant.
CONSTITUENTS OF DEVELOPERS
CONSTITUENT Ordinary (5 min, 20 °) Rapid (1 min, 20 °)
Water at 40 ° C 800 ml 800ml
Metol 4gm 12 gm
Anhydrous Sodium Sulphate 65 m 80 gm
Hydroquinone 1 m 35gm
Anhydrous sodium Carbonate 45m —
Potassium bromide 5m 20gm
Sodium Hydroxide — 30gm
Water to make 100 0mI 100ml
Developer Replenishment:
For maintaining a radiographic developer at constant activity over a prolonged
period, a procedure known as "replenishment" is employed. Let us examine the
reasons, for the necessity of this procedure.
Need for Replenishment:
Following are the reasons why a developing solution changes in activity with use.
The first four reasons are connected directly with the basic development reaction.

Silver Bromide (in film) = developing agents + water -Silver + developing agent
+Oxidation products +
Hydro bromic acid

Developing Agents: These are consumed during reaction and hence their
concentration in developing solution becomes less.
Developing agent oxidation products : These are produced during the
reduction process and tend to retard the forward reaction. Hence by some means
this retardation should be overcome.
Hydrobromic Acid: This is immediately neutralized by alkali present and hence
alkali reserve of developer is reduced. The buffering action of developer will maintain
the pH constant for sometime. It will eventually fall and activity of developer will
fall with it.
 Bromide Ions: Its production increases the bromide ion concentration of the
solution. The bromide ion concentration tends to retard the developer process.
Since the solution remains in contact with air, whether it is used or not, the aerial
oxidation will occur at a rate dependent on the extent of this contact, and pH of
the solution. The main reactions, which occur, are

General reaction,
Developing Agents Oxidation Products
Specific Reaction
Hydroquinone + sodium, Sulphate + Oxygen — ► Sodium Hydroquinone
Mono-Sulphate +
Sodium Sulphate +
Sodium Hydroxide
Due to these two reactions activity of developers may change on standing for the
following reasons:
a) Developing Agents: These will be oxidized and consumed
a) Developing agent oxidation products: These may exert a retarding
influence on development reaction
b) Sulphonation of Hydroquinone: It releases sodium Hydroxide which tends
to increase the pH of the solution and thus increase its activity.
d) The volume of the developer decreases with use, since it is carried out of tank
by films.
2. Stop Bath:
After developing, the image is already in already in existence and remaining
processes make it permanent and enable to view it conveniently. If no action is
taken, the developer will continue to work producing enhanced density, fog or
irregular developer stains. The unwanted developer is removed with stop bath.
There are two types of stop baths generally employed.
The Water Rinse: The excess unwanted developer is removed from the film
simply by immersing in a running water bath. Static water rinse involves the risk
of solution becoming alkaline with use and ease to be of any use in stopping
development.
Acetic Acid Rinse: This bath is static and 2-3 % solution of acetic acid is
employed. This is more efficient in action and required films to be immersed in it
for about 5 seconds with agitation. However, unlike flow water rinse, acetic acid
will become continuously exhausted with use. A throughout of 100 ft2 / gallon is
reasonable suggested life for this.
Faults arising during Rinsing: The only fault which can occur this stage is due
to delay in putting the developer laden film in stop bath. The oxidation of thin
layer of developer on film can lead to production of brown developer stains.
3. THE FIXINGBATH:
The fixer reactions with undeveloped silver bromide in the film and transform it
into water-soluble compound which dissolved in washing operation. In addition, it
enables the image to become permanent. Since the silver halide is still sensitive
to light to a small extent, and so will slowly darken if allowed to remain.
Fixing Agent:
The most widely used agent is sodium thio-sulphate, commonly known as "hypo"
Its most widely water rapidly dissolves silver chloride and bromide, but silver iodide
dissolves more slowly. Ammonium thio -Sulphate is much more rapid fixing agent than sodium
thio-sulphate. It is now widely used in place of hypo for rapid automatic processing
machines. The fixing rate of ammonium thiosulphate is much less affected by
iodide concentration, than of hypo and hence has longer working life. Though neutral
solutions of either sodium or ammonium thio-sulphate can fix the films, still some other
substances are included in the solutions.
Other constituents:
Acetic Acid:
For prompt neutralization of any traces of developer which may persist through
the stop bath stage, the fixer is made of acidic to a pH around 4.5. For this purpose
the acetic acid is used in most fixing baths. If excess of this acid is used, to that pH decreases
below 4.0, then there is possibility of production of unstable thio-sulphuric acid,
which decomposes to sulphur. Acidic components should therefore never be added
to a hypo bath, in the absence of sulphite.
Sodium Sulphite:
In order to suppress any tendency of fixer bath towards the decomposition to
sulphur, sodium sulphite is also added to reform sodium thiosulphate.

Na2s03 + S Na2s 203

Sodium Acetate:
This is employed to prevent sludge to acetic acid for adequate buffering of the
solution.
Boric Acid:
Boric acid tends to prevent sludge formation due to addition of aluminum salt
used as a hardening agent. The amount of various constituents of a typical
hardening fixer is given in Table.6
Table: 6 CONSTITUENTS OF A TYPICAL HARDENING FIXER

CONSTITUENT AMOUNT
Water at 40 ° c 800 ml
Sodium thiosuiphate (hypo) 300 gm
Potassium metabisulphite 12 gm
Glacial acetic acid 12 ml
Borax 20 gm
Potash alum 15 gm
Water to make 1000 ml
Use of fixing bath:
Time: Generally 2-3 minutes time in rapid bath and about 10 minutes in ordinary
hypo bath is found sufficient. If the films are kept in fixing bath for a: length of
time, acid thiosulphate bath will attach silver of which the image if formed and
slowly try to dissolve it away.
The time required depends upon the following factors:
1. Agitation: The films should be agitated initially, when immersed in fixer.
2. Temperature: The fixation process is far less critical than development
process and a temperature range of + 2.5° c to standard 20 °c is acceptable.
3. Fixing Agent: The fixing time depends on whether the rapid or slow fixing
agent is used. Ammonium thiosulphate gives more fixing speed over sodium
thiosulphate concentration.
4. Fixing Agent concentration: The performance of the fixing baths also
depends upon their concentration.
5. Extent of Usage: Silver bromide and silver iodide released during fixing
reaction will cause significant increase in fixing time.
The iodide content has more marked effect on fixing rate, since silver iodide is
much less soluble in fixer than silver bromide. However, the iodide content of the
emulsion is less than 3% so the effect is significant
Faults arising during fixation:
Most of defects arise due to introduction of developer into fixer through careless
use of stop bath stage. The faults may arise if films are inserted without agitation.

1. The pH of fixer will rise unduly and will lead to sharp decrease in hardening
ability.
2. The streaks may be produced, due to un even removal of developer.
3. Hardening agent may be precipitated if pH of solution rises to 5.5.

HARDENIJNG:

The emulsions after processing become swollen. The gelatin layer is very
delicate and liable to mechanical damage. Hence process of hardening is used in
fixing stage. It serves the following purposes:

1. The emulsion, dry or wet, becomes more resistant to abrasion or any other form
of mechanical damage.
3. The volume of water absorbed by gelatin is reduced and so the time required
to remove it during drying is also reduced.
4. Unhardened films would jam in roller-type processing machine. The
impedance of this point is so greater that it is considered necessary to include
hardening agent in developer, as well as the fixer.
 4. Washing and Drying:
Washing and drying is carried out to eliminate the unwanted products from the
emulsion after the fixing operation. The excess water is then removed, since the
wet radiograph is not convenient to handle and easily liable to mechanical
damage.
Washing:
In this stage, the various silver compounds in the gelatin and excess fixer as
removed from the swollen the gelatin. For this purpose, film is washed in running
water for about 20 minutes and then taken to dry. It is important to use flowing
water, so that the film on its removal from bath is taken out from uncontaminated
water. The relation between temperature of washing water and rate of washing
are shown in figure 7. It can be seen that reduction in time is not very great on
increasing the temperature of washing water from standard 20° c.

60
Time in Minutes
Figure: Temperature Vs Rate of Washing
Faults arising during washing:
Usually twenty minutes are allotted for this stage, but the period may be prove
insufficient if
1. Water is unusually cold
2. Flow is inadequate
3. Tank is too small for film throughput
4. Film is inserted in a haphzard manner.
5. E a c h o f t h e s e f a c t o r s w i l l l e a d t o i n c o m p l e t e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h i o s u l p h a t e
complexes from gelatin.

5. Drying:
Usually the wet films are dried by blowing a current of hot air over the films, and
various types of d ryin g cabinets exists for this purpose. These c abinets often
include filter at their air intake to free the air from dust, which may stick to wet film.
No rmal te mpe ra tu re b etween 3 8 -40 Deg c i s e mplo yed fo r d ry ing . So me ra pid
drying machines are available in which films are fed and are accepted by a pair of rollers. The films
come out dry in 70 -90 seconds and offer an advantage of time.
 Rapid Drying:
Sometimes, it is required to dry a single film as rapidly as possible and' if rapid
machines are not available, sometimes-alternative means are required, A rinse of
about one-minute in 70% alcohol can replace much of water in film and.
subsequently drying will not take more than 2 to 3 minutes.

Faults arising during drying:

Sometimes, Watermarks appear on the films after drying. These arise if the
wetting agent rinse immediately before drying is omitted or performed carelessly. Those can
be removed by soaking the film in water, followed by wetting agent rinse and
normal drying. If the tender films are handled carelessly, it may lead to
mechanical damage. Too high drying temperature can reduce the moisture
content of gelatin below the equilibrium value (12%) and thus promote brittleness
or even cracking of the surface.

Development Time and Temperature:

The temperature for developing an X-ray film is 20°C and high developing
temperature can lead to reticulation and stripping/melting of the emulsion. Below
18°C, the hydroquinone, which gives the contrast, becomes less active.
Inadequate temperature control will lead to unexpected over or under
development. Excessive high processing temperature may cause damage the
image, through emulsion filling or separation from base. The wide spread use of
emulsions hardened during manufacture has diminished this danger, but care
should be taken if temperature excess 27°C. This time and temperature
relationship is shown in the fig.

Temp, o c

Development time, minutes

To avoid faults during developing, it should be properly agitated during

developing.
VIEWING OF RADIOGRAPHS
 Viewing Radiographs
Radiographs (developed film exposed to x-ray or gamma radiation) are generally
viewed on a light-box. However, it is becoming increasingly common to digitize
radiographs and view them on a high resolution monitor. Proper viewing
conditions are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The viewing
conditions can enhance or degrade the subtle details of radiographs.
Viewing Radiographs
Before beginning the evaluation of a radiograph, the viewing equipment and area
should be considered. The area should be clean and free of distracting materials.
Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at hand. Thin
cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints on the
radiograph. Ambient light levels should be low. Ambient light levels of less than 2 fc
are often recommended.
Film viewers should be clean and- in good working condition. There are four
groups of film viewers. These include: strip viewers, area viewers, spot viewers,
and a combination of spot and area viewers. Film viewers should provide a
source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from viewers can
cause distortion of the radiograph. A film having a measured density of 2.0 will
allow only 1.0 percent of the incident light to pass. A film containing a density of
4.0 will allow only 0.01 percent of the incident light to pass. With such low levels
of light passing through the radiograph the delivery of a good light source is
important.

The radiographic process should be performed in accordance with a written

procedure, code, or as required by contractual document. The required
documents should be available in the viewing area and referenced as necessary
when evaluating components. Radiographic film quality and acceptability, as
required by the procedure, should first be determined. It should be verified that
the radiograph was produced to the correct density on the required film type and
that it contains the correct identification information. Also, it should be made
sure that the proper image quality indicator was used and that the required
sensitivity level was met. Next, the radiograph should be checked to make sure
that it does not contain artifacts that could mask discontinuities or other details of
interest. The technician should develop a standard process for evaluating the
radiographs so that details are not overlooked.

Once a radiograph passes these initial checks it is ready for interpretation.

Radiographic film interpretation is an acquired skill combining, visual acuity with
knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated
discontinues. If the component is inspected while in service, an understanding of
applied loads and history of the component is helpful. A process for viewing
radiographs, left to right top to bottom etc.
is helpful and will prevent the technician from overlooking any area on the
radiograph. This process is often developed over time and individualized to the
technician. One part of the interpretation process, sometimes overlooked, is rest.
The mind as well as the eyes need to rest when interpreting radiographs.
When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small
light source and moving the radiograph over the small light source, or changing
the intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant
indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help
identify and evaluate indications. Viewing the actual component being inspected
is very often helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a
radiograph.
Interpretation of radiographs is an acquired skill that is perfected over time. By
using the proper equipment and developing consistent evaluation processes, the
interpreter will increase his or her probability of defect detection.

Contrast and Definition

The first subjective criteria for determining radiographic quality are radiographic
contrast. Essentially, radiographic contrast is the degree of density difference
between adjacent areas on a radiograph.
It is entirely possible to radiograph a particular subject and, by varying factors,
produce two radiographs possessing entirely different contrast levels. With an x-
ray source of low kilovoltage, we see an illustration of extremely high
radiographic contrast, that is, density difference between the two adjacent areas
(A and B) is high. It is essential that sufficient contrast exist between the defect of
interest and the surrounding area. There is no viewing technique that can extract
information that does not already exist in the original radiograph.

With an x-ray source of high kilovoltage, we see a sample of relatively' low

radiographic contrast, 'that is, the density difference between the two adjacent
areas (A and B) is low.
The applet below estimates the contrast of the radiograph based on material,
thickness, geometry, energy (voltage),.current, and, of course; time. The effect of
the energy and the physical setup are shown by looking at the film density after
exposure. It should be noted that different films react in different ways.

Definition

Besides radiographic contrast as subjective criteria for determining

radiographic quality, there exists one other, radiographic detail. Essentially,
radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from one density to
another. For example, it is possible to radiograph a particular subject and, by
varying certain factors, produce two radiographs which possess different degrees
of definition.

In the example to the left, a two-step step tablet with the transition from step to
step represented by Line BC is quite sharp or abrupt. 'Translated into a
radiograph, we see that the transition from the high density to the low density is
abrupt. The Edge Line BC is still a vertical line quite similar to the step tablet
itself. We can say that the detail portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent to
physical change present in the step tablet. Hence, we can say that the imaging
system produced a faithful visual reproduction of the step table. It produced
essentially all of the information present in the step tablet on the radiograph.
 RADIOGRAPH
INTERPRETATION
 RADIOGRAPH INTERPRETATION -WELDS

In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer must also be

skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in
three basic steps which are (1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation.
All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is
the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to
detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in
the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various features in
the image. The following material was developed to help students develop an
understanding of the types of defects found in weldments and how they appear in
a radiograph.

Discontinuities
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These
interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones.
Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specification
used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects.

General Welding Discontinuities

The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding.

1 .Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the
base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does
not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow
into base material without bonding.
2. Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can
take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular
spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is
elongated and may have the appearance of having a tail This is the result of gas
attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called
wormhole porosity is a void in the material it will have a radiographic
density more than the surrounding area. .

3. Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with
moisture. The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes trapped in
the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appears just like regular
porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.
4. slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical
shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of' slag
inclusions.

5. lncomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the

weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld
discontinuities, Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a
crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-
defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the
weldment.

Inadequate or Lack of
Penetration
6. lncomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly
fuse with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark
line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation
or joining area.

7.1nternal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has
contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a
radiograph it looks similar to lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges
and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image.
8.1nternal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root
oh he weld, In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line
offset from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight
edged a s L O P because it does not follow a ground edge,

9. External or crown undercut is erosion at the base metal next to the crown
of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the
outside edge of the weld area.
10.0ffset or mismatches are terms associated with a condition where two pieces
being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image is a
noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density
is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused
by failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.

11.1nadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of

weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very
easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement,
because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be more
(darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material.
12. Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld, which has weld metal added in
excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on
a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily
determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the individual
code involved in the inspection. ,

13. Cracking can be detected in a radiograph only the crack is propagating in a

direction that produced a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam.
Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can
sometimes appearing as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

Transverse/ Longitudinal
Cracks Root
Crack
 Discontinuities in TIG welds
The following discontinuities are peculiar to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process including aluminum
and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous
weld which when radio graphed is easily interpreted.

1. Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in

the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are
used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radio graphically, tungsten is more
dense than aluminum or steel; therefore, it shows as a lighter area with a distinct
outline on the radiograph.

2. 0xide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding
materials and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the
radiograph.
 Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW)
The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds.
1. Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom
surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as
light, "wire like" indications.
2. Burn through (icicles) results when too much heat causes excessive weld
metal to penetrate the weld zone. Lumps of metal sag through the weld creating
a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. On a radiograph, burn through
appears as dark spots surrounded by light globular areas.
 Radiograph Interpretation of Castings

The major objective of radiographic testing of castings is the disclosure of defects that
adversely affect the strength of the product. Casting are a product form that often
receive radiographic inspection since many of the defects produced by the casting
process are volumetric in nature and, thus, relatively easy to detect with this method.
These discontinuities of course, are related to casting process deficiencies, which, if
properly understood, can lead to accurate accept-reject decisions as well as to suitable
corrective measures. Since different types and sizes of defects have different effects of
the performance of the casting, it is important that the radiographer is able to identify the
type and size of the defects. ASTM E155, Standard for Radiographs of castings has
been produced to help the radiographer make a better assessment of the defects found
components. The castings used to produce the standard radiographs have been
destructively analyzed to confirm the size and type of discontinuities present. The
following is a brief description of the most common discontinuity types included in
existing reference radiograph documents (in graded types or as single illustrations).

RADIOGRAPHIC INDICATIONS FOR GASTINGS

Gas porosity or blowholes: Are caused by accumulated gas or air which is trapped
by the metal. These discontinuities are usually smooth-walled rounded cavities of a
spherical, elongated or flattened shape. If the sprue is not high enough to provide the
necessary heat transfer needed to force the gas or air out of the mold, the gas o('air will
be trapped as the molten metal begins to solidify. Blows can also be caused by sand
that is too fine, too wet, or by sand that has a low permeability so that gas can't escape.
Too high moisture content in the sand makes it difficult to carry the excessive volumes
of water vapor away from the casting. Another cause of blows can be attributed to using
green ladles, rusty or damp chills and chaplets.

Figure 1: Gas Porosity or Blow Holes Figure 2: Slag inclusions & Dross
Sand inclusions and dross: Are nonmetallic oxides, appearing on the radiograph as
irregular, dark blotches. These come from disintegrated portions of mold or core walls
and/or from oxides (formed in the melt) which have not been skimmed off prior to
introduction of the metal into the mold gates. Careful control of the melt, proper holding
time in the ladle and skimming of the melt during pouring will minimize or obviate this
source of trouble.

Shrinkage: Is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the radiograph.

Shrinkage assumes various forms but in all cases it occurs because molten metal
shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of the final casting. Shrinkage is avoided by making
sure that the volume of the casting is adequately fed by risers which sacrificially retain
the shrinkage. Shrinkage can be recognized in a number of characteristics by varying
appearances on radiographs. There are at least four types: (1) cavity; (2) dendritic; (3)
filamentary; and (4) sponge types. Some documents designate these types by numbers,
without actual names, to avoid possible misunderstanding.

Figure 3: Cavity Shrinkage Figure 4: Dendritic & Filamentary

Shrinkage

Cavity shrinkage: Appears as areas with distinct jagged boundaries. It may be

produced when metal solidifies between two original streams of melt, coming from
opposite directions to join a common front; cavity shrinkage usually occurs at a time
when the melt has almost reached solidification temperature and there is no source of
supplementary liquid to feed possible cavities.

Dendritic shrinkage: Is a distribution of very fine lines or small-elongated cavities that

may vary in density and are usually unconnected.
Filamentary shrinkage: Usually occurs as a continuous structure of connected lines or
branches of variable length, width and density, or occasionally as a network.

Figure 5: Sponge Shrinkage

Sponge shrinkage: Shows itself as areas of lacy texture with diffuse outlines,
generally toward the mid-thickness of heavier casting sections. Sponge shrinkage may
be dendritic or filamentary shrinkage; filamentary sponge shrinkage appears more
blurred because it is projected through the relatively thick coating between the
discontinuities and the film surface.

Cracks: Are thin (straight or jagged) linearly disposed discontinuities that occur after
the melt has solidified. They generally appear singly and originate at casting surfaces.

Figure 6 : Cracks & Cold shut

Cold shuts: Generally appear on or near a surface of cast metal as a result of two
streams of liquid meeting and failing to unite. They may appear on a radiograph as
cracks or seams with smooth or rounded edges.

Inclusions: Are nonmetallic materials in a supposedly solid metallic matrix. They may
be less or denser than the matrix alloy and will appear on the radiograph,
respectively, as darker or lighter indications. The latter type is more common in light
metal castings.

Figure8: Mottling
Figure7: Inclusions & core sift

Core shift: Shows itself as a variation in section thickness, usually on radiographic

views representing diametrically opposite portions of cylindrical casting portions.

Hot tears: Are linearly disposed indications that represent fractures formed in a metal
during solidification because of hindered contraction. The latter may occur due to overly
hard (completely unyielding) mold or core walls. The effect of hot tears, as a stress
concentration, is similar to that of an ordinary crack; how tears are usually systematic
flaws. If flaws are identified as hot tears in larger runs of a casting type, they may call for
explicit improvements in technique.

Misruns: Appear on the radiograph as prominent dense areas of variable dimensions

with a definite smooth outline. They are mostly random in occurrence and not readily
eliminated by specific remedial actions in the process.

Mottling: Is a radiographic indication that appears as an indistinct area of more or less

dense images. The condition is a diffraction effect that occurs on relatively vague, thin-
section radiographs, most often with austenitic stainless steel. Mottling is caused by
interaction of the object's grain boundary material with low-energy X-rays (300 kV or
lower). Inexperienced interpreters may incorrectly consider mottling as indications of
unacceptable casting flaws. Even experienced interpreters often have to check the
condition by re-radiography from slightly different source-film angles. Shifts in mottling
are then very pronounced, while true casting discontinuities change only' slightly in
appearance.

Radiographic Indications for Casting Repair Welds

Most common alloy castings require welding either in upgrading from defective
conditions or in joining to other system parts. It is mainly for reasons of casting repair
that these descriptions of the more common weld defects are provided here. The terms
appear as indication types in ASTM E390. For additional information, see the
Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3, and Section 9 on the "Radiographic
Control of Welds."

Slag is nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld material and
base metal. Radio graphically, slag may appear in various shapes, from long narrow
indications to short wide indications, and in various densities, from gray to very dark.

Porosity is a series of rounded gas pockets or voids in the weld metal, and is generally
cylindrical or elliptical in shape.

Undercut is a groove melted in the base metal at the edge of a weld and left unfilled by
weld metal. It represents a stress concentration that often must be corrected, and
appears as a dark indication at the toe of a weld.

Incomplete penetration, as the name implies, is a lack of weld penetration through

the thickness of the joint (or penetration which is less than specified). It is located at
the center of a weld and is a wide, linear indication.

Incomplete fusion is lack of complete fusion of some portions of the metal in a weld
joint with adjacent metal; either base or previously deposited weld metal. On a
radiograph, this appears as a long, sharp linear indication, occurring at the centerline of
the weld joint or at the fusion line.

Melt-through is a convex or concave irregularity (on the surface of backing ring, strip,
fused root or adjacent base metal) resulting from complete melting of a localized region
but without development of a void or open hole. On a radiograph, melt -through
generally appears as a round or elliptical indication.

Burn-through is a void or open hole into a backing ring, strip, fused root or adjacent
base metal.
Arc strike is an indication from a localized heat-affected zone or a change in surface
contour of a finished weld or adjacent base metal. Arc strikes are caused by the heat
generated when electrical energy passes between surfaces of the finished weld or base
metal .and the current source.
Weld spatter occurs in arc or gas welding as metal particles which are expelled during
welding and which do not form part of the actual weld: weld spatter appears as many
small, light cylindrical indications on a radiograph.

Tungsten inclusion is usually denser than base metal particles. Tungsten inclusions
appear most linear, very light radiographic images; accept/reject decisions for this
defect are generally based on the slag criteria.

Oxidation is the condition of a surface which is heated during welding, resulting in

oxide formation on the surface, due to partial or complete lack of purge of the weld
atmosphere. Also called sugaring.

Root edge condition shows the penetration of weld metal into the backing ring or into
the clearance between backing ring or strip and the base metal. It appears in
radiographs as a sharply defined film density transition.

Root undercut appears as an intermittent or continuous groove in the internal surface

of the base metal, backing ring or strip along the edge of the weld root.
ARTIFACTS
 ATRIFACTS
DEFECT POSSIBLE CAUSE RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARENCE
Pressure mark Sievere localized Lower film density area than the
application of pressure adjacent area.
to the film before
exposure.
Crimp mark (After Sharp bending of film Crescent shaped indication that is
Exposure) after exposure. darker than the adjacent film density
Crimp Mark (Before B e n d in g the f ilm Crescent shaped indication that is
Exposure) abruptly b e f o r e lighter in density than the adjacent film
exposure density.
Static Marks Rapid removal of film Branch like jagged dark lines to
from the box irregular abrupt dark spots.
Poor definition Poor contact between Unsharp images
screen and film
Spotting by fixer Splash of fixer on film Light spots of density lower than
before development adjacent area.
Spotting by Developer Splash of developer on Dark spots density higher than
film before development adjacent area.
Hair line Hair in between screen Appears as white line.
and film.
Screen marks Foreign material in Appears as dark line.
be t ween film and
screen or scratches in
film or scratches in lead
screen.
Paper marks Paper between screen The area behind the paper is lower in
and film. density
Black streaks or blotches Light leaks due to faulty Black streaks
film holders or cassette.
Streaking Chemicals from the Black and white streaks
prior processing not
adequately removed
from the hanger.

AUTOMATIC PROCESSING ATRIFACTS

Pressure Marks Foreign matter on rollers or Dark lines and spots
improper roller clearances.
P.I .Lines Transfer of minute deposits on Dark lines of width 3.14 times
roller to film. the diameter of roller.
Random Black Spots Due to foreign particles falling B la c k co m e t s wit h t a i l
on film as it enters the extending in direction of film
processor travel.